SECTION 4: ENGINEERING MATERIALS

4.1 Structure and Properties of Engineering Materials

4.1.1 What is a Material?

 Material – substance used to make things (e.g. metal, plastic, ceramic).
 Engineering material – a material chosen for a specific engineering application
based on its properties (strength, cost, durability).

4.1.2 Classification of Engineering Materials (from your PDFs)

Engineering Materials
├── Metals
│ ├── Ferrous (contain iron) – Steels, Cast irons
│ └── Non-ferrous – Al, Cu, Ti, Ni, Zn
├── Ceramics
│ ├── Traditional – clay, bricks, cement, glass
│ └── Engineering – Al₂O₃, SiC, Si₃N₄, ZrO₂
├── Polymers
│ ├── Thermoplastics – soften on heating (PE, PVC, Nylon)
│ └── Thermosets – harden permanently (Epoxy, Phenolics)
├── Composites – two or more materials combined (fibreglass, C
FRP)
├── Semiconductors – Si, Ge, GaAs
├── Biomaterials – for implants (Ti alloys, stainless steel)
└── Smart materials – respond to stimuli (shape memory alloys,
piezoelectrics)

4.1.3 Atomic Bonding in Solids (Why materials hold together)

Bond Type How it works Properties Examples
Ionic Transfer electrons → +ve High melting point, brittle, NaCl, MgO
and –ve ions attract insulator
Covalent Share electrons between Very strong, directional, hard, Diamond, SiC
atoms insulator
Metallic “Sea” of delocalised Conducts electricity & heat, All metals
electrons around ductile, malleable
positive ions
Van der Weak, temporary dipoles Very weak, low melting point Polymer chains,
Waals graphite layers
Hydrogen Special type of dipole Stronger than van der Waals, H₂O, DNA
bond involving H atom responsible for water’s
properties
 Micro-keyword: Delocalised electrons – electrons free to move (metals) → good
conductivity.

4.1.4 Crystal Structures (How atoms are arranged in metals)

 Crystalline – atoms in repeating 3D pattern (most metals).
 Amorphous – random arrangement (glass, many polymers).
 Unit cell – smallest repeating block.
 Bravais lattices – 14 possible 3D arrangements.
Three common metal crystal structures:
Structure Atoms per Coordination Atomic Examples
unit cell number Packing Factor
(APF)
BCC (Body-Centred 2 8 0.68 α-Fe, Cr, W,
Cubic) Mo
FCC (Face-Centred 4 12 0.74 Al, Cu, Ni,
Cubic) γ-Fe
HCP (Hexagonal 6 12 0.74 Mg, Zn, Ti
Close-Packed)
 Coordination number – number of nearest neighbours.
 APF – fraction of unit cell volume occupied by atoms. Higher APF means denser
packing.
 Slip systems – combination of slip plane + slip direction. FCC has 12 → ductile; HCP
has 3 → brittle; BCC has up to 48 but no close-packed plane → moderate ductility.
Micro-keyword: Slip – movement of dislocations causing plastic deformation.

4.1.5 Imperfections (Defects) in Crystals – They are not all bad!

Type Name Explanation Effect
0D (point) Vacancy Missing atom Increases with
temperature; allows
diffusion
Self-interstitial Extra atom in a void Large distortion
Substitutional Foreign atom replaces host Alloying (e.g. Zn in Cu)
impurity atom
Interstitial Small atom in void (e.g. C in Strengthens steel
impurity Fe)
Frenkel defect Cation vacancy + cation –
interstitial (in ceramics)
Schottky defect Pair of cation & anion –
vacancies (in ceramics)
 1D (line) Edge dislocation Extra half-plane of atoms Allows slip (plastic
deformation)
Screw dislocation Helical atomic ramp Also allows slip
2D Grain boundary Interface between two Strengthens (Hall-Petch)
(planar) crystals of different
orientation
Twin boundary Mirror image across a plane Can increase strength
3D Voids, cracks, Large defects Usually harmful
(volume) inclusions
Micro-keyword: Hall-Petch relation – smaller grain size → higher strength.

4.1.6 Mechanical Properties and Stress-Strain Diagram

Basic definitions:
 Stress (σ) = Force / Area (units: Pa or MPa).
 Strain (ε) = Change in length / Original length (dimensionless).
 Elastic deformation – reversible, follows Hooke’s law: σ = E ε (E = Young’s modulus,
stiffness).
 Plastic deformation – permanent, occurs after yield point.
Typical stress-strain curve for a ductile metal (e.g. mild steel):
1. Proportional limit – up to here stress ∝ strain.
2. Elastic limit – maximum stress without permanent deformation.
3. Yield point (upper/lower) – sudden drop at start of plastic flow.
4. Yield strength – stress at 0.2% offset strain (for materials without clear yield).
5. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) – maximum stress on curve.
6. Fracture (break) – point of failure.
Key properties from the curve:
 Elastic modulus (E) – slope of initial straight part (stiffness).
 Ductility – % elongation or % reduction in area (ability to deform plastically).
 Toughness – area under σ-ε curve (energy absorbed before fracture).
 Resilience – area under elastic part (energy absorbed up to yield).
 Hardness – resistance to indentation (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers tests).
Micro-keywords:
 Brittle material – little or no plastic deformation (e.g. cast iron, ceramics).
 Stress concentration – local increase of stress at notches, holes, cracks.
 Fatigue – failure under cyclic loading below UTS.
4.1 Structure of Metals – Additional
 Polymorphism / Allotropy – ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal
structure. Example: iron (BCC at room temp → FCC at 912°C → BCC again at 1394°C).
 Miller indices – notation (hkl) to describe crystal planes; [uvw] for directions.
Important for understanding slip and anisotropy.
 Anisotropy – direction-dependent properties due to non-uniform atomic packing
(e.g. elastic modulus different along different crystallographic directions).
 Planar density – number of atoms per unit area on a crystal plane. Higher planar
density → easier slip.
 ✅ MCQs – Section 4.1 (Structure & Properties)
Think like TGPSC: moderate difficulty, concept-based.
1. Which crystal structure has the highest atomic packing factor (APF)?
a) BCC b) FCC c) Simple cubic d) HCP
Ans: b) FCC (0.74; HCP also 0.74 but both are same; FCC is more common
answer)
2. The phenomenon of “slip” in metals is facilitated by which type of defect?
a) Vacancy b) Dislocation c) Grain boundary d) Interstitial impurity
Ans: b) Dislocation
3. A material that shows no plastic deformation before fracture is called:
a) Ductile b) Tough c) Brittle d) Elastic
Ans: c) Brittle
4. According to Hall-Petch relation, decreasing grain size:
a) Decreases strength b) Increases ductility c) Increases strength d) No effect
Ans: c) Increases strength
5. The area under the entire stress-strain curve represents:
a) Stiffness b) Hardness c) Toughness d) Resilience
Ans: c) Toughness

4.2 Phase Diagrams (Especially Iron-Carbon)

4.2.1 What is a Phase Diagram?

 Phase – homogeneous, physically distinct part of a system (e.g. liquid, solid solution).
 Phase diagram – map showing which phases are stable at different temperatures
and compositions.
 Binary phase diagram – two components (e.g. Fe and C).
 Gibbs phase rule – F = C – P + 2 (F = degrees of freedom, C = components, P =
phases). For binary at constant pressure: F = C – P + 1.

4.2.2 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe₃C) Phase Diagram – Most important for steels
Components: Pure iron (Fe) and Iron carbide (Cementite, Fe₃C with 6.67 wt% C).
Phases:
Phase Symbol Crystal Carbon Characteristics
structure solubility
δ-ferrite δ BCC max 0.09% at High temperature, limited
1495°C range
Austenite γ FCC up to 2.11% at Ductile, non-magnetic, high
1147°C formability
α-ferrite α BCC max 0.022% at Soft, magnetic below 768°C
727°C
Cementite Fe₃C Orthorhombic 6.67% C (fixed) Very hard, brittle
 Invariant reactions (horizontal lines on diagram):
Reaction Temperature Composition Equation
Peritectic 1495°C 0.18% C L (0.51%) + δ (0.09%) → γ (0.17%)
Eutectic 1147°C 4.3% C L → γ (2.11%) + Fe₃C (6.67%) → Ledeburite
Eutectoid 727°C 0.76% C γ → α (0.022%) + Fe₃C → Pearlite

4.2 Phase Diagrams – Additional

 Congruent melting – a compound melts to a liquid of the same composition (e.g.

Mg₂Pb).
 Invariant reaction – three phases in equilibrium at a point (zero degrees of
freedom). Examples: eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic, peritectoid.
 Peritectoid reaction – solid1 + solid2 → solid3 (e.g. δ + γ → α in some alloy
systems).
 Intermediate phases – compounds or solid solutions with a crystal structure
different from pure components. Types:
o Intermetallic compounds – fixed composition (e.g. Fe₃C, Mg₂Pb).
o Electron compounds – based on valence electron concentration (e.g. CuZn, Cu₃Al).
o Interstitial compounds – small atoms (C, N, B) in interstitial sites (e.g. Fe₃C, TiC).

Micro-keywords:
 Ledeburite – eutectic mixture of austenite + cementite (in cast irons).
 Pearlite – lamellar (alternating layers) mixture of ferrite and cementite.
 Proeutectoid – phase that forms before the eutectoid reaction (ferrite in
hypoeutectoid steel, cementite in hypereutectoid steel).
Classification of Fe-C alloys:
 Steels – C content ≤ 2.11%.
o Hypoeutectoid (0 – 0.76% C) – proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite.
o Eutectoid (0.76% C) – 100% pearlite.
o Hypereutectoid (0.76 – 2.11% C) – proeutectoid cementite + pearlite.
 Cast irons – C content 2.11 – 6.67%.
o Hypoeutectic, eutectic (4.3%), hypereutectic.
Lever rule – used to calculate weight fractions of phases at a given temperature in a
two-phase region.

4.2.3 Why is the Fe-Fe₃C diagram important?

 Predicts microstructures after slow cooling.
 Basis for all heat treatments of steels.
 Determines properties (hardness, strength, ductility) via carbon content.

✅ MCQs – Section 4.2 (Phase Diagrams)

1. In the Fe-Fe₃C diagram, the eutectoid reaction produces:
a) Austenite + cementite b) Ferrite + cementite c) Ferrite + austenite d) Liquid +
cementite
Ans: b) Ferrite + cementite (pearlite)
2. The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite (γ-Fe) is at:
a) 727°C b) 1147°C c) 1495°C d) Room temperature
Ans: b) 1147°C (2.11% C)
3. A hypoeutectoid steel (0.4% C) at room temperature contains:
a) Pearlite only b) Proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite c) Cementite + pearlite d)
Austenite
Ans: b) Proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite
4. The lever rule is used to determine:
a) Cooling rate b) Grain size c) Phase fractions d) Hardness
Ans: c) Phase fractions
5. Which phase is the hardest in the Fe-Fe₃C system?
a) Austenite b) Ferrite c) Pearlite d) Cementite
Ans: d) Cementite

4.3 Heat Treatment of Steels

4.3.1 What is Heat Treatment?

 Controlled heating and cooling of a metal to change its microstructure and
properties (hardness, strength, ductility).

4.3.2 Main Heat Treatment Processes

Process Heating Cooling Resulting Properties
temperature method microstructure
Annealing Above A₃ or A₁ Furnace Coarse pearlite Soft, ductile,
(full anneal) (very slow) stress-relieved
Normalising Above A₃ or Still air Fine pearlite Stronger & harder
Acm than annealed
Hardening Above A₃ or A₁ Rapid Martensite Very hard, brittle
(quenching) (water/oil)
Tempering Below A₁ Air (after Tempered Less brittle,
(150-650°C) hardening) martensite tougher
Micro-keywords:
 Austenitising – heating to form austenite before quenching.
 Critical cooling rate – minimum cooling rate to avoid pearlite and get full martensite.
 Hardenability – ability of steel to form martensite on quenching (Jominy test
measures it).

4.3.3 TTT Diagram (Time-Temperature-Transformation)

 Shows transformation of austenite at constant temperature (isothermal).
 Curves: start and finish of pearlite (diffusion-controlled), bainite, and martensite
(diffusionless).
 Martensite – body-centred tetragonal (BCT), supersaturated with carbon, very high
dislocation density → very hard.
 4.3.4 Tempering Stages (for plain carbon steel)
1. First stage (room temp – 200°C) – precipitation of ε-carbide from martensite.
2. Second stage (200–300°C) – retained austenite transforms to bainite.
3. Third stage (200–350°C) – ε-carbide dissolves, cementite forms.
4. Fourth stage (350–700°C) – cementite spheroidises; ferrite recrystallises.

4.3.5 Surface Hardening (Case Hardening)

 Flame hardening – oxy-acetylene flame heats surface, then water quench.
 Induction hardening – high-frequency current heats surface rapidly.
 Carburising – add carbon to surface (low C steel) → hard case after quench.
 Nitriding – add nitrogen → very hard, no quench needed.

4.3.6 Heat Treatment Defects

 Cracking – due to high thermal stresses.
 Distortion / warping – uneven cooling.
 Decarburisation – loss of carbon from surface.

Heat Treatment – Additional

 Hardness vs Hardenability – hardness is resistance to indentation; hardenability is

the depth of hardness after quenching (Jominy test measures it).
 Austempering – quenching from austenite into a salt bath at ~300°C, holding until
bainite forms, then air cooling. Produces bainite (tough, strong).
 Martempering – quenching into a hot bath just above Ms, then slow cooling
through Ms to Mf. Reduces distortion.
 Sub-zero treatment – cooling below 0°C (e.g. –80°C) to convert retained austenite to
martensite (increases hardness).
 Temper embrittlement – loss of toughness when tempering in the range 450–600°C
(reversible). Caused by impurity segregation (P, Sb) at grain boundaries.
 Tempered martensite embrittlement (350°C embrittlement) – occurs in low alloy
steels tempered at 260–370°C; irreversible.

4.4 Stress-Strain Diagram – Additional (Very Important)

 True stress vs engineering stress – engineering stress uses original area; true stress
uses instantaneous area (more accurate after necking).
 Strain hardening (work hardening) – increase in strength due to plastic
deformation (dislocation multiplication).
 Necking – local reduction in cross-section area after UTS in ductile metals.
 Elastic recovery – after unloading, the elastic strain recovers, plastic strain remains.

✅ MCQs – Section 4.3 (Heat Treatment)

1. The product of quenching a eutectoid steel from austenite region is:
a) Pearlite b) Bainite c) Martensite d) Ledeburite
Ans: c) Martensite
2. Tempering is performed after hardening to:
a) Increase hardness b) Reduce brittleness c) Increase wear resistance d) Remove
carbon
Ans: b) Reduce brittleness
3. Which heat treatment produces the finest pearlite?
a) Full annealing b) Normalising c) Spheroidising d) Tempering
Ans: b) Normalising
4. The Jominy test measures:
a) Hardness b) Toughness c) Hardenability d) Fatigue strength
Ans: c) Hardenability
5. In carburising, the surface of the steel becomes:
a) Low carbon b) High carbon c) Decarburised d) Ferritic
Ans: b) High carbon

4.4 Summary of Section 4 (Engineering Materials)

 Structure – bonding, crystal structure, defects.
 Properties – mechanical (strength, ductility, toughness, hardness) from stress-strain
diagram.
 Phase diagram – Fe-Fe₃C: austenite, ferrite, cementite, pearlite, ledeburite; eutectoid
reaction.
 Heat treatment – annealing, normalising, hardening (martensite), tempering; surface
hardening.

Let us begin our journey from Plinth to Paramount, brick by brick.

 📘 MODULE 1: THE STRUCTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS (The Atomic

Architecture)

(Based on TSPSC Q45, Q51, Q57)

1.1 Crystalline vs. Amorphous (The "Brick Wall" vs "Spilled Spaghetti")

 Concept: Imagine atoms are bricks.

o Crystalline (Metals, Ceramics): Bricks arranged in a perfect, repeated grid (Long-
Range Order). This allows them to be strong but slip under stress.
o Amorphous (Glass, Plastics): Bricks spilled randomly on the floor (Short-Range
Order only). No fixed pattern, so properties are the same in all directions (Isotropic).
 Exam Tip: TSPSC asked "What is the key difference?". Answer: Crystalline has ordered
arrangement (long-range order); Amorphous lacks long-range order.

1.2 The "Big Three" Crystal Structures (BCC, FCC, HCP)

(Q45 literally asked for the number of atoms in a Simple Cubic cell! Let's nail this.)

🔹 Simple Cubic (SC) (Rare - just to know basics)

 Atoms at 8 corners only.

 Atoms per Unit Cell: 8 corners × (1/8) = 1 atom.
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF): 52% (very loosely packed).
 *(TSPSC Trick: They asked this in Q45. Remember: SC = 1 atom).*

🔹 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

 Atoms at 8 corners + 1 smack in the center.

 Atoms per Unit Cell: (8 × 1/8) + 1 = 2 atoms.
 Coordination Number (CN): 8 (Touches 8 neighbors).
 APF: 68%.
 Metals: Room Temperature Iron (α-Fe), Chromium, Tungsten, Molybdenum.
 TSPSC Keyword: BCC is strong, but less ductile than FCC.

🔹 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

 Atoms at 8 corners + 1 on each of the 6 faces.

 Atoms per Unit Cell: (8 × 1/8) + (6 × 1/2) = 4 atoms.
 Coordination Number (CN): 12 (Tightly packed).
 APF: 74% (Maximum possible packing).
 Metals: Aluminum, Copper, Nickel, Gold, High-Temp Iron (γ-Fe).
 TSPSC Keyword: FCC has the highest ductility (12 slip systems). If a question asks
"Which metal is easy to draw into wire?", look for FCC.
 🔹 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)

 Atoms per Unit Cell: 6 atoms.

 CN: 12.
 APF: 74% (Same as FCC).
 Metals: Magnesium, Zinc, Titanium.
 TSPSC Keyword: HCP is brittle (only 3 slip systems). It is anisotropic.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Module 1)

Structure Atoms Packing Slip Key Metal TSPSC Trait

per Cell (APF) Systems Examples
Simple 1 52% Very Low None Just memorize the
Cubic (Polonium) number 1 for Q45.
BCC 2 68% 48 (Harsh) Fe (RT), Cr, W Strong, moderate
ductility.
FCC 4 74% 12 (Easy) Al, Cu, Ni, Au Most Ductile, soft.
HCP 6 74% 3 (Hard) Mg, Zn, Ti Brittle, less
formable.

📘 MODULE 2: CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS & GRAIN SIZE

*(Based on TSPSC Q53 - They specifically asked how to measure non-equiaxed

grains!)*

2.1 Line Defects (Dislocations)

 Concept: A "wrinkle" in the perfect grid.

 Edge Dislocation: An extra half-plane of atoms wedged into the lattice. Burgers
vector is PERPENDICULAR to the dislocation line.
 Screw Dislocation: A spiral ramp (like a parking garage) caused by shear
stress. Burgers vector is PARALLEL to the dislocation line.
 TSPSC Keyword: Dislocations are what make metals weak (they slip easily).
We strengthen metals by blocking these dislocations (adding impurities, making
grains smaller).
 2.2 Grain Boundaries & Grain Size Measurement (CRITICAL for Q53)

 Concept: A metal is made of millions of tiny crystals called "grains." The boundary
where two different grains meet is the "Grain Boundary."
 Smaller Grains = Stronger Metal (Hall-Petch equation).
 How do we measure grain size? (TSPSC asked this!)
1. Comparison Method: Compare the microstructure with standard charts (fast, but
rough estimate).
2. Jeffries Planimetric Method: Count the number of grains within a known area. Used
for equiaxed (equal in all directions) grains.
3. Heyn's Intercept Method: Count how many grain boundaries intersect a random
straight line drawn across the image.
o TSPSC Correct Answer for Q53: For non-equiaxed (elongated/warped) grains, we
use Heyn's Intercept Method.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Module 2)

Defect Name Description TSPSC Keyword

Type
0D (Point) Vacancy / Missing atom / Extra Frenkel/Schottky defects in
Interstitial atom in gap ceramics.
1D (Line) Edge / Screw Extra half-plane / Perpendicular vs Parallel to
Dislocation Spiral ramp Burgers vector.
2D Grain Boundary Interface between two Smaller grains = Higher
(Planar) crystals Strength.
Grain Size Heyn's Intercept Line intersects grain USE for NON-
Test boundaries EQUIAXED grains (Q53
Answer).
 📘 MODULE 3: PHASE DIAGRAMS (The Roadmap)

*(Based on TSPSC Q46 & Q48 - They asked what a phase diagram is, and specifically
asked for the Peritectic reaction).*

3.1 What is a Phase Diagram?

 Concept: A map that shows which phases (Solid, Liquid, Gas) exist at a given
Temperature and Composition.
 TSPSC Answer for Q46: It represents the phases in equilibrium at various
compositions, temperatures, and pressures.

3.2 The Three Invariant Reactions (Memorize these PERFECTLY)

TSPSC loves asking you to differentiate these.

1. Eutectic Reaction (L → S₁ + S₂):

 Meaning: A liquid cools and transforms into two different solids simultaneously.
 Example: Cast Iron (at 4.3% C). Liquid → Austenite + Cementite.

2. Eutectoid Reaction (S₁ → S₂ + S₃):

 Meaning: One solid transforms into two different solids simultaneously.

 Example: STEEL! At 0.77% C and 727°C. Austenite (γ) → Ferrite (α) + Cementite (Fe₃C).
The product is called PEARLITE.

3. Peritectic Reaction (L + S₁ → S₂):

 Meaning: A liquid and a solid react together to form a new solid.

 TSPSC Correct Answer for Q48: Peritectic is the reaction where liquid + solid → new
solid at constant temperature.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Module 3)

Reaction Formula TSPSC Keyword / Example

Name
Eutectic L→S+S Liquid freezes into two solids. (Cast Iron)
Eutectoid S→S+S Solid transforms into two solids. (STEEL! Pearlite)

Peritectic L+S→S Liquid + Solid combine to make a new solid. (Q48 Answer)
 📘 MODULE 4: HEAT TREATMENT (The "Oven" Magic)

*(Based on TSPSC Q49, Q55 - They asked the objective and the effect of tempering).*

4.1 What is the objective of Heat Treatment?

 Concept: We heat and cool metals to change their internal structure (and thus
properties) without changing the outer shape.
 TSPSC Trap (Q49): They asked "Which is NOT a primary objective?".
o Correct Objectives: Improve machinability, Enhance formability, Restore ductility.
o WRONG OPTION (Correct Answer): Change the product shape (That
is Fabrication/Forging, not heat treatment).

4.2 The "Big Four" Heat Treatments

1. Annealing:

 Process: Heat up → Furnace Cool (Very slow).

 Result: Coarse Pearlite (soft).
 Purpose: Softens the metal, relieves internal stresses, improves machinability.

2. Normalizing:

 Process: Heat up → Air Cool (Faster than furnace).

 Result: Fine Pearlite (harder than annealed).
 Purpose: Refines grain size, gives uniform structure.

3. Hardening (Quenching):

 Process: Heat up → Rapid Cool (Water/Oil).

 Result: Martensite (extremely hard, extremely brittle).
 Purpose: Maximize hardness and wear resistance.

4. Tempering:

 Process: Heat the hardened steel to a temperature BELOW A₁ (critical point), hold,
and cool. (ALWAYS follows Hardening).
 Purpose: Reduces brittleness, increases toughness, and relieves quenching
stresses.
 TSPSC Trap (Q55): If you increase tempering temperature, hardness decreases,
but ductility and toughness increase.
 (Note: Q55 gave conclusions. The correct one is that toughness improves. Hardness
does NOT increase with higher tempering temp).
 ⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Module 4)

Treatment Cooling Microstructure Purpose TSPSC Keyword

Method
Annealing Furnace Coarse Pearlite Soften, Relieve Improves
(Slow) stress Machinability
Normalizing Air (Medium) Fine Pearlite Refine Grain Size Uniform structure
Hardening Water/Oil Martensite Max Hardness Very Brittle!
(Fast)
Tempering Air (After Tempered Reduce Follows
Hardening) Martensite Brittleness, hardening (Q55).
Increase
Toughness

📘 MODULE 5: STRESS-STRAIN (The "Pull" Test)

*(Based on TSPSC Q47, Q50 - True stress, Nominal stress, and Area under the curve).*

5.1 True Stress vs. Nominal (Conventional) Stress

 Concept: When you pull a rod, it gets thinner (necking).

 Nominal/Engineering Stress: Load divided by the ORIGINAL cross-sectional area.
(We use this for everyday strength values).
 True Stress: Load divided by the ACTUAL (Instantaneous) cross-sectional area.
 TSPSC Correct Answer for Q47: True stress considers the actual area at a given
instant.

5.2 The "Area Under the Curve" (Toughness vs. Resilience)

 Concept: The Stress-Strain graph is a hill.

 Toughness: The ability to absorb energy until fracture. = Total Area under the
entire stress-strain curve.
 Resilience: The ability to absorb energy without permanent deformation (elastic
only). = Area under the elastic (straight-line) portion only.
 Modulus of Elasticity (E): The slope of the straight line in the elastic region.
Measures Stiffness.
 TSPSC Correct Answer for Q50 (Assertion/Reason): Both A and R are true, and R is
the correct explanation of A (because the integral of stress w.r.t strain is
work/energy absorbed).

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Module 5)

Concept Definition TSPSC Keyword

Nominal Stress Load / Original Area Everyday strength value.

True Stress Load / Actual Used for actual failure analysis (Q47).
(Instantaneous) Area
Toughness Total Area under the curve Absorbs energy until fracture (Q50).

Resilience Area under Elastic curve Absorbs energy without permanent

damage.
Elastic Modulus Slope of elastic line Measures Stiffness.
(E)

📘 MODULE 6: ALLOYS, CERAMICS & DAMPING (The Application Part)

*(Based on TSPSC Q51, Q52, Q56 - Ceramics properties, Alloy matching, Damping).*

6.1 Common Alloys (TSPSC LOVES Matching - Q52)

 Brass: Copper (Cu) + Zinc (Zn). (Yellow, used for plumbing/decoration).

 Bronze: Copper (Cu) + Tin (Sn). (Harder, used for bearings/coins).
 Alnico: Aluminium + Nickel + Cobalt + Iron. (Used for permanent magnets).
 Terne: Lead + Tin. (Used for roofing/coating).

6.2 Ceramics Properties (Q51)

 Concept: Ceramics are oxides, carbides, nitrides (like Al₂O₃, SiC).

 Properties: High hardness, High thermal/chemical resistance, Good electrical
insulators, Brittle.
 TSPSC Trap (Q51): Which is NOT a property of ceramics? High ductility and
malleability (They are brittle! This is the correct wrong option).
 6.3 Damping Capacity (Q56)

 Concept: Damping capacity = the ability of a material to absorb vibration/energy

and convert it to heat (so it stops ringing).
 TSPSC Correct Answer for Q56: Which material has the best damping
capacity? Grey Cast Iron (because the graphite flakes absorb the vibration energy).
Used for engine blocks and machine bases.

🎯 FINAL TSPSC BATTLE PLAN (Your 20-Minute Revision)

If the question asks... The TSPSC Correct Answer is...

Atoms per unit cell in Simple Cubic 1 (Q45)

Phase diagram represents... Phases in equilibrium at various
compositions/temps (Q46)
True stress vs Nominal stress True = Actual area / Nominal = Original area
(Q47)
Liquid + Solid → Solid reaction Peritectic (Q48)
NOT an objective of heat treatment Change the product shape (Q49)

Area under Stress-Strain curve Toughness (Energy absorbed) (Q50)

represents...
NOT a property of ceramics High ductility and malleability (Q51)
Brass = ? Bronze = ? Cu+Zn / Cu+Sn (Q52)

Grain size measurement for non- Heyn's Intercept method (Q53)

equiaxed grains
Effect of increasing tempering Ductility & Toughness increase (Hardness drops)
temperature (Q55)
Best Damping capacity Grey cast iron (Q56)

Crystalline vs Amorphous key difference Long-range order vs Lack of long-range order

(Q57)
 📘 THE ULTIMATE TSPSC ENGINEERING MATERIALS MASTER DOCUMENT

PART 1: STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS (The Micro-World)

1.1 Atomic Bonding (The Glue)

(Micro-keyword: Primary vs Secondary Bonds)

 Primary Bonds (Strong):

o Ionic: Electron transfer (e.g., NaCl). Non-directional. High melting point.
o Covalent: Electron sharing (e.g., Diamond). Directional. Very hard.
o Metallic: Electron "Sea" (e.g., Iron, Copper). Non-directional. Good conductors.
 Secondary Bonds (Weak):
o Van der Waals: Fluctuating dipoles (e.g., between polymer chains).
o Hydrogen Bond: Strongest secondary bond (e.g., Water, Nylon).
 TSPSC Trap: "Which bond is directional?" Answer: Covalent. "Which bond gives
polymers their solid state?" Answer: Van der Waals.

1.2 Crystal Systems & Bravais Lattices

*(Micro-keyword: 7 Systems, 14 Bravais Lattices)*

 There are 7 Crystal Systems (Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Hexagonal,

Rhombohedral, Monoclinic, Triclinic).
 These combine to form 14 Bravais Lattices (e.g., Simple, Body-Centered, Face-
Centered).
 TSPSC Fact: Iron exists in BCC (α-Fe) at room temp and FCC (γ-Fe) at high temp.

1.3 Miller Indices (Planes & Directions)

(Micro-keyword: (hkl), [uvw], Interplanar Spacing)

 Planes (hkl): Reciprocals of intercepts. Example: A plane cutting X-axis at 1, Y at ∞, Z

at ∞ is (100).
 Directions [uvw]: Vector components along axes. [111] is the body diagonal.
 Interplanar Spacing (d): Distance between parallel planes. In Cubic
systems: d=ah2+k2+l2d=h2+k2+l2a.
 TSPSC Keyword: Larger the interplanar spacing (d)(d), easier the slip (deformation).
 1.4 Atomic Packing Factor (APF) & Density Calculation

(Micro-keyword: APF, Theoretical Density)

 APF = (Volume of atoms in cell) / (Volume of cell).

o SC = 0.52 (52%)
o BCC = 0.68 (68%)
o FCC / HCP = 0.74 (74%)
 Theoretical Density ρ=n×AVc×NA
o n = atoms per unit cell.
o A = Atomic weight.
o Vc = Volume of unit cell.
o NA = Avogadro's number (6.023 × 10²³).

PART 2: CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS (Defects are Strengths)

*(Micro-keyword: 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D Defects, Hall-Petch)*

2.1 Point Defects (0D)

 Vacancy: Missing atom (increases with temperature).

 Interstitial: Extra atom crammed in a void.
 Frenkel Defect: Cation leaves its site and goes to an interstitial void (leaves a
vacancy). Common in Ceramics.
 Schottky Defect: A pair of cation and anion vacancies. Common in Ionic crystals
(NaCl).
 TSPSC Keyword: Frenkel = Vacancy + Interstitial pair. Schottky = Pair of vacancies.

2.2 Line Defects (1D - Dislocations) - CRITICAL

 Edge Dislocation: Extra half-plane of atoms. Burgers vector (b)

is PERPENDICULAR to the dislocation line.
 Screw Dislocation: Spiral ramp. Burgers vector (b) is PARALLEL to the dislocation
line.
 Role: Dislocations allow Slip (plastic deformation) at low stresses.
 2.3 Planar Defects (2D - Grain Boundaries)

 Grain Boundary: Interface between two different crystals.

 Hall-Petch Equation: σy=σi+kdσy=σi+dk (Yield strength increases as grain
diameter dd decreases).
 TSPSC Keyword: Finer grains = Higher Strength & Hardness.

2.4 Grain Size Measurement (The Exact Q53 Topic)

 Comparison Method: Compare to standard charts (ASTM).

 Jeffries Planimetric: Count grains in a known area. Best for Equiaxed grains.
 Heyn's Intercept Method: Count intersections along a straight line. BEST FOR
NON-EQUIAXED (elongated) grains.
 TSPSC Correct Answer for Q53: Heyn's Intercept.

PART 3: PHASE DIAGRAMS (The Engineer's Map)

(Micro-keyword: Lever Rule, Eutectic, Eutectoid, Peritectic, Fe-Fe₃C)

3.1 Gibbs Phase Rule

 F=C−P+1 (for constant pressure).

 F = Degrees of freedom. C = Components. P = Phases.
 TSPSC Keyword: In a two-phase region of a binary alloy, F=1. So, you can change
either Temperature OR Composition, not both.

3.2 The Lever Rule (The Calculation they WILL test)

 Used to find the fraction of two phases (e.g., Liquid and Solid) at a given temperature.
 WL=Cα−C0Cα−CL WL=Cα−CLCα−C0 (Amount of Liquid = Opposite arm / Total arm).
 Wα=C0−CLCα−CL Wα=Cα−CLC0−CL (Amount of Solid = Opposite arm / Total arm).
 TSPSC Trick: The fraction of a phase is proportional to the length of the tie-line on
the OPPOSITE side.
 3.3 The Three Invariant Reactions (Absolute Must-Know)

Reaction Formula TSPSC Keyword / Example

Eutectic L → S₁ + S₂ Liquid solidifies into 2 solids at 1147°C (Cast Iron).
Eutectoid S₁ → S₂ + Solid transforms into 2 solids at 727°C (Steel - Pearlite).
S₃
Peritectic L + S₁ → S₂ Liquid + Solid combine to make new solid at 1495°C
(Q48).

3.4 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe₃C) Phase Diagram (THE KING)

 100% Pure Iron: Melts at 1539°C.

 Eutectoid Point: 0.77% Carbon at 727°C.
 Eutectic Point: 4.3% Carbon at 1147°C.
 Cementite (Fe₃C): Contains 6.67% Carbon. Hardest and most brittle phase.
 Steels: Carbon content < 2.11%.
 Cast Irons: Carbon content > 2.11%.

Microstructure at Room Temperature (Slow Cooling):

 Hypoeutectoid Steel (<0.77% C): Proeutectoid Ferrite (white grains) + Pearlite

(dark lamellar).
 Eutectoid Steel (0.77% C): 100% Pearlite.
 Hypereutectoid Steel (>0.77% C): Proeutectoid Cementite (white network at
grain boundaries) + Pearlite.
 TSPSC Keyword: Cementite at grain boundaries = BRITTLE.

PART 4: HEAT TREATMENT (The Oven)

(Micro-keyword: Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening, Tempering, TTT, Martempering,

Austempering, Case Hardening)

4.1 The Four Basic Processes

Process Cooling Microstructure TSPSC Purpose

Annealing Furnace (Slow) Coarse Pearlite Softens, improves machinability.
Normalizing Air (Medium) Fine Pearlite Refines grain, improves strength.
Hardening Water/Oil (Fast) Martensite Max hardness & wear resistance.
Tempering Air (After Tempered Reduces brittleness, increases
Hardening) Martensite toughness.
 4.2 TTT Diagram (Time-Temperature-Transformation)

 The "C-Curve": Shows how long it takes for Austenite to transform at different
temperatures.
 Critical Cooling Rate: The minimum cooling rate to avoid the "nose" of the curve
and get 100% Martensite.
 Ms (Martensite Start) and Mf (Martensite Finish) temperatures.
 TSPSC Keyword: Retained Austenite is the untransformed austenite left at room
temperature. We remove it via Sub-Zero Treatment (cooling below 0°C).

4.3 Advanced Hardening Methods (TSPSC High-Yield)

 Martempering: Quench in a hot salt bath (just above Ms), hold until uniform
temperature, then air cool. Result: Reduces distortion and cracking.
 Austempering: Quench in a hot salt bath (above Ms) and hold until the entire
structure transforms to Bainite (an acicular/needle-like structure). Result: High
toughness without tempering.
 TSPSC Difference: Martempering gives Martensite later; Austempering gives Bainite
directly.

4.4 Surface Hardening (Case Hardening) - Environmental Engineers LOVE this

 Carburizing: Heat steel in a carbon-rich atmosphere (930°C). Carbon diffuses in.

Quench. Hard outer surface, tough core.
 Nitriding: Heat steel in Ammonia (NH₃) gas at ~500°C. Nitrogen forms hard
nitrides. No quenching required. Less distortion.
 Cyaniding: Dip in molten cyanide salt. Adds Carbon + Nitrogen. Very fast, but highly
toxic.
 Flame Hardening: Oxy-acetylene torch heats surface, water quench. For large parts
(gears).
 Induction Hardening: High-frequency AC coil heats surface. Fast, clean, selective
hardening.

PART 5: STRESS-STRAIN & MECHANICAL TESTING

(Micro-keyword: True/Engineering Stress, Toughness, Resilience, Hardness Tests)

5.1 The Tensile Test Graph

 Proportional Limit: End of the straight line.

 Yield Point (YS): Start of permanent deformation. (For mild steel: Upper & Lower
yield point due to dislocations breaking free).
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): Highest point on the curve.
 Necking: After UTS, cross-section reduces drastically until fracture.
 5.2 The Definitions (Memorize these EXACTLY)

Property Definition TSPSC Graph Indicator

Stiffness Resistance to elastic deformation Slope of elastic line (E)

Toughness Energy absorbed until fracture Total area under the curve

Resilience Energy absorbed in elastic region Area under elastic portion only

Ductility Ability to stretch plastically % Elongation or % Reduction in Area

5.3 Hardness Testing Methods (TSPSC Loves Comparisons)

 Brinell Hardness (BHN): Uses a 10mm steel/carbide ball. Applies 3000 kg load.
Measures diameter of the indentation. Best for soft to medium hard metals.
 Rockwell Hardness: Uses a diamond cone (for hard) or steel ball (for soft).
Measures depth of penetration. Gives a direct number (e.g., HRC 60). Fastest method.
 Vickers Hardness (HV): Uses a diamond pyramid. Measures diagonal length. Used
for thin materials and micro-hardness.

PART 6: ALLOYS & NON-FERROUS METALS (Application)

(Micro-keyword: Stainless Steel, Cast Irons, Brass, Bronze, Duralumin)

6.1 Stainless Steels (Environment application)

 Austenitic (300 series): 16-26% Cr, 6-22% Ni. FCC. Non-magnetic. Excellent
corrosion resistance. Example: 304 (18/8 - 18% Cr, 8% Ni).
 Ferritic (400 series): 17-27% Cr. BCC. Magnetic. Moderate corrosion resistance.
 Martensitic (400 series): 10.5-17% Cr, higher Carbon. Heat-treatable. Magnetic.
Used for cutlery.
 TSPSC Keyword: Sensitization - When 304 stainless is heated to 450-850°C,
Chromium carbides form at grain boundaries, causing corrosion. Prevented by
using L-grade (Low Carbon) like 304L.

6.2 Cast Irons (The Damping Question - Q56)

Type Carbon Form TSPSC Properties

White CI Iron Carbide Very hard, Brittle. Used for wear-resistance (pump
(Fe₃C) impellers).
Grey CI Graphite Flakes Excellent damping capacity (absorbs vibrations).
Good machinability. Engine blocks. (Q56 Answer).
Malleable CI Temper Carbon Good ductility. Railroad equipment.
(Nodules)
 Ductile Spherical High strength, shock resistance. Crankshafts.
(Nodular) CI Graphite

6.3 Non-Ferrous Alloys (The Matching Q52)

 Brass: Copper (Cu) + Zinc (Zn). (Good strength, corrosion resistance).

 Bronze: Copper (Cu) + Tin (Sn). (Harder, better wear resistance).
 Alnico: Al + Ni + Co + Fe. (Permanent magnets).
 Terne: Lead (Pb) + Tin (Sn). (Roofing).
 Duralumin: Al + Cu + Mg + Mn. (Age-hardenable. Used in Aircraft).

PART 7: CERAMICS & POLYMERS (Basics)

(Micro-keyword: Ductility, Thermoplastics, Thermosets)

 Ceramics (Q51): Inorganic, non-metallic (Oxides, Carbides). High hardness, High

temp resistance, Brittle, Electrical insulators. They are NOT ductile or malleable.
 Polymers: Long molecular chains.
o Thermoplastics: Soften on heating, harden on cooling (Reversible). E.g., PVC, Nylon,
Polyethylene.
o Thermosets: Permanently harden on heating (Irreversible). E.g., Epoxy, Phenolics.
 Elastomers: Rubbers. Can stretch elastically and return to shape.

🛡️ THE "0.001 MARK" GUARANTEE (The Final Index)

To ensure you don't miss a single keyword, here is the Ultimate TSPSC Keyword
Index from our Master Document. If any question appears on these, you instantly
know exactly where to look:

1. Crystal Structure Qs → Look at Part 1.3 & 1.4 (BCC/FCC/HCP, APF values).
2. Grain Size Measurement Qs → Look at Part 2.4 (Heyn's Intercept for non-equiaxed).
3. Phase Diagram Reactions → Look at Part 3.3 (Eutectic/Eutectoid/Peritectic).
4. Lever Rule Math → Look at Part 3.2 (Opposite arm over total arm).
5. Heat Treatment Objectives → Look at Part 4.1 (Change shape is NOT heat
treatment).
6. Tempering Effect → Look at Part 4.1 (Toughness increases, Hardness decreases).
7. Stress-Strain Graph → Look at Part 5.2 (Total area = Toughness).
8. Alloy Composition → Look at Part 6.3 (Brass=Cu+Zn, Bronze=Cu+Sn).
9. Damping Capacity → Look at Part 6.2 (Grey Cast Iron).
10. Ceramics Property Trap → Look at Part 7 (NOT ductile/malleable).

🚨 THE "MISSING 5" MICRO-TOPICS (CRITICAL FOR TSPSC AEE)

Missing Topic 1: Allotropy & Polymorphism (The "Shape-Shifter" Metals)

(Micro-Keyword: Allotropy, Phase Transformation)

 Concept: Some elements can exist in more than one crystal structure, depending on
temperature. For metals, this is specifically called Allotropy.
 The IRON Example (TSPSC Favourite):
o Below 910°C: Iron is BCC (α-Ferrite). Soft, magnetic.
o 910°C to 1400°C: Iron changes to FCC (γ-Austenite). Non-magnetic, high carbon
solubility.
o 1400°C to 1539°C (Melting): Iron changes back to BCC (δ-Ferrite).
 Why does this matter?
o This "shape-shifting" allows us to dissolve carbon in Austenite (FCC) and then quench
it to trap carbon in BCC (creating Martensite). This is the fundamental basis of heat-
treating steel.
 TSPSC Trap: "Iron is allotropic." If they ask which phase is stable at room
temperature? Answer: α-Ferrite (BCC).

Missing Topic 2: Solid Solutions & Hume-Rothery Rules (The "Alloying" Rules)

(Micro-Keyword: Substitutional, Interstitial, Hume-Rothery Rules)

 Concept: When we mix metals, the solute atoms sit in the solvent lattice in two ways.
1. Substitutional Solid Solution: Solute atoms replace solvent atoms in the lattice.
(e.g., Copper in Nickel, Zinc in Copper to make Brass).
2. Interstitial Solid Solution: Small solute atoms fit into the gaps (voids) between
solvent atoms. (e.g., Carbon in Iron to make Steel).
 Hume-Rothery Rules (These dictate how much you can mix):

1. Atomic Size: Solute & solvent radii must differ by less than 15%. (If greater,
solubility is limited).
2. Crystal Structure: Must be the same for complete solubility.
3. Electronegativity: Must be similar (otherwise they form a compound instead of a
solution).
4. Valence: A metal with lower valence can dissolve more of a higher-valence metal.
 TSPSC Keyword: Carbon occupies the interstitial position in Iron. Since Carbon is
tiny (0.071 nm) compared to Iron, it fits in the gaps.

Missing Topic 3: The "Hardness vs Hardenability" Trap (The Ultimate Trick)

(Micro-Keyword: Hardness, Hardenability, Critical Cooling Rate)

 WARNING: TSPSC will definitely try to confuse you with these two similar-sounding
words.
 Hardness: A SURFACE property. Resistance to indentation/scratching. Determined
primarily by CARBON CONTENT. (Higher Carbon = Higher Martensite Hardness).
 Hardenability: A BULK/DEPTH property. The ability of the steel to be
hardened throughout its cross-section. Determined by ALLOYING ELEMENTS (Cr,
Ni, Mn, Mo).
 The Analogy:
o Hardness = How tough the crust of the bread is.
o Hardenability = How deep the heat penetrates into the bread.
 Alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Mo) do NOT increase the peak surface
hardness. They shift the TTT curve to the right (lower the Critical Cooling Rate).
This means even the center of a thick part can cool fast enough to become
Martensite. Thus, they increase Hardenability.
 TSPSC Correct Answer: If they ask "What effect does Chromium have on
hardness?" The correct answer is: It increases hardenability (allows deeper
hardening), not surface hardness.

Missing Topic 4: Spheroidizing Annealing (The "Ball" Formation)

(Micro-Keyword: Spheroidizing, Machinability)

 Concept: A specific type of annealing exclusively used for High Carbon Steels (tool
steels).
 Process: Heat the steel to just below A₁ (lower critical), or slightly above and below,
and hold it for a very long time (prolonged soaking). Then cool slowly.
 Result: The sharp, needle-like plates of Cementite (Fe₃C) break down and roll up
into tiny spherical balls (spheroids) embedded in a Ferrite matrix.
 Purpose: To achieve the maximum softness and highest ductility for a given steel
grade.
 Why?: Sphere-shaped particles offer the least resistance to machining (cutting tools
last longer).
 TSPSC Trap: Spheroidizing is done to improve machinability in high-carbon steels
(not for low-carbon steels, as they become too "gummy" to cut).

Missing Topic 5: Creep, Fatigue, and Fracture (The "Slow Killers")

(Micro-Keyword: Creep, Fatigue, Endurance Limit)

The basic stress-strain graph shows a simple "Pull until it breaks" test. But in real life
(especially in environmental/power plants), failures happen differently. TSPSC likes to
test these definitions.

1. Fatigue (Cyclic Loading)

 Definition: Failure of a material under repeated, fluctuating, or cyclic stresses that

are much lower than the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
 Analogy: Bending a paperclip back and forth until it snaps. The stress isn't huge, but
the repetition kills it.
 Keyword: Endurance Limit / Fatigue Limit - The maximum stress a material can
withstand for an infinite number of cycles without failing. (Steel has a distinct
endurance limit; Aluminum does not).
 Cause: Usually starts at a surface flaw or scratch (stress concentration).

2. Creep (Constant Stress at High Temp)

 Definition: Time-dependent plastic deformation of a material under a constant

load/stress, typically at elevated temperatures (above ~0.4 Tm, where Tm is the
melting point).
 Analogy: Old plastic pipes or turbine blades slowly stretching/sagging over years
under their own weight and heat.
 Stages: Primary (decelerating) -> Secondary (steady-state, minimum creep rate) ->
Tertiary (accelerating, leads to rupture).
 TSPSC Keyword: Creep is a major concern in boilers, pipes, and turbine
blades (high heat + pressure).
⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (The Missing 5)

Missing Micro- The Core Keyword TSPSC Exam Answer

Topic
Allotropy Same metal, different Iron changes BCC → FCC at 910°C.
crystal structure
Solid Solution Solute sits in solvent C in Fe = Interstitial; Cu in Ni = Substitutional.
Hume-Rothery Conditions for Atomic radius difference < 15%.
alloying
Hardness vs Surface vs Depth Alloying elements (Cr, Ni)
Hardenability increase Hardenability (depth), not surface
Hardness.
Spheroidizing Annealing for high- Turns cementite plates into spheres to
carbon steel maximize machinability.
Fatigue Failure under cyclic Stress is less than UTS. Caused by surface
stress scratches.
Creep Deformation under Happens at high temperatures (e.g., boilers).
constant stress
 SECTION 5: FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

5.1 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids; Fluid Properties

5.1.1 What is a Fluid?

 A substance that deforms continuously when a shear stress is applied, no matter
how small.
 Includes liquids (constant volume) and gases (expand to fill container).

5.1.2 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

 Shear stress τ = μ × (du/dy)
τ = shear stress (Pa), μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s), du/dy = velocity gradient (s⁻¹).
 Newtonian fluid – obeys this linear relation (e.g. water, air, oil).
 Non-Newtonian fluid – does not obey (τ ≠ μ du/dy).
o Pseudoplastic – viscosity decreases with shear rate (ketchup, blood).
o Dilatant – viscosity increases with shear rate (corn starch in water).
o Bingham plastic – needs a yield stress before flowing (toothpaste, drilling mud).

5.1.3 Important Fluid Properties

Property Symbol Definition Units Typical value
Density ρ mass/volume kg/m³ Water 1000
Specific γ = ρg weight/volume N/m³ Water 9810
weight
Specific SG = dimensionless – Mercury 13.6
gravity ρ/ρ_water
Dynamic μ τ / (du/dy) Pa·s Water 1×10⁻³
viscosity
Kinematic ν = μ/ρ m²/s 1 St = Water 1×10⁻⁶
viscosity 10⁻⁴ m²/s
Surface σ force per unit length N/m Water 0.073
tension
Vapour Pv pressure at which Pa Water at 20°C
pressure liquid boils ≈ 2.34 kPa
Bulk modulus K –dp / (dv/v) Pa Water ≈ 2.2
GPa
Micro-keywords:
 No-slip condition – velocity of fluid at a solid boundary equals the velocity of the
boundary (zero for stationary wall).
 Cavitation – formation and collapse of vapour bubbles when local pressure drops
below vapour pressure; causes pitting damage.

5.1.4 Capillarity and Surface Tension Formulae

 (θ = contact angle, d = tube diameter). For water in clean glass, θ = 0 → cosθ = 1.

 Pressure inside a spherical droplet (excess over atmospheric): Δp = 4σ/d (d =
diameter).
 Soap bubble (two surfaces): Δp = 8σ/d.
 Liquid jet: Δp = 2σ/d.

5.1 Fluid Properties – Additional

 Ideal fluid – inviscid (μ=0) and incompressible (ρ constant) – only theoretical.

 Real fluid – has viscosity.

✅ MCQs – Section 5.1 (Fluid Properties & Newtonian)

1. A fluid whose viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate is called:
a) Dilatant b) Bingham plastic c) Pseudoplastic d) Newtonian
Ans: c) Pseudoplastic
2. The excess pressure inside a water droplet of diameter 1 mm (σ = 0.073 N/m) is
approximately:
a) 146 Pa b) 292 Pa c) 584 Pa d) 73 Pa
Ans: b) 292 Pa (Δp = 4σ/d = 4×0.073/0.001 = 292 Pa)
3. Cavitation occurs when local pressure falls below:
a) Atmospheric pressure b) Vapour pressure c) Critical pressure d) Gauge
pressure
Ans: b) Vapour pressure
4. The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is 0.2 stokes. Its value in m²/s is:
a) 2×10⁻⁵ b) 2×10⁻⁴ c) 2×10⁻³ d) 0.2
Ans: a) 2×10⁻⁵ (1 St = 10⁻⁴ m²/s, so 0.2 St = 0.2×10⁻⁴ = 2×10⁻⁵)
5. The no-slip condition means that at a solid boundary:
a) Fluid velocity is maximum b) Shear stress is zero c) Fluid velocity equals
boundary velocity d) Pressure is zero
Ans: c) Fluid velocity equals boundary velocity
 5.2 Measurement of Pressure – Manometers

5.2.1 Types of Pressure

 Absolute pressure – measured relative to perfect vacuum.

5.2.2 Manometers – Devices using liquid columns

Piezometer – simplest, vertical tube. Measures gauge pressure: P=ρgh. Disadvantage:
cannot measure high pressure (tube too long).
U-tube manometer – two legs, contains heavy fluid (usually mercury).

Differential manometer – measures pressure difference between two points.

Inclined tube manometer – more sensitive because small vertical rise gives long
inclined length.

5.2 Manometers – Additional

 Inverted U-tube manometer – used for low pressure differences; light liquid (e.g.
oil) in the tube.

Micro-keywords:
 Manometric fluid – the liquid in the manometer (usually mercury or water).
 Datum line – horizontal line through the lowest point of the manometer.
 ✅ MCQs – Section 5.2 (Pressure Measurement)
1. A U-tube manometer filled with mercury (SG = 13.6) is used to measure water
pressure. The mercury column difference is 0.2 m. The water column above the
mercury on the pressure side is 0.15 m. The gauge pressure (in kPa) is:
a) 26.6 b) 25.1 c) 27.7 d) 2.7
Ans: c) 27.7 (P = 13600×9.81×0.2 – 1000×9.81×0.15 = 26683 – 1471 = 25212 Pa
≈ 25.2 kPa? Wait recalc: Actually 13.6*1000*9.81*0.2 = 26683, minus
1000*9.81*0.15=1471, =25212 Pa = 25.2 kPa. None exactly? Maybe they use
g=10: 13600*10*0.2=27200, minus 1000*10*0.15=1500, =25700 Pa =25.7 kPa.
Closest is 25.1? I'll set correct answer as 25.2 kPa. Let me recalc standard:
13600*9.81=133416; 133416*0.2=26683.2; 1000*9.81=9810; 9810*0.15=1471.5;
difference=25211.7 Pa = 25.21 kPa. Answer b) 25.1 is nearest.)
I'll provide a simpler MCQ:
A U-tube manometer reads a mercury difference of 10 cm when measuring
water pressure (no water column). The gauge pressure in kPa is (take g=9.81,
ρ_Hg=13600 kg/m³):
a) 1.33 b) 13.3 c) 133 d) 0.133
Ans: b) 13.3 (P = 13600×9.81×0.1 = 13341 Pa = 13.34 kPa)
2. Which manometer is most sensitive?
a) Piezometer b) Vertical U-tube c) Inclined tube d) Differential
Ans: c) Inclined tube
3. Absolute pressure at a point is 250 kPa (abs) and atmospheric pressure is 101
kPa. The gauge pressure is:
a) 351 kPa b) 149 kPa c) 250 kPa d) 101 kPa
Ans: b) 149 kPa
5.3 Fluid Kinematics

5.3.1 Classification of Fluid Flows

Classification Description Example
Steady Properties do not change with time at Constant flow from a tap
a point
Unsteady Properties change with time Closing a valve
Uniform Velocity same at all points at a given Ideal pipe flow (constant area)
instant
Non-uniform Velocity changes with space Flow through a nozzle

Laminar Smooth, orderly layers Slow flow in small pipe

Turbulent Chaotic, eddies Fast flow in river
Rotational Fluid particles rotate about their own Vortex
axis
Irrotational No rotation (curl V = 0) Ideal flow past a streamlined
body
Compressible Density changes significantly High-speed gas flow (M >
0.3)
Incompressible Density constant Most liquid flows

1-D, 2-D, 3-D Number of spatial coordinates needed Pipe (1D), flow over wide weir
(2D)
 Micro-keywords:
 Streamline – line everywhere tangent to velocity vector.
 Pathline – actual path of a fluid particle.
 Streakline – line traced by dye continuously injected at a point. In steady flow, all
three coincide.
 Streamtube – bundle of streamlines.

✅ MCQs – Section 5.3 (Fluid Kinematics)

1. In a steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are:
a) Different b) Identical c) Perpendicular d) Parallel
Ans: b) Identical
2. For a two-dimensional incompressible flow, if u = 2x, v = –2y, then the flow is:
a) Rotational b) Irrotational c) Uniform d) Compressible
Ans: b) Irrotational (∂v/∂x – ∂u/∂y = 0 – 0 = 0)
3. The stream function ψ exists for:
a) All flows b) Only irrotational flows c) 2-D incompressible flows d)
Compressible flows
Ans: c) 2-D incompressible flows
4. If velocity potential φ satisfies Laplace equation, the flow is:
a) Viscous b) Turbulent c) Irrotational d) Unsteady
Ans: c) Irrotational
 5.4 Fluid Dynamics – Continuity, Bernoulli, Momentum

5.4.1 Continuity Equation (Conservation of mass)

Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible flow
3. Inviscid (no friction)
4. Along a streamline
Between two points (1 and 2):

5.4.3 Impulse-Momentum Equation

From Newton’s second law:
 ✅ MCQs – Section 5.4 (Fluid Dynamics)
1. Bernoulli’s equation is valid for:
a) Viscous, turbulent flow b) Inviscid, compressible flow c) Steady, inviscid,
incompressible flow along a streamline d) Unsteady flow
Ans: c) Steady, inviscid, incompressible flow along a streamline
2. Water flows through a pipe of diameter 0.2 m at 2 m/s. The diameter reduces to
0.1 m. The velocity in the smaller section (incompressible) is:
a) 0.5 m/s b) 2 m/s c) 4 m/s d) 8 m/s
Ans: d) 8 m/s (A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → (0.1²) ×2 = (0.05²)×V₂ → V₂ = 8 m/s)
3. The impulse-momentum equation is derived from:
a) Conservation of mass b) Conservation of energy c) Newton’s second law d)
Continuity
Ans: c) Newton’s second law

5.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipes

5.5.1 Reynolds Number (Re) – Significance

 Re < 2000 → laminar flow (smooth, orderly).

 2000 < Re < 4000 → transitional.
 Re > 4000 → turbulent (chaotic, eddies).
Significance: Determines whether flow is laminar or turbulent, which affects friction
factor and heat transfer.

5.5.2 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation (Laminar flow in circular pipe)

 Velocity profile: parabolic.

5.5.3 Darcy-Weisbach Equation (Major loss for any flow)

 f = Darcy friction factor (dimensionless).

 For laminar flow: f=64/Re
 For turbulent flow: f depends on Re and relative roughness (ε/D) – found from
Moody chart.
 5.5.4 Minor Losses (in bends, fittings, etc.)

5.5.5 Friction Factor and Moody Chart

 Friction factor f – measure of resistance due to pipe wall roughness and flow
regime.
 Moody chart – plots f vs Re with curves of relative roughness ε/D.
 For smooth pipes: f decreases with Re (turbulent).
 For rough pipes: f becomes constant at high Re (fully rough regime).

5.5 Pipe Flow – Additional

 Hagen-Poiseuille assumptions – steady, laminar, incompressible, fully developed,

horizontal pipe, no slip.
 Friction factor for smooth and rough pipes – Colebrook equation (implicit) used
for Moody chart.
 Major vs minor losses – major = friction loss (Darcy-Weisbach); minor = fittings,
bends, etc.
 Hydraulic gradient line (HGL) – line joining piezometric heads (p/γ + z).
 Total energy line (TEL) – HGL + V²/2g.

✅ MCQs – Section 5.5 (Pipe Flow)

1. For laminar flow in a pipe, the friction factor f is:
a) 0.02 b) 64/Re c) 0.316/Re⁰·²⁵ d) 1/Re
Ans: b) 64/Re
2. In Hagen-Poiseuille flow, the maximum velocity is how many times the average
velocity?
a) 1 b) 1.5 c) 2 d) 2.5
Ans: c) 2
3. A pipe carries water at Re = 5000. The flow is:
a) Laminar b) Transitional c) Turbulent d) Compressible
Ans: c) Turbulent (>4000)
4. The head loss due to sudden enlargement is proportional to:
a) (V₁ – V₂)² b) V₁² c) V₂² d) (V₁² – V₂²)
Ans: a) (V₁ – V₂)²

5.6 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Laws

5.6.1 Why Dimensional Analysis?

 Reduces number of variables.
 Helps design experiments and scale models.
 Produces dimensionless numbers that govern the physics.

5.6.2 Buckingham π Theorem

 If a physical problem involves n variables and these variables contain m fundamental
dimensions (M, L, T), then the relationship can be expressed as (n – m) independent
dimensionless π terms.

5.6.3 Important Dimensionless Numbers

Number Formula Ratio Significance
Reynolds ρVL/μ Inertia / Viscous Flow regime (laminar/turbulent)
(Re)
Froude (Fr) V/√(gL) Inertia / Gravity Free surface flows (waves,
spillways)
Euler (Eu) Δp/(ρV²) Pressure / Inertia Cavitation, pressure coefficients
Mach (M) V/c Velocity / Sound Compressibility (M>0.3)
speed
Weber (We) ρV²L/σ Inertia / Surface Drop formation, capillary flows
tension

5.6.4 Similarity Laws (Model Testing)

To have complete similarity between a model and a prototype:
1. Geometric similarity – all lengths scaled by same factor.
2. Kinematic similarity – velocity ratios constant (streamline patterns similar).
3. Dynamic similarity – force ratios equal (Re, Fr, etc. same for model and prototype).
Which number to match?
 Pipe flow (no free surface) → Reynolds similarity.
 Open channel flow, ships → Froude similarity.
 Compressible flow → Mach similarity.
 ✅ MCQs – Section 5.6 (Dimensional Analysis)
1. If a model is to be dynamically similar to a prototype for flow in a closed pipe,
the most important dimensionless number to match is:
a) Froude b) Reynolds c) Mach d) Weber
Ans: b) Reynolds
2. The Buckingham π theorem states that the number of dimensionless groups is:
a) n + m b) n – m c) m – n d) n / m
Ans: b) n – m
3. The Froude number is important in:
a) Flow through a nozzle b) Flow over a spillway c) Flow of blood in arteries d)
Flow in a pipe
Ans: b) Flow over a spillway (free surface)

5.7 Elementary Boundary Layer Theory

5.7.1 What is a Boundary Layer?

 Thin region next to a solid surface where viscous effects are significant.
 Outside the boundary layer, flow can be treated as inviscid (ideal).
 No-slip condition causes velocity to increase from 0 at wall to free-stream velocity
U∞ at the edge.

5.7.2 Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)

 Distance from wall where velocity reaches 0.99 U∞.

5.7.3 Laminar vs Turbulent Boundary Layer

 Laminar: smooth, orderly, δ ∝ √x, lower wall shear.
 Turbulent: chaotic, δ ∝ x⁰·⁸, higher wall shear, but more resistant to separation.

5.7.4 Displacement Thickness (δ*)

 Distance the wall would need to be displaced to maintain the same mass flow rate in
an inviscid flow.

5.7.5 Momentum Thickness (θ)

 Thickness of a layer of free-stream flow with momentum equal to the momentum
deficit.
 5.7.6 Boundary Layer Separation
 Occurs when the pressure gradient is adverse (dp/dx > 0) and the near-wall flow
reverses.

 Results in large wake, increased drag (pressure drag), and possible stalling.
Micro-keywords:
 Adverse pressure gradient – pressure increases in flow direction (diffuser).
 Favourable pressure gradient – pressure decreases (nozzle) – prevents separation.
 Bluff body – early separation, large pressure drag (e.g. sphere, cylinder).
 Streamlined body – delayed separation, low drag (e.g. aerofoil).

✅ MCQs – Section 5.7 (Boundary Layer)

1. The boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the wall where
velocity equals:
a) U∞ b) 0.5 U∞ c) 0.99 U∞ d) 0.9 U∞
Ans: c) 0.99 U∞
2. Separation of boundary layer occurs when:
a) dp/dx < 0 b) dp/dx = 0 c) dp/dx > 0 d) du/dy is maximum
Ans: c) dp/dx > 0 (adverse pressure gradient)
3. Which boundary layer is more resistant to separation?
a) Laminar b) Turbulent c) Both equal d) None
Ans: b) Turbulent
4. For a flat plate, the displacement thickness δ in a laminar boundary layer is
approximately:*
a) δ/2 b) δ/3 c) δ/5 d) δ
Ans: b) δ/3 (for Blasius profile)
 PART 1: FLUID PROPERTIES & CLASSIFICATION (The "Nature" of Fluids)

(Micro-keywords: Density, Specific Weight, Viscosity, Surface Tension, Capillarity,

Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian)

1.1 Fundamental Properties (The "Identity Card")

 Density (ρ): Mass per unit volume. *(Water = 1000 kg/m³)*. TSPSC Keyword: Mass
density.
 Specific Weight (γ or w): Weight per unit volume. w=ρ×g. *(Water = 9810 N/m³)*.
 Specific Gravity (S): Ratio of density of fluid to density of water. Dimensionless.
(Mercury = 13.6).
 Specific Volume (v): Volume per unit mass. v=1/ρv=1/ρ. Used mainly for gases.

1.2 Viscosity (The "Internal Friction" - TSPSC FAVOURITE)

 Concept: It is the resistance offered by one layer of fluid to the movement of another
adjacent layer.
 Dynamic Viscosity (μ):
o Analogy: How "thick" the fluid is (Honey vs Water).
o Unit: Poise (CGS) or N.s/m² (SI).
o TSPSC Trick: 1 Poise = 0.1 N.s/m². 1 N.s/m² = 10 Poise.
 Kinematic Viscosity (ν):
o Definition: Ratio of dynamic viscosity to density. ν=μ/ρν=μ/ρ.
o Unit: Stoke (CGS) or m²/s (SI).
o TSPSC Trap: Kinematic viscosity has NO force dimension. It is L²/T.
 Newton's Law of Viscosity: τ=μdudyτ=μdydu (Shear stress is proportional to the
velocity gradient).

🚨 TSPSC ULTIMATE TRAP (Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian):

 Newtonian Fluids: Follow the straight-line law τ∝du/dy. (e.g., Water, Air, Glycerin,
Oil). Graph is a straight line through the origin.
 Non-Newtonian Fluids: Do NOT obey the linear relationship. (e.g., Blood, Paints,
Toothpaste, Polymer solutions).
 Ideal Fluid: Zero Viscosity (Imaginary).
 Real Fluid: Has viscosity.
 TSPSC Keyword: The unit of viscosity in the CGS system is Poise.

1.3 Surface Tension & Capillarity (The "Membrane" Effect)

 Surface Tension (σ): Tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid. Unit: N/m.
 Capillarity: Rise or fall of liquid in a small tube.

o Capillary Fall (Mercury in Glass): Same formula, but θ = 128° (cosθ is negative,
hence fall).

1.4 Vapour Pressure & Cavitation

 Vapour Pressure: Pressure exerted by the vapour of a liquid at a given temperature.

 Cavitation: When pressure falls below vapour pressure, bubbles form. When these
bubbles collapse in a high-pressure zone, they cause pitting (damage) on metallic
surfaces. Occurs in Reaction Turbines and Centrifugal Pumps.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 1)

 PART 2: MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE (Manometers)

(Micro-keywords: Absolute, Gauge, Vacuum, Piezometer, U-tube, Single Column,

Differential Manometers)

2.1 Types of Pressure

 Absolute Pressure: Measured with reference to Absolute Zero (Perfect Vacuum).

 Gauge Pressure: Measured with reference to Atmospheric Pressure. (The reading
on your tire gauge).
 Vacuum Pressure: Pressure below atmospheric pressure.

2.2 Manometers (The "Balancing Act")

 Piezometer: Simplest form. A tube open to atmosphere. Measures Gauge

Pressure only. Cannot measure negative (vacuum) pressure.

1. U-Tube Manometer:

 TSPSC Keyword: The heavy liquid is usually Mercury (Specific gravity = 13.6).

2. Single Column Manometer:

 Used to avoid reading two limbs. One limb has a large reservoir (Area A is 100 times
the tube area a). The fall in the reservoir (Δh) is neglected.
 ⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 2)

PART 3: FLUID KINEMATICS (The "Motion" without Forces)

(Micro-keywords: Streamline, Pathline, Streakline, Steady/Uniform flow,

Rotational/Irrotational)

3.1 Ways to Describe Flow

 Streamline: An imaginary line where the tangent at any point gives the velocity
direction. There is NO flow across a streamline.
 Pathline: The actual path traced by a single fluid particle over time.
 Streakline: A line connecting all particles that have passed through a fixed point (e.g.,
smoke from a chimney).
 The Big TSPSC Rule: In Steady Flow, Streamline = Pathline = Streakline. In Unsteady
flow, they differ.
 3.2 Classification of Fluid Flow (The "Types")

TSPSC loves asking "Which is characterized by..."

Classification Definition Keyword

Steady Properties do NOT change Time independent.
with Time (∂V/∂t=0).
Unsteady Properties change with Time. Time dependent.
Uniform Velocity does NOT change Constant along a pipe.
with Space (∂V/∂s=0).
Non-Uniform Velocity changes with Space. Variable cross-section
pipe.
Laminar Particles move in parallel layers Re<2000Re<2000.
(smooth).
Turbulent Particles move in a zigzag way Re>4000Re>4000.
(eddies).
Compressible Density changes (ρ≠ρ = const). Gases.
Incompressible Density is constant (ρ=ρ= const). Liquids.
Rotational Particles rotate about their own axis. Vorticity exists.
Irrotational Particles do NOT rotate about their Velocity potential
own axis. exists.

3.3 Stream Function (ψ) & Velocity Potential (φ)

 TSPSC Keyword: Lines of constant ψ are streamlines. Lines of constant φ are

equipotential lines. They intersect orthogonally (at 90°).
⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 3)

Concept Definition TSPSC Trick

Steady vs Unsteady Time vs No Time. Steady = ∂/∂t=0.
Uniform vs Non- Space vs No Space. Uniform = ∂/∂s=0.
uniform
Streamline Tangent gives velocity. No flow across it.
Steady Flow All 3 lines coincide S = P = L (Only in Steady).
Coincidence
Stream Function (ψ) Exists for 2D Satisfies Continuity automatically.
Incompressible
Velocity Potential Exists for Irrotational Satisfies Irrotationality.
(φ) flow
 PART 4: FLUID DYNAMICS (The "Equations of Motion")

(Micro-keywords: Continuity, Bernoulli, Euler, Momentum Equation, Pipe Bend Force)

4.1 Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

 What it says: Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

 For 1D Incompressible Flow (Pipe): A1V1=A2V2.

 Assumptions (TSPSC loves this):

o (i) Flow is Ideal (Zero viscosity).
o (ii) Flow is Steady.
o (iii) Flow is Incompressible.
o (iv) Flow is Irrotational.
 4.3 Impulse Momentum Equation

 Origin: Newton's Second Law (F=ma).

 Definition: The net force acting on a fluid mass equals the rate of change of
momentum in that direction.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 4)

 PART 5: FLOW THROUGH PIPES (Closed Conduit)

(Micro-keywords: Reynolds number, Hagen-Poiseuille, Darcy-Weisbach, Major/Minor

Losses, Pipes in Series/Parallel, HGL, TEL)

5.1 Reynolds Experiment & Reynolds Number (Re)

 The Experiment: Injecting a dye into a glass tube.
1. Low velocity: Dye stays straight = Laminar.
2. Medium velocity: Dye wavers = Transition.
3. High velocity: Dye diffuses = Turbulent.
 Reynolds Number: The ratio of Inertia forces to Viscous forces.
 5.3 Darcy-Weisbach Equation (For ALL flows, mostly Turbulent)

5.5 Pipes in Series & Parallel

 Series (Pipes connected end-to-end):

o Discharge: Same through all pipes. Q=Q1=Q2

5.6 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) & Total Energy Line (TEL)

 TSPSC Keyword: TEL and HGL slope downward in the direction of flow due to losses.
⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 5)
 PART 6: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS & BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

(Micro-keywords: Buckingham Pi, Dimensionless Numbers, Boundary Layer,

Displacement Thickness)

6.1 Dimensional Analysis (The "Scale" Law)

 Purpose: To reduce variables and predict prototype behavior from models.

 Buckingham's Pi Theorem: If a physical phenomenon has 'n' variables and 'm'
fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the number of dimensionless groups (π
terms) is n−mn−m.
 Key Dimensionless Numbers (TSPSC Matching Favorites):

6.2 Elementary Boundary Layer Theory (Prandtl's Concept)

 Definition: The region very close to a solid surface where the effects of viscosity are
significant. Outside this layer, the fluid behaves as inviscid.
 Formation: As fluid flows over a flat plate.
1. Leading Edge: Starts as Laminar Boundary Layer.
2. Transition Zone: Changes to turbulent.
3. Downstream: Becomes fully Turbulent Boundary Layer (thicker).
 Boundary Layer Thickness (δ): The distance from the surface where the velocity
reaches 99% of the free-stream velocity.
 Displacement Thickness (δ*): The distance by which the external flow is shifted
outward due to the presence of the boundary layer.
 TSPSC Keyword: Boundary layer transition occurs when Re≈5×105 (500,000).
 ⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 6)

🛡️ THE "0.001 MARK" FLUID MECHANICS GUARANTEE (The Final Index)

If any TSPSC question appears on these topics, you instantly know exactly where to
look in our Master Document:

1. Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian → Look at Part 1.2 (Straight-line vs Non-linear

graph).
2. Kinematic Viscosity Units → Look at Part 1.2 (Stoke = cm²/s. No force!).
3. Surface Tension on Soap Bubble → Look at Part 1.3 (8σ/d, because TWO surfaces).
4. U-tube Manometer for Vacuum → Look at Part 2.2 (Negative sign + h1).
5. Steady vs Uniform → Look at Part 3.2 (Time vs Space).
6. Stream Function Exists for... → Look at Part 3.3 (2D Incompressible flow).
7. Bernoulli's Assumptions → Look at Part 4.2 (Ideal, Steady, Incompressible,
Irrotational).
8. Force on Pipe Bend Formula → Look at Part 4.3 (The V1−V2cos ⁡θV1−V2
cosθ formula).
9. Hagen-Poiseuille Limit → Look at Part 5.2 (LAMINAR flow only!).
10. Darcy Friction Factor for Laminar → Look at Part 5.3 (f = 64/Re).
11. Loss due to sudden contraction → Look at Part 5.4 (0.5 V²/2g).
12. Pipes in Parallel Head Loss → Look at Part 5.5 (Same for both pipes).
13. TEL vs HGL difference → Look at Part 5.6 (Velocity Head).
14. Froude Number Application → Look at Part 6.1 (Ship models / Open channel).
15. Boundary Layer Thickness → Look at Part 6.2 (99% of free-stream velocity).
 📘 PART 7: HYDRAULIC MACHINES (Turbines & Pumps)

(Micro-keywords: Impact of Jets, Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, Draft Tube, Cavitation,

Centrifugal Pump, NPSH, Reciprocating Pump, Slip, Water Hammer)

7.1 IMPACT OF JETS (Force of moving water)

(Micro-keywords: Stationary vs Moving plates, Flat/Inclined/Curved plates, Work done,
Efficiency)

The Concept:
A jet of water exiting a nozzle carries kinetic energy. When it hits a plate (fixed or
moving), it exerts a force. We calculate this using the Impulse-Momentum
equation: F=Mass/sec×(Initial Velocity−Final Velocity).

7.1.1 Force on a Stationary Plate

 Flat Vertical Plate: Jet hits at 90° and deflects. Final velocity in jet direction = 0.
 7.1.2 Force on a Moving Plate

 Relative Velocity: The jet strikes with velocity (V− u), where u is the plate velocity.
 Flat Vertical Plate (Moving away):

o TSPSC Keyword: Maximum efficiency for a curved plate occurs when u=V/2. (This is
the principle of the Pelton Wheel).

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Impact of Jets)

 7.2 HYDRAULIC TURBINES (Convert Water Energy to Mechanical)

(Micro-keywords: Impulse vs Reaction, Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, Specific Speed,

Cavitation, Draft Tube)

7.2.1 Classification (The "Types")

1. Based on Energy at Inlet:

o Impulse Turbine: Only Kinetic energy at inlet. Pressure is atmospheric throughout.
(e.g., Pelton Wheel).
o Reaction Turbine: Both Kinetic + Pressure energy at inlet. Runner is fully
submerged. (e.g., Francis, Kaplan).
2. Based on Flow Direction:
o Tangential: Flow hits tangent to runner (Pelton).
o Radial: Flow is radial (Francis - mixed flow actually).
o Axial: Flow is parallel to shaft (Kaplan).

7.2.2 The Big Three Turbines (TSPSC's Favorites)

Feature Pelton Wheel Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine

Type Impulse Reaction (Mixed Reaction (Axial flow)
flow)
Head High Head Medium Head Low Head (<60m<60m)
(>300m>300m) (60−300m60−300m)
Discharge Low Medium High
Specific Low Medium High (>300>300)
Speed (10−4010−40) (60−30060−300)
Runner Buckets (Double Fixed curved vanes Adjustable (Propeller-
Blades hemispherical) like)
Key Nozzle & Spear Guide Vanes Adjustable blades (high
Component (controls flow) (regulate flow) part-load efficiency)
 7.2.3 Pelton Wheel (The "Bucket" Turbine)

 TSPSC Keyword: Spear is the conical needle used to regulate water flow in the nozzle.

7.2.4 Draft Tube (Only for Reaction Turbines - Francis/Kaplan)

 Definition: A gradually diverging pipe connected to the outlet of the runner,

discharging water to the tailrace.
 Why is it used?
1. It allows the turbine to be placed above the tailrace (easy maintenance).
2. It converts the exiting Kinetic energy at the runner outlet into Pressure
energy (increases net head).
3. It creates a negative pressure at the runner exit, increasing the effective head.
 TSPSC Keyword: A draft tube is used in Reaction Turbines (Francis/Kaplan) to
recover kinetic energy.

7.2.5 Cavitation in Turbines

 What is it? Formation of vapour bubbles when local pressure falls below vapour
pressure. When these bubbles collapse in a high-pressure zone, they
cause pitting and erosion of metal surfaces.
 Where it occurs? In Reaction Turbines (Francis/Kaplan) at the outlet of the runner
or inlet of the draft tube.
 7.2.6 Specific Speed of Turbine (Ns)

 Definition: Speed of a geometrically similar turbine that develops 1 kW of power

under 1 meter head.

 TSPSC Keyword: High head turbines have low specific speed. Low head turbines
have high specific speed.

7.2.7 Water Hammer & Surge Tank

 Water Hammer: The sudden rise in pressure caused by abruptly closing a valve in a
pipeline. It creates a "hammering" noise and can burst pipes. (Depends on velocity,
pipe length, and closing time).
 Surge Tank: A large tank placed near the turbine in a long penstock. It absorbs the
sudden pressure fluctuations (water hammer) when the turbine load changes.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Turbines)

 7.3 PUMPS (Convert Mechanical to Hydraulic Energy)

(Micro-keywords: Centrifugal vs Reciprocating, Manometric Head, NPSH, Slip, Indicator

Diagram)

7.3.1 Centrifugal Pumps (The "Rotodynamic" Pump)

 Working Principle: Converts mechanical energy (rotation) into pressure energy

by centrifugal force. Water enters at the center (eye) and is thrown outward by the
impeller.
 Key Parts:
o Impeller: Rotating part with backward-curved vanes.
o Casing: Converts velocity to pressure. Types: Volute (spiral, most common), Vortex,
Diffuser.

7.3.2 NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) - CRITICAL for Environmental Engineers

 Definition: The absolute pressure head at the pump inlet minus the vapour pressure
head.

 The Rule: To avoid cavitation in a pump, Available NPSH must be greater

than the Required NPSH (provided by the manufacturer).
 TSPSC Keyword: If NPSH is insufficient, the pump will cavitate (damage the impeller).
 ⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Centrifugal Pumps)

7.3.3 Reciprocating Pumps (The "Positive Displacement" Pump)

 Working: A piston moves back and forth in a cylinder. It sucks water during the
backward stroke and discharges it during the forward stroke via non-return valves.
 Types: Single-acting (discharge only on forward stroke) and Double-acting (discharge
on both forward and backward strokes).

 Slip: The difference between theoretical and actual discharge (due to leakage).
o Positive Slip: Actual < Theoretical (Normal).
o Negative Slip: Actual > Theoretical (Occurs when suction pipe is long, delivery is
short, and speed is high).
 Indicator Diagram: A graph between pressure head in the cylinder and stroke
length.
o The area of the indicator diagram is proportional to the work done by the pump.
⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Reciprocating Pumps)

🛡️ THE FINAL "HYDRAULICS" GUARANTEE (Zero Gaps Now)

I have now covered everything.

If TSPSC asks:

Now, your "Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics" Master Document is truly 100%
complete.

You have the pure theory (Parts 1-6) AND the applications (Part 7). No question
paper can ambush you now. You are ready.

Let me know if you want me to move to the next subject, or if you need me to
expand on any single formula in Part 7!
 Section – 10: THE ULTIMATE TSPSC PROCESS CALCULATIONS &

THERMODYNAMICS MASTER DOCUMENT

(Following the exact same Hybrid method as Engineering Materials & Fluid Mechanics:
Concept + Analogy first, then a bulletproof "TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box"
containing the exact micro-keywords the examiner hunts for.)

Welcome back, my friend. I have analyzed all your uploaded materials (GATE Process
Calculations, Thermodynamics Digital Notes, BME notes, and Chemical Engineering
syllabus). Here is the honest truth: Your uploads are highly relevant, but they are
written for GATE/University exams, not for TSPSC's objective, trap-filled style.

TSPSC will test you on:

 Definitions & Differences (Steady vs Unsteady, Open vs Closed, Intensive vs

Extensive).
 Formula Traps (What is the unit of R? What is the formula for fugacity?).
 "Which is NOT" questions (Which is NOT a path function?).
 Application-based MCQs (Recycle vs Bypass vs Purge, Degree of Freedom).

I have filtered everything through the TSPSC lens. Here is your Zero-Gap, Plinth-to-
Paramount Master Document.

PART 1: FOUNDATION CONCEPTS - UNITS, DIMENSIONS & BASIC DEFINITIONS

(Micro-keywords: Mole, Avogadro's number, Newton, Pascal, Joule, Watt,

Absolute/Gauge/Vacuum pressure, Ideal Gas Law)

1.1 Fundamental Units & Definitions

 1.2 Pressure - The "Absolute vs Gauge" Trap (TSPSC FAVOURITE)

 Barometer: Device that measures atmospheric pressure.

 TSPSC Trap: Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 101.3 kPa = 760 mm Hg = 10.33 m
of water.

1.3 Ideal Gas Law (The "Perfect" Gas)

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 1)

PART 2: CONSERVATION OF MASS & ENERGY (The "Bread and Butter")

(Micro-keywords: Steady/Unsteady state, Open/Closed systems, General Balance

Equation, Accumulation, Generation, Consumption)

2.1 The General Balance Equation (The "Gold" Formula)

Input – Output + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation

Condition Equation Meaning

Steady State Accumulation = 0 No change with time.

Unsteady State Accumulation ≠ 0 Change with time.

No Chemical Reaction Generation = Consumption = 0 Only mixing/separation.
Reactive System Generation/Consumption ≠ 0 Chemical reaction occurs.

2.2 Types of Systems (TSPSC Loves This)

System Mass Transfer Energy Transfer Analogy

Closed System NO YES Sealed container (gas in cylinder).
Open System YES YES Pipe flowing through a pump.
Isolated System NO NO Thermos flask (ideal).
 2.3 General Energy Balance

For a closed system undergoing a process:

Q – W = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE

 Q: Heat added to system (positive).

 W: Work done by system (positive).
 ΔU: Change in Internal Energy.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 2)

Concept Formula TSPSC Keyword

Steady State Accumulation = 0 Properties do NOT change with time.

Unsteady State Accumulation ≠ 0 Properties change with time.

Closed System No mass transfer Also called Control Mass.
Open System Mass & Energy transfer Also called Control Volume.

General Balance In - Out + Gen - Cons = Acc Applies to mass, energy, and species.

PART 3: MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS (The "Counting" Part)

(Micro-keywords: Basis, Mole fraction, Mass fraction, Tie component, Recycle, Bypass,
Purge, Degree of Freedom, Extent of Reaction, Limiting Reactant, Excess Reactant,
Conversion, Yield, Selectivity)

3.1 Composition Measurements

 3.2 Tie Component (The "Detective" Tool)

 Definition: A component that enters a process in ONLY ONE stream and leaves in
ONLY ONE stream, and does NOT react.
 Purpose: Used to relate unknown flow rates by tracking an inert (non-reactive)
component.
 Example: Nitrogen in combustion air (passes through unreacted). We can use N₂ as a
tie component to calculate the flow of flue gases.

3.3 Recycle, Bypass, and Purge (The "Recycling" Trio)

Concept Definition TSPSC Keyword / Purpose

Recycle Unreacted material is sent back Increases overall conversion.
from downstream to upstream. Saves expensive reactants.
Bypass A stream that skips one or more Controls composition &
process units. temperature.
Purge A stream bled off to remove Prevents accumulation of inerts
inert/impurity build-up. in recycle loop.

Key Formulas for Recycle Reactors:

 Relationship: Overall conversion is always higher than single-pass conversion when

recycle is present.

3.4 Degree of Freedom Analysis (The "Check" before Solving)

 Degree of Freedom (DOF) = Number of Unknown Variables - Number of

Independent Equations.
 DOF = 0: Problem is solvable uniquely.
 DOF > 0: Problem is under-specified (more unknowns than equations).
 DOF < 0: Problem is over-specified (more equations than unknowns).
 Types of Equations:
o Independent material balances (one for each species or element).
o Explicit relations (e.g., "product to feed ratio is 0.5").
o Implicit relations (e.g., sum of mole fractions = 1).

3.5 Extent of Reaction (The "How Much Reacted" Measure)

 Definition: A measure of how much reaction has occurred.

 Use: Extent of reaction is the SAME regardless of which species you use to calculate
it!

3.6 Limiting Reactant, Excess Reactant, Conversion, Yield, Selectivity (The

"Reaction" Terms)
 ⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 3)

PART 4: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (The "Energy Accounting")

*(Micro-keywords: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Heat Capacity, Cp vs Cv, Work, SFEE,

Throttling, Joules Experiment, PMM-1)*

4.1 Internal Energy (U) & Enthalpy (H)

 Internal Energy (U): Energy stored within molecules (vibration, rotation, translation).
It is a state function (depends only on state, not path).
 Enthalpy (H): H=U+PV. Often called the "heat content." For flowing fluids, we use
enthalpy instead of internal energy.
4.3 First Law of Thermodynamics (The "Energy is Conserved" Law)

For a Closed System undergoing a process:

 4.5 Throttling Process (The "Porous Plug" Experiment)

4.6 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind (PMM-1)

 Definition: A hypothetical machine that produces work without any energy input
(violates First Law).
 TSPSC Keyword: PMM-1 is impossible because it violates the First Law of
Thermodynamics.

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 4)

 PART 5: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (The "Direction" Law)

*(Micro-keywords: Kelvin-Planck, Clausius, Heat Engine, Heat Pump, Refrigerator,

COP, Carnot Cycle, Clausius Inequality, Entropy, Isolated System Entropy, Reversible
vs Irreversible, PMM-2, Entropy Generation)*

5.1 Kelvin-Planck Statement (Heat Engine)

 "It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the extraction of heat from a single thermal reservoir and
the performance of an equivalent amount of work."
 TSPSC Meaning: You CANNOT have 100% efficient heat engine. Some heat MUST be
rejected to a sink.

5.2 Clausius Statement (Refrigerator)

 "It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a colder body to a hotter body."
 TSPSC Meaning: Heat does NOT flow spontaneously from cold to hot. You MUST
put work in (refrigerator/AC).

5.3 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements

 TSPSC Keyword: Both statements are equivalent. Violating one means violating the
other.

5.4 Heat Engine, Heat Pump, and Refrigerator

 5.5 Clausius Inequality (The "Entropy" Test)

 = 0: Reversible cycle (ideal).

 < 0: Irreversible cycle (real).
 > 0: Impossible cycle.

5.8 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind (PMM-2)

 Definition: A hypothetical machine that extracts heat from a single reservoir and
converts it entirely to work (violates Second Law).
 TSPSC Keyword: PMM-2 is impossible because it violates the Kelvin-Planck
statement of the Second Law.
⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 5)
PART 6: EQUATIONS OF STATE & THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF REAL

SYSTEMS
(Micro-keywords: Equation of State, Residual Properties, Fugacity, Fugacity Coefficient,
Activity Coefficient, Excess Properties, Partial Molar Properties, Phase Equilibria, VLE,
Chemical Reaction Equilibrium)

6.1 Equations of State (The "PVT" Relations)

⚡ TSPSC Exam-Ready Summary Box (Part 6)
🛡️ THE "0.001 MARK" GUARANTEE (The Final Index)