HYDROLOGY | MODULE 3
PRECIPITATION
INTRODUCTION
Precipitation is the primary input variable in the hydrologic cycle
and the foundation of all rainfall-runoff analysis. This module covers:
• Formation and types of precipitation
• Rainfall characteristics (depth, duration, intensity, hyetograph)
• Measurement techniques
• Missing data estimation
• Conversion from point rainfall to areal rainfall
• Consistency checking using Double Mass Analysis
This module transitions students from conceptual hydrology to
quantitative hydrologic analysis.
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND SATURATION
Precipitation begins with:
1. Evaporation from oceans and land
2. Cooling of air masses.
3. Condensation around condensation nuclei.
4. Growth of droplets via collision and coalescence.
5. Droplet enlargement until gravitational forces exceed upward air
currents.
MECHANISMS OF PRECIPITATION FORMATION
A. Convective Precipitation
• Caused by surface heating.
• Warm air rises, cools, and condenses.
• Usually intense and short-duration.
• Common in tropical regions (e.g., Philippines)
ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE
• Causes flash floods.
• Produces high rainfall intensity.
B. Orographic Precipitation
• Moist air forced upward over mountains.
• Cooling leads to rainfall on windward side.
• Rain shadow effect on leeward side.
Important in watershed-scale rainfall distribution.
C. Cyclonic (Frontal) Precipitation
• Associated with low-pressure systems.
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HYDROLOGY | MODULE 3
• Large spatial coverage.
• Longer duration rainfall.
Major contributor to regional flooding.
RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS
Rainfall must be described quantitatively for engineering design.
RAINFALL DEPTH (P)
Total accumulated rainfall over a given period.
Unit:
• mm or inches
Example:
If 50 mm rainfall occurs, it means 50 liters per square meter.
RAINFALL DURATION (t)
Time interval over which rainfall occurs.
Critical in:
• Design storm selection
• Flood peak estimation
RAINFALL INTENSITY (i)
𝑃
𝑖=
𝑡
Where:
• i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
• P = rainfall depth
• t = duration (hr)
High intensity → Higher runoff potential.
HYETOGRAPH
A hyetograph is a graphical representation of rainfall intensity
versus time.
Characteristics:
• Shows temporal distribution
• Essential for hydrograph generation.
• Used in unit hydrograph and SCS method.
Engineers analyze:
• Peak intensity
• Storm duration
• Cumulative rainfall
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HYDROLOGY | MODULE 3
POINT RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
Rainfall is measured at specific locations using rain gauges.
TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES
A. Non-Recording Rain Gauge
• Measures total rainfall only.
• Manual reading.
• Example: Standard Rain Gauge.
Limitation: Does not show time distribution.
B. Recording Rain Gauge
1. Tipping Bucket Gauge
• Measures incremental rainfall.
• Produces digital data.
2. Weighing Bucket Gauge
• Measures accumulated weight of rainfall.
• Produces continuous record.
3. Float Type Gauge
• Produces hyetograph directly.
Recording gauges are essential for:
• IDF curve development
• Storm analysis
5 ESTIMATION OF MISSING RAINFALL DATA
Missing data may occur due to:
• Instrument malfunction
• Human error
• Power interruptions
ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
Used when surrounding stations have similar normals.
1
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑛
Simple but assumes uniform rainfall.
NORMAL RATIO METHOD
Used when normal annual rainfalls differ by more than 100%.
1 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ ( 𝑃𝑖 )
𝑛 𝑁𝑖
Where:
Nx = normal rainfall at missing station
Ni = normal rainfall at neighboring station
More accurate in varying climates.
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HYDROLOGY | MODULE 3
CONVERSION OF POINT RAINFALL TO AREAL RAINFALL
Rainfall varies spatially. Engineers must convert point
measurements into watershed average rainfall.
ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
Applicable when:
• Gauges uniformly distributed
• Terrain relatively flat.
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
• Assigns based on area of influence.
• More accurate than arithmetic mean.
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∑(𝑤𝑖 𝑃𝑖 )
Where:
• Wi = area weight
ISOHYETAL METHOD
• Uses rainfall contour lines.
• Most accurate method.
• Requires interpolation.
Widely recommended in watershed studies.
DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS
Double mass curve is used to check consistency of rainfall data.
PURPOSE
Detect:
• Changes in gauge location
• Environmental changes
• Instrument errors
PROCEDURE
1. Plot cumulative rainfall of station vs cumulative rainfall of
nearby stations.
2. If slope changes → data inconsistency.
3. Apply correction factor.
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HYDROLOGY | MODULE 3
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
Understanding precipitation analysis allows engineers to:
• Develop IDF curves.
• Design storm drainage systems.
• Estimate flood peaks.
• Perform watershed modeling.
• Design detention basins.
Precipitation analysis directly influences:
• Rational Method
• Unit Hydrograph
• SCS Curve Number Method