Chapter 5

Normal Shock waves

Course Title: Compressible Flow and Propulsion System

Course Code: (ME-417)
Introduction
• A shock wave represents an abrupt change in fluid properties, in which finite
variations in pressure, temperature, and density occur over a shock thickness
comparable with the mean free path of the gas molecules involved.
• Also, it will be shown that shock wave can only be a compression type, and a
rarefaction shock which requires a decrease in entropy, in an adiabatic process is
not possible.
• It is known that supersonic flows adjusts to the presence of a body by means of
the shock process, whereas subsonic flow can adjust by gradual changes in flow
properties.
• The compression of a gas across a shock wave is instantaneous and it can’t be a
reversible process. Because of irreversibility, the kinetic gas of the gas leaving the
shock wave is smaller than that of the isentropic compression between the same
pressure points.
Introduction
• The reduction in kinetic energy due to the shock appears as heating of the gas to a
static temperature, above that corresponding to the isentropic compression value.
• Consequently, as a gas flows through the shock wave, it experiences decrease in
available energy and increase in its entropy.
Development of a compression wave
• When a piston in a tube is given a steady
velocity, to the right of magnitude dV, a sound
wave travel ahead of a piston, through the
medium in the tube.
• Suppose that the piston is now given a second
increment of velocity, dV, causing a second wave
to move into the compressed gas behind the first
wave.
• The location of these waves are shown in figure
5.1 (b).
• The first and second waves, created by the
acceleration of the piston, travel respectively at
speed of sound a1 and a2, with respect to the gas
into which they are moving.
Development of a compression wave
• Since the second wave is moving into a
compressed gas with a slightly elevated
temperature, then a2 is greater than a1.
• The first wave is moving in stationary gas so the
absolute velocity of this wave is a1. However,
the second wave is moving into a gas which is
already moving to the right at a velocity dV, and
therefore the absolute velocity of the second
wave is a2+dV.
• Hence, the second wave moves faster than the
first and gradually gets closer at time t=t2 as
shown in figure 5.1 (c).
Development of a compression wave
• Now suppose that a piston is accelerated from rest to a finite velocity increment of
magnitude ∆V to the right.
• The finite velocity increment can be thought to consists of a large number of
infinitesimal increments each of magnitude dV.
• Figure 5.2 shows the velocity of piston versus time with the incremental velocity
superimposed.
Development of a compression wave
• The corresponding location of the waves and
pressure distribution in tube, at t=t1 are shown
in figure 5.3 (a).
• The first wave of the series of waves is called
head while the last is known as tail.
• As was demonstrated that the waves next to
the piston tend to overtake those further down
the tube as shown in figure 5.3 (b) and (c) at
time t=t2 and t=t3 respectively.
• The present analysis ceases to be valid,
because the viscous and heat transfer effects
are no longer negligible with such
extraordinary gradients in the velocity and
temperature along the wave.
Development of a compression wave
• Indeed, if the isentropic analysis were
continued up to t=t4, the wave would topple
over to the form shown by the dashed lines in
figure 5.3 (d).
• This is physically absurd, since it means that
at the same time and at the same location, the
fluid has simultaneously three different values
of pressure, density and velocity.
• Therefore, viscous and heat conduction effects
intervene soon after t=t3 and produce a normal
shock wave at t=t4.
• The thickness of the shock wave is
approximately 2.5 x10-7 m , so the pressure
and temperature along the wave are very large,
yet not truly infinite.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• The flow through a stationary normal shock wave may be analyzed by considering
one-dimensional flow.
• In the analysis following assumptions are made:
1. The normal shock wave is perpendicular to the streamlines.
2. The normal shock take place at a constant cross-sectional area, since the shock
thickness is very small, compared with the dimensions of the duct.
3. Although the shear stress is present within the boundary layer, it acts on a very
small area since the shock wave is very thin. For this reason, frictional effects
are negligible.
4. The flow process, including the shock waves, can be assumed adiabatic with no
external work, and the effects of the body forces are negligible, since the shock
wave is very thin.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
Continuity Equation
𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝒙 𝑨𝒙 𝑽𝒙 = 𝝆𝒚 𝑨𝒚 𝑽𝒚
Since 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑦 , the mass flow rate per unit area or the mass flux is given by
ሶ
𝑮 = 𝒎/𝑨 = 𝝆𝒙 𝑽𝒙 = 𝝆𝒚 𝑽𝒚
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
Momentum Equation
Since the flow across the normal shock wave is assumed to be frictionless, the pressure forces
acting on the control volume of figure 5.5 must be balanced by the rate of change of momentum
across the control volume.
𝒑𝒙 𝑨𝒙 − 𝒑𝒚 𝑨𝒚 = 𝝆𝒚 𝑨𝒚 𝑽𝟐𝒚 − 𝝆𝒙 𝑨𝒙 𝑽𝟐𝒙

𝒑𝒙 − 𝒑𝒚 = 𝑮(𝑽𝒚 − 𝑽𝒙 )
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
Energy Equation
For an adiabatic process across a normal shock wave with no external work the first law of
thermodynamics becomes
𝑽𝟐𝒙 𝑽𝟐𝒚
𝒉𝒐𝒙 = 𝒉𝒙 + = 𝒉𝒚 + = 𝒉𝒐𝒚 = 𝒉𝒐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
The second law of thermodynamics
The flow through a normal shock wave is irreversible, because of the almost discontinuous
property changes across the shock wave, Thus,
𝒔𝒚 > 𝒔𝒙

Equation of state
For any fluid, the equation of state may be given as
𝒉 = 𝒉(𝒔, 𝒑)
and
𝒔 = 𝒔(𝒑, 𝝆)
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• Typically, the fluid / flow properties before the shock are known and the
conditions that exist after the shock need to be predicted.
• The unknown parameters are four in number (ρ2, p2, h2, V2).
• The four unknowns can be found through the use of the three governing equations
(from continuity, energy, and momentum concepts) if property relations are
known.
• For the case of a perfect gas, equation of state is known. If specific heats are
assumed constant, working equations in terms of Mach numbers and the specific
heat ratio can be obtained.
• For a perfect gas enthalpy is a function of temperature only. The energy and
momentum equations can be written as:
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
𝑻𝒕𝟏 = 𝑻𝒕𝟐
𝜸−𝟏 𝟐 𝜸−𝟏 𝟐
𝑻𝟏 𝟏+ 𝑴𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐 (1)
𝟐 𝟐

𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐
𝒑𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐𝟏 𝜸𝑹𝑻𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝑴𝟐𝟐 𝜸𝑹𝑻𝟐
𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 (2)
𝒑𝟏 𝟏 + 𝜸𝑴𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜸𝑴𝟐
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• Using definition of Mach number, velocity of sound and equation of state, the
continuity equation for perfect gas is
𝒑𝟏 𝑴𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑴𝟐
= (3)
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
• Once the gas is identified, γ is known, and a state preceding the shock is given in
terms of p1, M1, and T1, equations 1-3 are sufficient to solve for the unknowns
after the shock: p2, M2, and T2.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• The equation can be simplified as:

(4)
• In the previous section, it was shown that

• From above two equations we can obtain

• This relation is known as Prandtl’s relation. This can be written in terms of

velocities a*, V1 and V2.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
(5)

• Since a1∗= a2∗. The proof is given below. The total temperature is

• For the critical case the above equation becomes

• Where 𝑎∗ = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∗ , Eliminating T*

General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave

• Since total temperature after shock does not change then a1∗ = a2∗. This proves
equation (5)

• By solving (4) and (1), (2) and eliminating M2 we get

(6)

(7)
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• From continuity equation and total pressure relation along with (4) gives

(8)

(9)

• The end points 1 and 2 (before and after the shock) are well-defined states, but the
changes that occur within the shock do not follow an equilibrium process in the
usual thermodynamic sense.
• For this reason, the shock process is usually shown by a dashed or wiggly line.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• Note that when points 1 and 2 are located on the T–s diagram, it can immediately
be seen that an entropy change is involved in the shock process i.e., s2 > s1.
• The reason is that the flow through the shock is adiabatic but irreversible.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• For isentropic flow, the area at which Mach number is unity is defined as A ,
*

which is used as a reference. Since shock is non-isentropic, areas downstream of

the shock cannot be referenced to the area upstream of the shock i.e. A1∗ ≠ A2∗.
• For steady flow however mass flow rates are equal. m1 = m2
• It was shown in previous chapter

• Or

• Since flow is adiabatic across a shock wave Tt1 = Tt2.

General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• For entropy changes some important relations that come from combinations of the
first and second laws can be used.

(10)
• Differentiating the enthalpy h = u + pv
(11)
• Combining equations (10) and (11) we get
(12)
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• Although the assumption of a reversible process is made to derive equations (10)
and (12), the results are equations that contain only properties and thus are valid
relations to use between any end states, whether reached reversibly or not.
• For ideal gas h = CpT and v = RT/P. We get

• Using following relations

General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• After simplifications
(13)
• The changes in various properties due to shock as given in equations (4), (6-9),
and (13) are shown in graphical form.
• The conservation of mass and energy relations can be combined into a single
equation and plotted on an h-s diagram, using property relations.
• The resultant curve is called the Fanno line, and it is the locus of states that have
the same value of stagnation enthalpy and mass flux (mass flow per unit flow
area).
• Likewise, combining the conservation of mass and momentum equations into a
single equation and plotting it on the h-s diagram yield a curve called the Rayleigh
line.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• Both these lines are shown on the h-s diagram in Figure. As will be proved later,
the points of maximum entropy on these lines (points a and b) correspond to M =
1.
• The state on the upper part of each curve is subsonic and on the lower part
supersonic.
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• The Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersect at two points (points 1 and 2), which
represent the two states at which all three conservation equations are satisfied.
• One of these (state 1) corresponds to the state before the shock, and the other
(state 2) corresponds to the state after the shock.
• Note that the flow is supersonic before the shock and subsonic afterward.
Therefore the flow must change from supersonic to subsonic if a shock is to occur.
• The larger the Mach number before the shock, the stronger the shock will be.
From equation (9) and (13)
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
(14)
• The above equation shows that for 1 > γ >1.66, the entropy change is always
positive when M1 > 1. Therefore, for a perfect gas, shock proceeds from
supersonic to subsonic.
Rankine-Hugoniot relation
• The equation relating the pressure and density ratios (for the normal shock) is
called Rankine-Hugoniot relation.
• Hugoniot equation provides a relation in terms of thermodynamic quantities across
the shock without inclusion of velocity / Mach number.
• From equation (7) and (8), eliminating M1 we get
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
(15)
• The isentropic relation between pressure and
density is

(16)
• Figure shows the pressure-density variation for
isentropic process (Eq. 16) and for normal shock
(Eq. 15).
General Equations for the flow across a normal
shock wave
• The figure shows that
(i) for a given change in specific volume / density, a shock wave results in higher
pressure than an isentropic compression

(ii) weak shocks are nearly isentropic.

• The shock wave, however increases entropy and consequent total pressure loss,
i.e., the shock compression is less efficient than the isentropic compression
An airstream with a velocity of 500 m/s, a static pressure of 70 kPa and a static
temperature of 300 K undergoes a normal shock, as shown in figure. Determine
a. The Mach number and velocity after the normal shock wave,
b. The static conditions after the normal shock wave,
c. The stagnation conditions after the normal shock wave, and
d. The entropy change across the normal shock wave
Air approaches a normal shock wave with a Mach number of 3.0.
The stagnation temperature and the stagnation pressure of the
airstream are 700 K and 500 kPa, respectively. Determine the
temperature and the velocity of the air leaving the normal shock
wave and the entropy change across the normal shock wave.
Operation of supersonic diffusers

• When the flow at the entrance to a converging and diverging duct is supersonic,
the fluid may be slowed down to Mach number of unity or greater at the throat.
• If sonic conditions are achieved, the fluid may either expand again to supersonic
speed or can be compressed at subsonic speeds. In the latter case the device is
called supersonic diffuser.
• It is used in supersonic wind tunnels and in engine intake.
• A simple supersonic wind tunnel can be constructed using a converging diverging
nozzle and a test section. If back pressure is sufficiently reduced the flow will be
supersonic in the test section.
Operation of supersonic diffusers
• Even though the construction of such type of unit is simple but power
consumption will be high due to large pressure variation.
• For this reason, supersonic diffuser is used to decelerate the fluid to subsonic
speed.
• The air is drawn from a large reservoir where the stagnation temperature and
pressure are Tt and Pt.
• The wind tunnel discharges into another reservoir where the back pressure is pb.
The back pressure is controllable by means of a fan.
Operation of supersonic diffusers
Operation of supersonic diffusers
• Several pressure distributions are possible as the wind tunnel is started and back pressure is
reduced.
(1) No flow condition (Pb = Pti) e.g. when the fan is not operating
(2) Subsonic flow in test sections and both converging-diverging ducts. Fluid accelerates in
converging sections and decelerates in diverging sections.
(3) Choking - This occurs when fan speed is further increased. The flow becomes choked in the
duct which has smaller diameter throat. If second throat is smaller then flow is choked in second
one and the flow is subsonic in test section.
(4) To obtain supersonic flow in test section, the first throat should be smaller. When back
pressure is reduced further, normal shock occurs in the diverging portion of the first nozzle
(5-7)Unfavorable condition, the shock occurs in the test section (beginning i.e. 5 or end i.e. 7) at
the highest possible Mach number and thus the losses are greatest
(8-10) With further decrease of back pressure, shock location proceeds to second converging
diverging duct which now acts like a supersonic diffuser.
Shock stabilizes in the diverging section diffuser. Flow pattern 10 is most favorable which is
obtained by increasing the back pressure to adjust the location of shock slightly downstream of
the throat.
An airstream with a Mach Number of 2.0, a pressure of 150 kPa and a temperature
of 350 K enters a diverging channel. If the ratio of the exit cross-sectional area to
the inlet cross-sectional is 3.0, determine the back pressure which is necessary to
produce a normal shock wave in the channel with a cross-sectional area equal to
twice the inlet cross-sectional area. Assume steady one dimensional isentropic flow
except through the normal shock wave.

x y

Pi=150 kPa Flow Ax=Ay =2A

Ti=350 K Ae=3Ai
Mi=2.0
Moving Normal Shock
• In many situations a normal shock wave is moving. When an explosion occurs,
shock wave propagates through the atmosphere from the point of explosion.
• Consider a normal shock wave moving in a stationary gas at a constant velocity Vs
with respect to a fixed observer. The conditions before and after shock are ‘b’ and
‘a’ respectively.
• Va is the velocity of gas behind the shock wave with respect to fixed observer.
Moving Normal Shock
• Now suppose the observer is moving with shock wave velocity. Now the shock
will be stationary with respect to observer.
• Static properties are defined as those measured by a device which is moving with
absolute flow velocity. Therefore, static properties are independent of observer
velocity. This means
Moving Normal Shock
• Velocity and Mach number before and after the normal shock will be Vx = Vs and
Vy = Vs – Va

• Stagnation properties are measured by bringing the flow to rest with respect to
observer.
• These properties thus depend on observer velocity. The stagnation temperature of
fluid can change across a moving normal shock wave.
Moving Normal Shock
• The difference is:

• But Vb = 0

• For stationary normal shock (which is obtained by moving the observer),

stagnation temperature will be same.

• Solving (A), (B) and (C)

A normal shock wave moves at a constant velocity of 500 m/s into still air with a
temperature and pressure of 300 K and 100 kPa respectively (Figure). Determine
the static and stagnation conditions present in the air after the passage of the wave,
as well as the gas velocity behind the wave.