Irrigation engineering

Module 1
The perspective and objectives of
irrigation
 Vast improvements in agricultural
production and assure the economic
vitality of the region.
 Provide the basis of society and enhance
the security of people.
 Estimates have it that as little as 15-20
percent of the worldwide total cultivated
area is irrigated.
Effective agronomic practices essential to
irrigated systems include;
 Management of the soil fertility,
 cropping selection and rotation,
 pest control may make as much
incremental difference in yield as the
irrigation water itself.
 Irrigation implication
 drainage,
 soil reclamation, and
 erosion control.
When any of these factors are ignored
through either a lack of understanding or
planning, agricultural productivity will decline.
(History is absolutely certain on this point
Bura project, West Kano and Mwea).
 Prevailing status
 generally poor efficiency with which water resources have been
used for irrigation.
 A safe estimate is that 40 percent or more of the water diverted for
irrigation is lost through either deep percolation or surface runoff.
 These losses may not be lost when one views water use in the
regional context, since return flows become part of the usable
resource elsewhere. However, these losses often represent foregone
opportunities for water because they delay the arrival of water at
downstream diversions and because they almost universally
produce poorer quality water.
 One of the more evident problems in the future is the growth of
alternative demands for water such as urban and industrial needs.
These uses place a higher value on water resources and therefore
tend to focus attention on wasteful practices. Irrigation science in
the future will undoubtedly face the problem of maximizing
efficiency.
Merits of Irrigation
 Irrigation in arid areas of the world provides
two essential agricultural requirements:
 a moisture supply for plant growth which also
transports essential nutrients; and
 a flow of water to leach or dilute salts in the
soil.
 Irrigation also benefits croplands through
cooling the soil and the atmosphere to create
a more favourable environment for plant
growth.
 Merits of Irrigation (2)
 The method, frequency and duration of
irrigations have significant effects on crop yield
and farm productivity.
 For example, annual crops may not germinate
when the surface is inundated causing a crust to
form over the seed bed. After emergence,
inadequate soil moisture can often reduce yields,
particularly if the stress occurs during critical
periods. Even though the most important
objective of irrigation is to maintain the soil
moisture reservoir, how this is accomplished is an
important consideration.
 Merits of Irrigation (3)
 The technology of irrigation is more complex
than many appreciate. It is important that the
scope of irrigation science not be limited to
diversion and conveyance systems, nor solely to
the irrigated field, nor only to the drainage
pathways. Irrigation is a system extending across
many technical and non-technical disciplines. It
only works efficiently and continually when all the
components are integrated smoothly.
IRRIGATION METHODS
AND THEIR SELECTION
 Broad classes of irrigation systems:
There are three
(1) Pressurized distribution; sprinkler, trickle, and the array of
similar systems in which water is conveyed to and distributed
over the farmland through pressurized pipe networks.
(2) Gravity flow distribution; systems convey and distribute water
at the field level by a free surface, overland flow regime
(3) Drainage flow distribution. Irrigation by control of the
drainage system, subirrigation, is not common but is
interesting conceptually. Relatively large volumes of applied
irrigation water percolate through the root zone and become a
drainage or groundwater flow.
By controlling the flow at critical points, it is possible to raise the
level of the groundwater to within reach of the crop roots.
Irrigation in the World Today
 275 Million hectares +
 18% of cultivated land, 40% of agricultural
production, 60% of cereal production
 50% agency management, 20% local
groups, 30% individual farmers
 Irrigated agriculture 2 to 4 times more
productive than rainfed agriculture
Why Irrigation …..
 It supported the green revolution in Asia,
 Secures food security, and ...
 Higher incomes for farmers, agro-
entrepreneurs, and others through ...
 Direct and indirect employment, and trade
opportunities.
 In Kenya, only 18% of the irrigation
potential has been tapped…..
 Overview of irrigation methods
Irrigation methods vary in different parts of the country and on
different farms within a community because of various differences of:

Soil Topography
Water supply
Crops • Information
Financial
resources
Service Customs
 Overview of irrigation methods
100%

trickle/drip
The four basic methods of
applying water to the soil are:
micro-
arranged according to irrigation

Efficiency
their average efficiency
subsurface

sprinkler

surface
50%

After: FAO 2000

 Surface irrigation techniques

Basin Irrigation Furrow Irrigation Border Irrigation

• Requires land levelling

• Uneven water application over the irrigated area.
• Deep percolation losses.
• High evaporation losses
• Waterborne diseases
• LOW WATER PRODUCTIVITY
After: FAO 2000
 Sprinkler systems
Permanent systems Semi-permanent systems Fully portable systems
• The mains and sub-mains
• All distribution pipelines are
are usually permanently in
• All components, including
permanently in place. place and buried. the pump unit, are portable.
• Pipes are mostly buried for • Sprinklers and risers are •Require relatively low initial
protection and to facilitate traffic. connected to portable steel,
aluminum or plastic laterals. costs but a high labor supply.
 Pivot-Irrigation

The Center Pivot System applies

water from a continuously
moving lateral pipe.

A ‚Moving Line‘

After: FAO 2000

 Micro-Sprinklers

Micro-sprinkler irrigating A line of micro-sprinkler irrigating a citrus

a flower bed orchard

After: FAO 2000

 Drip irrigation systems
Drip / trickle irrigation is characterized by:
low flow rate,
 long duration irrigation,
 frequent irrigation,
 water applied near or into
plant’s root zone, and
 Low-pressure delivery systems.

The most
important
part: The
filter

After: FAO 2000

Illustration of a simple drip system

[Link]
After: FAO 2000
 Pitcher Irrigation

Using pitcher irrigation for plants/trees

with deeper roots
The water in the jar is
kept at a depth of 20-30 cm.
The roots penetrate in
depth, in search of
moisture.
The top of the pitchers
can be glazed to make the
surface impermeable, in
which case the water oozes
only through the lower
walls.
 Subsurface Irrigation: Vertical Pipe Method

The water
The water is supplied by pouring it into the vertical distribution depends
pipe to supply the rootzone with water. on soil texture and
To avoid evaporation, the surface is covered with a plastic soil layers
film.
After: FAO 2000
Subsurface irrigation: Vertical Pipe with pitcher pot
Water inlet pipe Efficient sub-surface irrigation of
olive tree with 1 vertical pipe gravel-
Pipe-gravel pocket water release system (Tunisia).
pocket
H water
30-40 cm release
system

Lining to avoid deep

percolation Water inlet pipe
Vertical pipe cover
Photo: Prinz ( April 2001)
THEIR SELECTION
• Compatibility
• Economics
• Topographical characteristics
• Soils
• Water supply
• Crops
• Social influences
• External influences
 Compatibility
 The irrigation system for a field or a farm must
function alongside other farm operations such as
land preparation, cultivation, and harvesting.
 The use of the large mechanized equipment
requires longer and wider fields.
 The irrigation systems must not interfere with
these operations and may need to be portable or
function primarily outside the crop boundaries
(i.e. surface irrigation systems).
 Smaller equipment or animal-powered cultivating
equipment is more suitable for small fields and
more permanent irrigation facilities
 Economics
 The type of irrigation system selected is an important
economic decision.
 Some types of pressurized systems have high capital and
operating costs but may utilize minimal labour and conserve
water. (Their use tends toward high value cropping patterns).
 Other systems are relatively less expensive to construct and
operate but have high labour requirements.
 Some systems are limited by the type of soil or the
topography found on a field.
 The costs of maintenance and expected life of the
rehabilitation along with an array of annual costs like energy,
water, depreciation, land preparation, maintenance, labour
and taxes should be included in the selection of an irrigation
system.
 Topographical characteristics
 Topography is a major factor affecting irrigation,
particularly surface irrigation.
 Of general concern are the location and
elevation of the water supply relative to the field
boundaries, the area and configuration of the
fields, and access by roads, utility lines (gas,
electricity, water, etc.), and migrating herds
whether wild or domestic.
 Field slope and its uniformity are two of the most
important topographical factors.
 Surface systems, for instance, require uniform
grades in the 0-5 percent range.
 Soils
 The soil's moisture-holding capacity, intake rate and depth are the
principal criteria affecting the type of system selected.
 Sandy soils typically have high intake rates and low soil moisture
storage capacities and may require an entirely different irrigation
strategy than the deep clay soil with low infiltration rates but high
moisture-storage capacities.
 Sandy soil requires more frequent, smaller applications of water
whereas clay soils can be irrigated less frequently and to a larger depth.
 The physical, biological and chemical interactions of soil and water
influence the hydraulic characteristics and filth.
 The mix of silt in a soil influences crusting and erodibility and should
be considered in each design. The soil influences crusting and
erodibility and should be considered in each design.
 The distribution of soils may vary widely over a field and may be an
important limitation on some methods of applying irrigation water.
 Water supply
 The quality and quantity of the source of water can have a significant
impact on the irrigation practices.
 Crop water demands are continuous during the growing season. The
soil moisture reservoir transforms this continuous demand into a
periodic one which the irrigation system can service.
 A water supply with a relatively small discharge is best utilized in an
irrigation system which incorporates frequent applications.
 The depths applied per irrigation would tend to be smaller under
these systems than under systems having a large discharge which is
available less frequently. The quality of water affects decisions
similarly.
 Salinity is generally the most significant problem but other elements
like boron or selenium can be important. A poor quality water
supply must be utilized more frequently and in larger amounts than
one of good quality.
 Crops
 The yields of many crops may be as much affected by
how water is applied as the quantity delivered.
 Irrigation systems create different environmental
conditions such as humidity, temperature, and soil
aeration. They affect the plant differently by wetting
different parts of the plant thereby introducing various
undesirable consequences like leaf burn, fruit spotting
and deformation, crown rot, etc.
 Rice, on the other hand, thrives under ponded
conditions. Some crops have high economic value and
allow the application of more capital-intensive practices.
 Deep-rooted crops are more amenable to low-
frequency, high-application rate systems than shallow-
rooted crops.
 Social influences
 Beyond the confines of the individual field, irrigation is a community enterprise.
Individuals, groups of individuals, and often the state must join together to construct,
operate and maintain the irrigation system as a whole.
 Within a typical irrigation system there are three levels of community organization.
◦ There is the individual or small informal group of individuals at the field and tertiary level of
conveyance and distribution.
◦ There are the farmer collectives or cooperatives. These assume, in addition to operation and
maintenance, responsibility for allocation and conflict resolution.
◦ And then there is the state organization responsible for the water distribution and use at the project
level.
 Irrigation system designers should be aware that perhaps the most important goal of
the irrigation community at all levels is the assurance of equity among its members.
Thus the operation, if not always the structure, of the irrigation system will tend to
mirror the community view of sharing and allocation.
 Irrigation often means a technological intervention in the agricultural system even if
irrigation has been practiced locally for generations. New technologies mean new
operation and maintenance practices. If the community is not sufficiently adaptable
to change, some irrigation systems will not succeed.
 External influences
 Conditions outside the sphere of agriculture affect and
even dictate the type of system selected. For example,
national policies regarding foreign exchange,
strengthening specific sectors of the local economy, or
sufficiency in particular industries may lead to specific
irrigation systems being utilized. Key components in the
manufacture or importation of system elements may
not be available or cannot be efficiently serviced. Since
many irrigation projects are financed by outside donors
and lenders, specific system configurations may be
precluded because of international policies and
attitudes.
Surface irrigation structures
 Are on- and off-farm structures which
control and manage the flow and its
energy.
 For efficiency of surface irrigation, these
structures should be easily and cheaply
constructed as well as easy to manage and
maintain.
 Each should be standardized for mass
production and fabrication in the field by
farmers and technicians.
 The structural elements of a surface system
perform several important functions which
include:
 turning the flow to a field on and off;
 conveying and distributing the flow among
fields;
 water measurement, sediment and debris
removal, water level stabilization;
 distribution of water onto the field.
Typical turnout from a canal or
lateral
Typical turnout from a canal or
lateral
Typical check-divider
Head ditch outlets for borders and
basins
a simple drop structure