TERNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated to University of Mumbai)

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Semester III — Second Year Engineering

Subjective Notes and Solved Numericals

Module 1: Fundamental Concepts of Stress and Strain
Module 2: Shaft Mechanics and Beam Mechanics

Reference Text: "Strength of Materials" by R.K. Rattan (S.S. Rattan), Tata McGraw-Hill Education
Prepared for classroom instruction and student self-study

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MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

1.1 Introduction
Strength of Materials, also known as Mechanics of Solids, deals with the study of the behaviour of structural
and machine members when subjected to external loads. Every engineering member — a shaft, beam, column
or bracket — must be designed so that it neither fails nor deforms excessively while in service. The subject
provides the analytical tools (stress, strain, elastic constants and their inter-relations) that let an engineer size
a component safely and economically. This module builds the fundamental vocabulary of stress and strain that
is used throughout the course.

1.2 Types of Loads

A load is any external force or system of forces acting on a body. Depending on how it is applied, a load
produces a characteristic type of internal resistance in the material. The four basic load types encountered in
this course are:

● Axial (Direct) Load — acts along the longitudinal axis of the member, tending to elongate it (tensile
load) or shorten it (compressive load). Example: a bar hanging a weight, a column carrying roof load.
● Shear Load — a pair of equal, opposite and closely-spaced forces acting transverse to the axis of the
member, tending to slide one section of the material over the adjacent section. Example: a rivet or bolt
in a lap joint, a pin in a clevis.
● Bending (Flexural) Load — a transverse load or couple applied to a beam that tends to bend the axis of
the member, producing tension on one face and compression on the other. Example: a simply
supported beam carrying a slab load.
● Torsional Load — a couple (torque) applied about the longitudinal axis of the member, tending to twist
it. Example: an automobile drive shaft, a machine spindle transmitting power.
Note: A single practical member is very often subjected to a combination of these basic loads simultaneously —
for example, a shaft transmitting power is under torsion as well as bending due to its self-weight and pulley loads
(see Section 2.9, Combined Bending and Torsion).

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1.3 Concept of Stress
When a body is acted upon by external forces, internal resisting forces are set up within the material to balance
the external effect. Stress is defined as the internal resisting force per unit cross-sectional area.

Stress, σ (or τ) = Internal Resisting Force (P) / Cross-sectional Area (A) [Units: N/m², commonly
N/mm² or MPa]

Depending on the direction of the resisting force relative to the plane on which it acts, stress is classified as
follows:

1.3.1 Normal Stress (σ)

Normal stress acts perpendicular (normal) to the cross-sectional plane. It is further divided into:

● Tensile stress — resisting force acts away from the surface, tending to elongate the member (σ = P/A,
member increases in length).
● Compressive stress — resisting force acts into the surface, tending to shorten the member.

1.3.2 Shear Stress (τ)

Shear stress acts tangential (parallel) to the cross-sectional plane. It arises when the applied forces tend to
slide one part of the material relative to the adjacent part, as in riveted and bolted joints, keys, and punching
operations.

τ = Shear Force / Shear Area = P / A

1.3.3 Bearing Stress (σb)

Bearing stress is a compressive stress that develops at the surface of contact between two interacting
members, such as between a bolt shank and the wall of the hole it passes through, or between a pin and its
bracket. It is calculated using the projected area of contact, not the curved surface area.
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 σb = P / (d × t) where d = pin/bolt diameter, t = thickness of the plate in bearing

1.3.4 Thermal Stress

When the temperature of a body changes, the material tends to expand (on heating) or contract (on cooling).
If this deformation is completely or partially prevented by external constraints (fixed supports, another
material bonded to it), internal stresses are induced even though no external mechanical load is applied. These
are called thermal or temperature stresses, discussed in detail in Section 1.9.

1.4 Concept of Strain

Strain is the measure of deformation of a body representing the displacement between particles relative to a
reference length. It is a dimensionless quantity (ratio of two lengths).

1.4.1 Normal (Linear) Strain, ε

ε = Change in length (δL) / Original length (L)

Tensile strain is positive (elongation); compressive strain is negative (shortening).

1.4.2 Shear Strain, γ

Shear strain is the angular distortion produced in a body when subjected to shear stress. It is measured as the
change in the right angle (in radians) between two originally perpendicular line elements at a point.

γ = δs / L ≈ tan φ ≈ φ (in radians, for small deformations)

1.4.3 Poisson's Ratio, μ (or ν)

When a member is stretched axially, it elongates in the direction of load but simultaneously contracts in the
lateral (transverse) directions; the reverse happens under compression. The ratio of lateral strain to the
corresponding longitudinal strain, within the elastic limit, is a constant for a given material and is called
Poisson's ratio.

μ = − (Lateral strain) / (Longitudinal strain) = εlat / εlong

For most engineering metals, μ lies between 0.25 and 0.35 (e.g., steel ≈ 0.28–0.30, aluminium ≈ 0.33). Its
theoretical limits for an isotropic elastic material are 0 ≤ μ ≤ 0.5.

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1.5 Stress–Strain Diagram
A stress–strain curve is obtained by plotting the stress developed in a standard test specimen against the
corresponding strain, as recorded during a uniaxial tensile (or compression) test on a Universal Testing
Machine (UTM). The shape of this curve is the primary means of classifying and characterising engineering
materials.

1.5.1 Stress–Strain Curve for a Ductile Material (Mild Steel)

The curve for mild steel, a typical ductile material, exhibits the following salient points, taken in sequence as
load is gradually increased:

● Limit of Proportionality (A) — up to this point stress is directly proportional to strain and Hooke's Law is
obeyed; the curve is a straight line.
● Elastic Limit (B) — the maximum stress up to which the material returns to its original dimensions
completely on removal of load; slightly beyond A.
● Upper Yield Point (C) — stress at which the material shows a sudden increase in strain without a
corresponding increase in stress; marks the onset of plastic flow.
● Lower Yield Point (D) — the stress remains roughly constant (or drops slightly) while strain increases
considerably; used as the design yield stress, σy.
● Ultimate Tensile Strength, UTS (E) — the maximum stress the material can withstand; beyond this,
necking (local reduction in cross-section) begins.
● Breaking / Fracture Point (F) — the specimen fractures at this stress, which is apparently lower than
UTS because engineering stress is calculated on the original area even though the necked area has
reduced.
Characteristic of ductile materials: A large plastic region exists between the yield point and fracture, giving
considerable warning (visible deformation) before failure, and a high percentage elongation (typically >5–10%).

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1.5.2 Stress–Strain Curve for a Brittle Material (Cast Iron / Concrete)
Brittle materials show little or no yielding. The stress–strain curve is nearly a straight (or slightly curved) line
right up to fracture, which occurs suddenly without any appreciable plastic deformation or necking. There is
no distinct yield point, and the percentage elongation at fracture is very small (often <5%). Cast iron, glass,
ceramics and concrete under tension are typical brittle materials. Because a well-defined yield point does not
exist for such materials, design is instead based on the ultimate strength combined with a suitably large factor
of safety, or an offset (proof) stress method is used.

1.6 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Hooke's Law

1.6.1 Elastic Deformation

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Deformation is termed elastic if the body returns completely to its original size and shape once the load
causing the deformation is removed. All engineering structures are normally designed to operate within this
elastic range.

1.6.2 Plastic Deformation

If the applied stress exceeds the elastic limit, some part of the deformation becomes permanent (residual)
even after the load is removed — this is plastic deformation. It is exploited deliberately in metal-forming
processes (forging, rolling, drawing) but must be avoided in normal structural service.

1.6.3 Hooke's Law

Robert Hooke's Law states that, within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

σ ∝ ε ⟹ σ = E·ε (for normal stress and strain)

where E is a material constant called the Modulus of Elasticity (or Young's Modulus). An identical linear relation
holds between shear stress and shear strain, with the constant of proportionality being the Modulus of
Rigidity, G.

τ = G·γ

1.7 Elastic Constants

Three elastic constants are commonly used to describe the elastic behaviour of an isotropic material under
different types of loading:

1.7.1 Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus), E

Defined as the ratio of normal (direct) stress to the corresponding normal (linear) strain, within the elastic
limit, under axial loading.

E = σ / ε = (P/A) / (δL/L) = PL / (A·δL) [Units: N/mm² or GPa]

Typical value for structural steel: E ≈ 200–210 GPa (2 × 10⁵ N/mm²).

1.7.2 Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus), G

Defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, within the elastic limit.

G=τ/γ [Units: N/mm² or GPa]

Typical value for structural steel: G ≈ 80 GPa.

1.7.3 Bulk Modulus, K

Defined as the ratio of the direct (hydrostatic/volumetric) stress to the volumetric strain, when a body is
subjected to equal, mutually perpendicular direct stresses on all three axes (e.g., a body immersed in fluid
under pressure).

K = Direct stress / Volumetric strain = σ / (δV/V) [Units: N/mm² or GPa]

1.7.4 Relations between the Elastic Constants

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For a homogeneous, isotropic material, the three elastic constants E, G, K and Poisson's ratio μ are inter-
related, so that only two of the four need to be known independently:

E = 2G (1 + μ)
E = 3K (1 − 2μ)
E = 9KG / (3K + G) and μ = (3K − 2G) / (2G + 6K)
Ref.: Rattan, S.S., "Strength of Materials", Ch. 1 & 2 — Simple Stress and Strain.

1.8 Axial Loading and Elastic Deformation

Consider a uniform prismatic bar of length L, cross-sectional area A and Young's modulus E, subjected to an
axial pull (or push) P. Using σ = P/A, ε = δL/L and E = σ/ε, the elongation (or contraction) of the bar can be
obtained directly:

δL = PL / (A·E)

This is the single most-used formula in axial-loading problems. For a stepped bar (different lengths, areas, or
materials in series) carrying the same axial force throughout, the total deformation is the algebraic sum of the
deformation of each segment:

δL(total) = Σ (Pᵢ Lᵢ) / (Aᵢ Eᵢ) = P₁L₁/A₁E₁ + P₂L₂/A₂E₂ + P₃L₃/A₃E₃ + ...

If the bar carries a self-weight or is tapered, the formula must be applied in integral (differential-element)
form; for a uniformly tapering circular bar from diameter d₁ to d₂ under axial load P, the standard closed-form
result is:

δL = 4PL / (π E d₁ d₂)

1.9 Composite (Compound) Bars

A composite bar consists of two or more different materials rigidly fixed together (e.g., by end plates or
bonding) so that they act as a single unit under load, and are compelled to deform by the same amount. Typical
example: a reinforced concrete column, or a steel rod encased in a copper tube.

Two key principles govern the analysis of composite bars carrying a common axial load P:

● Compatibility of deformation — since the materials are rigidly connected, they must undergo the same
total elongation/contraction: δL(1) = δL(2) = ... = δL(common).
● Equilibrium of load — the total external load is shared between the components: P = P₁ + P₂ + ... = σ₁A₁ +
σ₂A₂ + ...
Combining these two conditions (equal strain, since equal length): ε₁ = ε₂ ⟹ σ₁/E₁ = σ₂/E₂, which gives the
load-sharing (modular) ratio between the two materials:

σ₁ / σ₂ = E₁ / E₂ (Modular ratio, m = E₁/E₂)

This relation, together with P = σ₁A₁ + σ₂A₂, is solved simultaneously to find the individual stresses (and hence
loads) carried by each material.

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1.10 Thermal Stresses and Strain Compatibility
When the temperature of a body rises by Δt °C, a free (unrestrained) bar of original length L and coefficient of
linear thermal expansion α would expand by:

Free thermal expansion, δL(free) = α · Δt · L

If this expansion is fully prevented by rigid end supports, the entire free expansion must be nullified by an
equal and opposite elastic (mechanical) compressive strain, i.e., δL(free) = δL(elastic due to induced
compressive stress). Equating the two:

α Δt L = σ L / E ⟹ σ(thermal) = α · Δt · E (fully restrained bar)

Important: Thermal stress does NOT depend on the length of the bar — a longer bar develops the same thermal
stress as a shorter one of the same material and temperature rise, provided expansion is fully prevented, because
L cancels out of the equation.

If the supports yield by a small gap 'δ' (partial restraint), only the balance expansion (α Δt L − δ) is resisted
elastically:

σ(thermal) = E (α Δt L − δ) / L

1.10.1 Thermal Stresses in Composite Bars

When a composite bar made of two materials with different coefficients of expansion (α₁ ≠ α₂) is heated, the
materials tend to expand by different amounts, but being rigidly connected they are forced to expand by the

9
same common amount. The material with the higher α (which wants to expand more) is put into compression,
while the material with the lower α is put into tension. The unknowns are found using: (i) equilibrium — the
compressive force in one material equals the tensile force in the other (net internal force = 0, since no external
load), and (ii) compatibility — both materials reach the same final length.

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1.11 Solved Numericals — Module 1
Problems formulated in the style of, and with reference to, worked examples in Rattan, S.S., "Strength of Materials", Tata McGraw-
Hill (Chapters 1–2: Simple Stress & Strain, Elastic Constants, Composite Bars, Thermal Stresses).

Numerical 1: Stress, strain and elongation of a stepped bar

Given: A steel bar of length 4 m, diameter 30 mm is subjected to an axial tensile load of 60 kN. Take E = 2 ×
10⁵ N/mm². Determine (a) the stress induced, (b) the strain, and (c) the elongation of the bar.
Area, A = (π/4) d² = (π/4)(30)² = 706.86 mm²
(a) Stress, σ = P/A = 60,000 / 706.86 = 84.88 N/mm² = 84.88 MPa
(b) Strain, ε = σ/E = 84.88 / (2×10⁵) = 4.244 × 10⁻⁴ (dimensionless)
(c) Elongation, δL = PL/AE = (60,000 × 4000) / (706.86 × 2×10⁵) = 1.698 mm
Result: σ = 84.88 MPa, ε = 4.244 × 10⁻⁴, δL = 1.698 mm

Numerical 2: Bar of uniformly varying (stepped) cross-section

Given: A steel bar 25 mm diameter for a length of 500 mm, and 50 mm diameter for the remaining length of
800 mm, is subjected to an axial pull of 80 kN. Find the total elongation. Take E = 200 GPa.
A₁ = (π/4)(25)² = 490.87 mm², A₂ = (π/4)(50)² = 1963.5 mm²
δL = P[L₁/A₁ + L₂/A₂] / E = 80,000 × [500/490.87 + 800/1963.5] / (2×10⁵)
= 80,000 × [1.0186 + 0.4074] / (2×10⁵) = 80,000 × 1.4260 / (2×10⁵)
= 114,080 / 200,000 = 0.5704 mm
Result: Total elongation δL ≈ 0.570 mm

Numerical 3: Composite bar — steel and copper in parallel

Given: A load of 500 kN is carried by a short concrete column 400 mm × 400 mm reinforced with 4 steel bars
of 25 mm diameter each. Find the stresses in the concrete and steel. Take Es = 200 GPa, Ec = 14 GPa.
Area of steel, As = 4 × (π/4)(25)² = 1963.5 mm²
Gross area = 400 × 400 = 160,000 mm²; Area of concrete, Ac = 160,000 − 1963.5 = 158,036.5 mm²
Modular ratio, m = Es/Ec = 200/14 = 14.286; so σs = m·σc = 14.286 σc
Equilibrium: P = σc·Ac + σs·As = σc (158,036.5) + 14.286 σc (1963.5)
500,000 = σc [158,036.5 + 28,050] = σc (186,086.5)
σc = 2.687 N/mm²; σs = 14.286 × 2.687 = 38.39 N/mm²
Result: σconcrete ≈ 2.69 MPa, σsteel ≈ 38.39 MPa

Numerical 4: Thermal stress in a fully restrained bar

Given: A steel rod 5 m long is fixed rigidly at both ends at 20°C. Find the stress induced in the rod if the
temperature rises to 60°C. Take α = 12 × 10⁻⁶ /°C, E = 200 GPa.
Rise in temperature, Δt = 60 − 20 = 40°C
σ(thermal) = α · Δt · E = 12×10⁻⁶ × 40 × 2×10⁵
= 12×10⁻⁶ × 40 × 200,000 = 96 N/mm² (compressive, since expansion is prevented)
Result: Thermal stress = 96 MPa (compressive); note that this is independent of the 5 m length.

Numerical 5: Composite bar with thermal effect

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Given: A steel rod of 20 mm diameter is enclosed centrally in a hollow copper tube of external diameter 40
mm and internal diameter 20 mm. The composite bar is 500 mm long and rigidly fastened at both ends with
rigid end plates. Determine the stresses in the rod and tube when the assembly is heated through 60°C. Take
Es = 200 GPa, Ec = 100 GPa, αs = 12×10⁻⁶/°C, αc = 18×10⁻⁶/°C.
As = (π/4)(20)² = 314.16 mm²; Ac = (π/4)(40² − 20²) = 942.48 mm²
Since αc > αs, copper wants to expand more; it is restrained by steel ⟹ copper goes into compression,
steel into tension.
Equilibrium (no external load): σs·As = σc·Ac ⟹ σs (314.16) = σc (942.48) ⟹ σs = 3 σc
Compatibility: common expansion = αs Δt L + σsL/Es (steel, tension adds to thermal) = αc Δt L − σcL/Ec
(copper, compression subtracts)
αs Δt + σs/Es = αc Δt + ... rearranged: (αc − αs)Δt = σs/Es + σc/Ec
(18−12)×10⁻⁶ × 60 = σs/(2×10⁵) + σc/(1×10⁵) = 3σc/(2×10⁵) + σc/(1×10⁵)
360×10⁻⁶ = σc [1.5×10⁻⁵ + 1×10⁻⁵] = σc (2.5×10⁻⁵)
σc = 14.4 N/mm² (compressive); σs = 3 × 14.4 = 43.2 N/mm² (tensile)
Result: σcopper ≈ 14.4 MPa (C), σsteel ≈ 43.2 MPa (T)

Numerical 6: Elastic constants — relation between E, G, K, μ

Given: For a given material, E = 120 GPa and G = 45 GPa. Determine Poisson's ratio μ and the Bulk modulus
K.
From E = 2G(1+μ): 120 = 2(45)(1+μ) ⟹ 1+μ = 120/90 = 1.333 ⟹ μ = 0.333
From E = 3K(1−2μ): 120 = 3K(1 − 0.667) = 3K(0.333) ⟹ K = 120/(0.999) = 120.1 GPa
Result: μ ≈ 0.333, K ≈ 120 GPa

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MODULE 2: SHAFT MECHANICS AND BEAM MECHANICS

2.1 Torsion of Circular Shafts — Introduction

Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member (typically a shaft) when a torque (twisting moment, T) is
applied about its longitudinal axis. Circular shafts are extremely common in machinery — engine crankshafts,
motor and turbine shafts, drive shafts — because a circular cross-section resists torsion most efficiently and
its shear stress distribution can be derived exactly.

2.1.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Pure Torsion

● The material of the shaft is homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hooke's Law (torque is within the
elastic limit).
● The shaft is of uniform circular cross-section throughout its length.
● Plane transverse sections remain plane after twisting (they do not warp) and rotate about the shaft axis
as rigid discs.
● Circular cross-sections remain circular after twisting; radii remain straight.
● The twist along the shaft is uniform, i.e., the angle of twist per unit length is constant.
● Stress does not exceed the proportional/elastic limit anywhere in the shaft.

2.2 Torsional Shear Stress and the Torsion Equation

Under the assumptions above, shear strain in the shaft varies linearly from zero at the centre (axis) to a
maximum at the outer surface. Applying Hooke's law for shear (τ = Gγ) and integrating the moment of the
internal shear resistance over the cross-section leads to the fundamental torsion equation:

T / J = τ / r = G·θ / L

where T = applied torque (N·mm), J = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm⁴), τ = shear stress at
radius r (N/mm²), R = outer radius of the shaft, G = modulus of rigidity (N/mm²), θ = angle of twist (radians)
over length L (mm).

Shear stress is zero at the centre and increases linearly to a maximum value τmax at the outer surface (r = R):

τmax = T·R / J = 16T / (π d³) (solid circular shaft of diameter d)

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2.3 Polar Moment of Inertia, J
The polar moment of inertia is a geometric property of the cross-section representing its resistance to torsion,
calculated as the second moment of area about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the cross-section (i.e.,
about the shaft's longitudinal axis).

(a) Solid circular shaft of diameter d

J = π d⁴ / 32

(b) Hollow circular shaft, external diameter D, internal diameter d

J = π (D⁴ − d⁴) / 32

Note the relation J = 2I, where I is the moment of inertia about a diametral (bending) axis, since for a circular
section the two perpendicular diametral moments of inertia are equal (Ixx = Iyy = πd⁴/64) and J = Ixx + Iyy
(perpendicular axis theorem).

2.4 Angle of Twist

Rearranging the torsion equation T/J = Gθ/L gives the angle through which one end of the shaft rotates relative
to the other, over a length L, when subjected to torque T:

θ = T·L / (G·J) [radians]

For a stepped shaft (shafts of different lengths/diameters/materials fixed in series and carrying the same
torque), the total angle of twist is the sum of the twists of each segment, exactly analogous to axial elongation
of a stepped bar:

θ(total) = Σ Tᵢ Lᵢ / (Gᵢ Jᵢ)

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2.5 Power Transmitted by a Shaft
A rotating shaft transmitting torque T at a rotational speed of N revolutions per minute (rpm) delivers power
P (in watts), derived from the standard relation Power = Torque × Angular velocity (ω = 2πN/60):

P = T·ω = 2πNT / 60 [P in watts, T in N·m, N in rpm]

Rearranging, the torque that must be resisted by the shaft for a given power and speed is:

T = 60 P / (2πN) = P / ω

This torque T is then used in the torsion equation to find the minimum shaft diameter required for a given
permissible shear stress, or to check the shear stress/twist of a shaft of known diameter.

2.6 Torsional Rigidity

Torsional rigidity is defined as the torque required to produce a twist of one radian per unit length of the shaft.
It is a measure of the shaft's resistance to twisting deformation (a stiffness property, analogous to axial rigidity
AE for direct loading).

Torsional Rigidity = G·J = T·L / θ [N·mm² per radian]

A higher value of G·J means the shaft twists less for a given torque — important in precision machinery and
control-linkage shafts where excessive twist (angular backlash) cannot be tolerated.

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2.7 Bending Stress in Beams
When a beam is subjected to transverse loads or pure couples, an internal bending moment M is set up at
every section, which bends the beam and induces normal (bending) stresses that vary across the depth of the
section — tensile on one side and compressive on the other, with a neutral layer (neutral axis) in between
where bending stress is zero.

2.7.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple (Pure) Bending

● The beam material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke's law.
● Plane transverse sections, originally plane, remain plane after bending (Bernoulli's assumption).
● The beam is initially straight, and of uniform cross-section along its length.
● The radius of curvature is large compared with the depth of the beam.
● The value of E is the same in tension and compression.
● Loads act in a plane containing the axis of symmetry, and produce no twisting of the beam.

2.7.2 The Bending Equation

Combining the geometry of bending (strain proportional to distance from the neutral axis), Hooke's law, and
moment equilibrium of the internal stress distribution about the neutral axis, gives the well-known bending
equation:

M/I=σ/y=E/R

where M = bending moment at the section, I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis,
σ = bending stress at a distance y from the neutral axis, E = Young's modulus, R = radius of curvature of the
bent beam. Maximum bending stress occurs at the outermost fibre, y = ymax.

σmax = M · ymax / I

2.8 Section Modulus, Z

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Section modulus is a purely geometric property of the cross-section, defined as the ratio of the moment of
inertia to the distance of the extreme fibre from the neutral axis. It directly gives the moment-carrying capacity
of a section for a given permissible stress.

Z = I / ymax ⟹ σmax = M / Z

Section modulus for common cross-sections:

Cross-section I (about N.A.) ymax Z = I/ymax

Rectangle (b × d) bd³/12 d/2 bd²/6

Solid circle (dia. d) πd⁴/64 d/2 πd³/32
Hollow circle (D, d) π(D⁴−d⁴)/64 D/2 π(D⁴−d⁴)/32D

2.9 Shear Stress Distribution in Beams

In addition to bending stress, a transverse (vertical) shear force V at a section of a beam produces
horizontal/vertical shear stress that varies across the depth of the section. Using equilibrium of a small
element between two adjacent sections, the general shear stress formula is derived as:

τ = V·A̅ ·y̅ / (I·b)

where V = shear force at the section, A̅ ȳ̅ = first moment of area of the part of the section beyond (above/below)
the layer being considered, about the neutral axis, I = moment of inertia of the whole section about the neutral
axis, b = width of the section at the layer considered.

2.9.1 Shear Stress Distribution — Rectangular Section

For a rectangular section of width b and depth d, the shear stress distribution across the depth is parabolic,
being zero at the extreme top and bottom fibres and maximum at the neutral axis:

τ = (V / 2I) [ (d²/4) − y² ] τmax (at N.A.) = 1.5 × τaverage = 1.5V / (bd)

Thus, the maximum shear stress in a rectangular beam section is 1.5 times the average shear stress (V/bd).

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2.9.2 Shear Stress Distribution — Circular Section
For a solid circular section of diameter d (radius R), the shear stress distribution is also parabolic, zero at the
extreme fibres and maximum at the neutral axis (centre):

τmax (at N.A.) = (4/3) × τaverage = 4V / (3 × π d²/4) = 16V / (3πd²)

Quick comparison: Rectangular section: τmax = 1.5 τavg. Circular section: τmax = (4/3) τavg. Both distributions
are parabolic and zero at the top/bottom fibres, maximum at the neutral axis — this is a very frequently asked
comparison in examinations.

2.10 Combined Bending and Torsion — Equivalent Torque and Moment

A power-transmitting shaft (e.g., carrying pulleys, gears) is very rarely subjected to torsion alone — the weight
of pulleys/gears and belt-pull/gear-tooth forces also bend the shaft. Such a shaft is said to be under combined
18
bending and torsion, and must be designed for the combined effect using the maximum shear stress theory
(Guest's/Tresca's theory), which is standard for ductile shaft materials.

The combined effect is expressed through two design quantities — the Equivalent Torque (Te) and the
Equivalent Bending Moment (Me):

Equivalent Torque, Te = √(M² + T²)

Equivalent Bending Moment, Me = ( M + √(M² + T²) ) / 2

where M is the resultant bending moment and T is the torque at the critical section. The shaft diameter is then
found by substituting Te into the torsion equation (τmax = 16Te/πd³) or Me into the bending equation (σmax
= 32Me/πd³), and the larger of the two diameters is adopted for a safe design.

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2.11 Solved Numericals — Module 2
Problems formulated in the style of, and with reference to, worked examples in Rattan, S.S., "Strength of Materials", Tata McGraw-
Hill (Chapters on Torsion of Circular Shafts and Bending Stresses in Beams).

Numerical 1: Torsional shear stress and angle of twist

Given: A solid circular shaft of 60 mm diameter and 1.2 m length is subjected to a torque of 2.5 kN·m.
Determine (a) the maximum shear stress induced, and (b) the angle of twist. Take G = 80 GPa.
J = πd⁴/32 = π(60)⁴/32 = 1.272 × 10⁶ mm⁴
(a) τmax = 16T/(πd³) = 16 × 2.5×10⁶ / (π × 60³) = 40×10⁶ / 678,584 = 58.95 N/mm²
(b) θ = TL/(GJ) = (2.5×10⁶ × 1200) / (80×10³ × 1.272×10⁶) = 3×10⁹ / (1.0176×10¹¹)
= 0.02948 rad = 0.02948 × (180/π) = 1.689°
Result: τmax ≈ 58.95 MPa, θ ≈ 1.69° (0.0295 rad)

Numerical 2: Power transmitted by a shaft

Given: Find the diameter of a solid shaft required to transmit 100 kW power at 200 rpm, if the permissible
shear stress is 60 N/mm² and the maximum torque exceeds the mean torque by 25%.
Mean torque, Tmean = 60P / (2πN) = 60 × 100,000 / (2π × 200) = 6,000,000 / 1256.6 = 4774.6 N·m
Maximum torque, Tmax = 1.25 × Tmean = 1.25 × 4774.6 = 5968.3 N·m = 5.968 × 10⁶ N·mm
From τ = 16T/(πd³): d³ = 16T / (πτ) = 16 × 5.968×10⁶ / (π × 60) = 95.49×10⁶ / 188.5 = 506,600 mm³
d = (506,600)^(1/3) = 79.7 mm
Result: Required shaft diameter d ≈ 80 mm

Numerical 3: Hollow shaft design

Given: A hollow shaft is to transmit 300 kW at 100 rpm. If the shear stress is not to exceed 60 N/mm² and
the internal diameter is 0.6 of the external diameter, find the external and internal diameters, assuming
Tmax = Tmean.
T = 60P/(2πN) = 60 × 300,000 / (2π × 100) = 18,000,000 / 628.3 = 28,648 N·m = 28.648×10⁶ N·mm
For hollow shaft: τ = 16 T D / [π(D⁴ − d⁴)], with d = 0.6D
D⁴ − d⁴ = D⁴(1 − 0.6⁴) = D⁴(1 − 0.1296) = 0.8704 D⁴
60 = 16 × 28.648×10⁶ × D / [π × 0.8704 D⁴] = 16 × 28.648×10⁶ / (π × 0.8704 × D³)
60 = 458.37×10⁶ / (2.7345 D³) ⟹ D³ = 458.37×10⁶ / (60 × 2.7345) = 458.37×10⁶ / 164.07 = 2.794×10⁶
D = (2.794×10⁶)^(1/3) = 140.7 mm; d = 0.6 × 140.7 = 84.4 mm
Result: External diameter D ≈ 140.7 mm, Internal diameter d ≈ 84.4 mm

Numerical 4: Bending stress in a simply supported beam

Given: A simply supported rectangular beam, 200 mm wide and 300 mm deep, carries a maximum bending
moment of 45 kN·m. Determine the maximum bending stress induced and the section modulus.
I = bd³/12 = 200 × 300³/12 = 200 × 27×10⁶/12 = 450×10⁶ mm⁴
ymax = d/2 = 150 mm
Z = I/ymax = 450×10⁶ / 150 = 3×10⁶ mm³
σmax = M/Z = 45×10⁶ / 3×10⁶ = 15 N/mm²
Result: Z = 3 × 10⁶ mm³, σmax = 15 MPa
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 Numerical 5: Shear stress distribution — rectangular section
Given: A rectangular beam section 120 mm wide and 250 mm deep is subjected to a shear force of 50 kN at
a section. Determine the average and maximum shear stress, and the shear stress at 50 mm from the neutral
axis.
τaverage = V/(bd) = 50,000/(120×250) = 50,000/30,000 = 1.667 N/mm²
τmax (at N.A.) = 1.5 × τaverage = 1.5 × 1.667 = 2.5 N/mm²
τ at y = 50 mm from N.A.: τ = (V/2I)[(d²/4) − y²], I = bd³/12 = 120×250³/12 = 156.25×10⁶ mm⁴
τ = (50,000 / (2×156.25×10⁶)) × [(250²/4) − 50²] = (1.6×10⁻⁴) × [15,625 − 2,500] = 1.6×10⁻⁴ × 13,125
= 2.10 N/mm²
Result: τaverage = 1.667 MPa, τmax = 2.5 MPa, τ(at y=50 mm) = 2.10 MPa

Numerical 6: Combined bending and torsion

Given: A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 3 kN·m and a torque of 4 kN·m at its critical
section. If the permissible shear stress is 70 N/mm², find the suitable diameter of the shaft using the
maximum shear stress theory.
Equivalent torque, Te = √(M² + T²) = √(3² + 4²) = √(9+16) = √25 = 5 kN·m = 5×10⁶ N·mm
From τ = 16 Te / (π d³): d³ = 16 Te /(π τ) = 16 × 5×10⁶ / (π × 70) = 80×10⁶ / 219.9 = 363,800 mm³
d = (363,800)^(1/3) = 71.4 mm
Result: Required shaft diameter d ≈ 72 mm (rounded up for a standard/safe size)

Numerical 7: Torsional rigidity

Given: A solid shaft 50 mm diameter, 1.5 m long, twists through 2° under an applied torque. Take G = 84
GPa. Determine the torque applied and the torsional rigidity of the shaft.
J = πd⁴/32 = π(50)⁴/32 = 613,592 mm⁴
θ = 2° = 2 × π/180 = 0.03491 rad
From θ = TL/(GJ): T = θ G J / L = 0.03491 × 84×10³ × 613,592 / 1500
= 0.03491 × 84,000 × 613,592 / 1500 = 1.7994×10⁹ / 1500 = 1,199,600 N·mm ≈ 1.2 kN·m
Torsional rigidity = G J = 84×10³ × 613,592 = 5.154×10¹⁰ N·mm² per radian
Result: T ≈ 1.2 kN·m, Torsional rigidity GJ ≈ 5.15 × 10¹⁰ N·mm²/rad

2.12 Summary — Key Formula Sheet

Quantity Formula

Normal stress σ = P/A

Shear stress τ = P/A (shear area)
Bearing stress σb = P/(d·t)
Normal strain ε = δL/L
Poisson's ratio μ = εlat/εlong
Hooke's Law σ = Eε ; τ = Gγ
Elongation under axial load δL = PL/AE
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 Quantity Formula

Thermal stress (restrained) σ = EαΔt

Elastic constants relation E = 2G(1+μ) = 3K(1−2μ)
Torsion equation T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L
J (solid shaft) πd⁴/32
J (hollow shaft) π(D⁴−d⁴)/32
Power transmitted P = 2πNT/60
Torsional rigidity GJ = TL/θ
Bending equation M/I = σ/y = E/R
Section modulus Z = I/ymax
Shear stress (rectangle) τmax = 1.5 τavg
Shear stress (circle) τmax = (4/3) τavg
Equivalent torque Te = √(M²+T²)
Equivalent bending moment Me = (M + √(M²+T²))/2

— End of Notes —
Reference: R.K. Rattan (S.S. Rattan), "Strength of Materials", Tata McGraw-Hill Education, New Delhi. Students are advised to refer to
the full text for additional solved examples, exercise problems, and detailed derivations.

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