COLLEGE OF NURSING SCIENCES

LAFIA

NASARAWA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

NUS121: HUMAN ANATOMY II

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

BUNU A. Y.

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 Introduction

The digestive system represents one of the most complex and essential organ systems in the
human body, responsible for the breakdown, absorption, and utilization of nutrients necessary for
cellular metabolism and survival. This intricate network of organs and tissues works in
coordinated fashion to convert ingested food materials into absorbable nutrients while
eliminating waste products. The whole process takes about 24 to 72 hours to complete,
depending on factors like type of food eaten and the presence of digestive issues. The digestive
system encompasses both the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs, each contributing
specific functions to the overall process of digestion and nutrient absorption. Note that; some
foods e.g carbohydrates, may digest within few hours, while those high in fat or protein take
longer time for complete digestion.

Processes of the Digestive System:

I. Ingestion: this is the selective intake of food or other substances into the body through the
mouth.
II. Digestion: is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable by the
body.
III. Absorption: is the uptake of digested food (nutrients molecules) into the epithelial cells of
the digestive tract and then into the blood or lymph.
IV. Metabolism: is the process of converting nutrients into usable energy and building blocks
for the body.
V. Defecation: also called ejection, is the process of expelling solid or semisolid waste
(feces) from the body through the anus.

Forms of Digestion
There are two main forms of digestion occurring in the digestive system; mechanical
digestion and chemical digestion.
 Mechanical digestion: is the physical breakdown of large food pieces into smaller
particles, increasing surface area for enzymes without altering chemical structure. This
form of digestion involves mastication, peristalsis, churning, and segmentation.

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  Chemical digestion: is the biochemical process where enzymes and acids (e.g; salivary
amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, hydrochloric acid, etc) break down complex food
molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) into small, soluble nutrient molecules that the body
can absorb, primarily occurring in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. This process reduces
food into building blocks like amino acids, monosaccharides, and fatty acids.

Functions of the Digestive System

The primary functions of the digestive system include;

 Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food

 Absorption of nutrients and water, synthesis of essential vitamins,
 Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance, and
 Elimination of metabolic waste products.
These functions are accomplished through a series of highly regulated physiological
processes that involve complex interactions between anatomical structures, enzymatic
reactions, hormonal regulation, and neural control mechanisms.

Organs of the Digestive System

The anatomical organization of the digestive system divides the system into gastrointestinal tract
and accessory aspect, grouping the digestive organs into two; gastrointestinal tract organs (GIT)
and the accessory organs.

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 Diagram Showing the Organs of the Digestive system

1. The gastrointestinal tract:

Also called the alimentary canal, forms a continuous tube extending from the mouth to the anus,
measuring approximately 8 to 10 meters in length. This hollow muscular tube is lined with
specialized epithelial tissue that varies in structure and function according to the specific
requirements of each anatomical region. It is also composed of the same four tissue layers,
starting from the lumen, moving outwards, these layers are; mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and
serosa.

Organs of the gastrointestinal tract are;

i. The mouth:
Also called the oral cavity, is the first part of the GIT, which serve as the entry point for
food intake and initiates the digestive process through mechanical breakdown via
mastication and chemical digestion through salivary enzymes action. The mouth receives
its blood supply from the branches of external carotid artery (lingual, facial, and
maxillary arteries)

A Diagram Showing the Oral Cavity

The oral cavity contains specialized structures including;

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 The teeth: provide mechanical grinding action essential for increasing surface area
available for enzymatic digestion.
The lips and cheeks: are the outermost part of the mouth, composed of flexible
muscular structures. They help keep food in place for chewing.
The tongue: made up of a group of flexible muscles without bones. It is covered with
papillae that provides friction and contains the taste buds that facilitate taste perception. It
also plays an essential role in positioning and aid in swallowing.
The palate: is the roof of the oral cavity which separates it from the nasal cavity. The
anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone, while the posterior portion, the
soft palate, is a skeletal muscle and connective tissue. During swallowing, the soft palate
and the uvula move upward to direct food away from the nasal cavity and into the
pharynx.
The salivary glands: produce saliva, which moisten food to make it easy for swallowing
and contain enzymes that help break down food.

ii. The pharynx: also called the throat, is a muscular tunnel that connects the mouth to the
esophagus (a tube that leads to the stomach), and the larynx (voice box that creates vocal
sounds). This implies that the pharynx serves as a common pathway for both digestive
and respiratory systems, requiring precise coordination during swallowing to prevent
aspiration. It receives blood supply from the external carotid artery. The muscular walls
of the pharynx (pharyngeal constrictor muscles) contract in sequential waves to propel
food bolus toward the esophagus while simultaneously closing off the respiratory
passages.
 Mucosa: The inner lining changes type based on location; the nasopharynx has
respiratory epithelium, while the oropharynx and laryngopharynx have non-keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium to handle food abrasion.
 Submucosal Layer: Contains glands, lymph tissue, and connective tissue
 Muscular Layer: The pharynx is surrounded by muscles that facilitate swallowing. These
muscles are divided into two; outer circular layer (Constrictors), comprises superior,
middle, and inferior pharyngeal constrictors, which contract in sequence to push food into

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 the esophagus, and an inner Longitudinal Layer, which includes the stylopharyngeus,
salpingopharyngeus, and palatopharyngeus muscles, which elevate the pharynx.
 Buccopharyngeal Fascia: The outermost layer covering the muscles

A Diagram Showing the Pharynx and its Divisions.

iii. The esophagus: is a hollow muscular tube approximately 25 centimeters in length that
connects the pharynx to the stomach. This structure employs peristaltic contractions to
transport food bolus from the pharynx to the stomach, overcoming gravitational forces
through coordinated muscular activity. Both ends of the esophagus are closed off by
muscular constrictors called sphincters; at the anterior or upper end is the upper
esophageal sphincter, and at the distal or lower end is the lower esophageal sphincter.
The upper esophageal sphincter is composed of circular muscle tissue and remains closed
most of the time. Food entering the pharynx relaxes this sphincter and passes through it
into the esophagus. After the food enters the esophagus, the sphincter closes to prevent

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 reflux into the pharynx. Contractions of the muscles in the esophageal wall move the
food down the esophageal tube. The food is pushed ahead of the peristaltic wave until it
reaches the lower esophageal sphincter, which opens, allowing food to pass into the
stomach, and then closes to prevent reflux of gastric contents. The esophagus receives its
blood supply from the inferior thyroid artery, thoracic aorta and left gastric artery.

A Diagram of the Esophagus Showing Upper and Lower Esophageal Sphincters

 Mucosa (Innermost Layer): composed of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

(providing a protective, slippery surface), a layer of connective tissue beneath the
epithelium
 Submucosa: consists of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic
fibers, esophageal glands that secrete mucus for lubrication and houses blood vessels,
lymphatics, and nerves (Meissner's plexus)
 Muscularis Propria: divided into an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer.
 Adventitia: consists of connective tissue that binds the esophagus to surrounding
structures.
NB: the upper aspect of the esophagus

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 Diagram showing the layers of the esophageal wall

iv. The stomach: the stomach is a J-shaped muscular pouch or organ, located in the upper
abdomen. It is the most dilated part of the GIT capable of accommodating large volumes
of food. It receives it blood supply from the celiac trunk via two main arcades; left and
right gastric arteries. Anatomically, the stomach is divided into five (5) distinct sections;
cardia, fundus, body, antrum, and the pylorus.
 The cardia: is the top part of the stomach where cardiac sphincter is found. This sphincter
prevents food from traveling back to the esophagus.
 The fundus: is the rounded section next to the cardia. It is a reservoir that holds food
before it mixes with gastric juices and also accumulates gases resulting from digestive
process.
 The body (corpus): is the largest section of the stomach where food is mixed and broken
down into chyme as a result of churning.
 The antrum: is the lower section where chyme is held until it is ready to move into the
small intestine.
 The pylorus: is the section that connects the stomach to the small intestine. It contains the
pyloric sphincter that controls the emptying of stomach content into the duodenum.

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The stomach is made up of four (4) layers of tissues; mucosa, submucosa, muscularis
externa, and serosa.

 Mucosa layer: is the innermost layer which is made up of epithelial tissue and gastric
glands. When empty, this layer has small ridges called rugae, and when full, the rugae
flatten.
 Submucosa: this layer attaches the mucosa to the muscularis. It contains connective
tissues, blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves. It functions in covering and protecting
the mucosa.
 Muscularis externa: is the primary muscle of the stomach wall that generate powerful
contractions which mix food with gastric secretions, creating a semi-liquid mixture called
chyme. It is composed of three (3) layers of muscle; outer longitudinal layer which
contracts to move food towards the pylorus, middle circular layer which thickens in the
pyloric region to form the pyloric sphincter, and the inner oblique layer which is
responsible for churning of food, a form of mechanical digestion.
 Serosa layer: is the outermost layer, which is made up of connective tissue that networks
with the peritoneum. It functions in decreasing friction between the GIT organs as they
work.

A Diagram Showing the Layers of the Stomach Wall

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The stomach contains specialized cells within its gastric glands and lining that secrete various
substances essential for digestion. These includes

 Parietal cells- also called oxyntic cells, secrete hydrochloric acid which aids in food
break down, killing ingested bacteria and activation of pepsinogen into pepsin, and
intrinsic factor which is essential for the absorption of vitamin B12.
 Chief cells- found around the base of the gastric glands, secrete pepsinogen, a
precursor to pepsin, and gastric lipase which helps digest fats.
 Surface mucus cells- line the stomach’s lumen and secrete a thick layer of mucus that
protects the stomach lining from the corrosive effects of gastric acid and digestive
enzymes.
 Neuroendocrine cells- are also found in the gastric glands on the gastric mucosa that
secrete various molecules that aid in the production of gastric acid. G-cells, a
neuroendocrine cell, produces gastrin which increases HCL production.

Clinical Conditions and Disorders

1. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): in this condition, the stomach contents

travel back to the esophagus, causing heartburn or cough.
2. Dyspepsia (indigestion)
3. Peptic ulcer: sores in the stomach or the first portion of the duodenum.
4. Gastritis: stomach inflammation
5. Gastric ulcer: erosion in the stomach lining that can lead to pain and bleeding.

v. The small intestine: is a long, narrow, folded or coiled tube extending from the stomach
to the large intestine, located in the central and lower abdominal cavity. It represents the
longest segment of the alimentary canal, measuring approximately 6-7m (22-25 feet) in
length and consisting of three distinct regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. This
organ receives its blood supply from the superior mesenteric artery arising from the

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abdominal aorta. It serves as the primary site for enzymatic digestion and nutrient
absorption.
The wall of the small intestine also has 4 layers; mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and
serosa.
 Mucosa: the innermost layer lining the lumen of the bowel. It features numerous
adaptations that maximize surface area for absorption, including circular folds, villi,
and microvilli that collectively increase the absorptive surface area by several
hundred folds.
 Submucosa: a layer of connective tissue beneath the mucosa, containing blood
vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.
 Muscularis: this is the muscular aspect of the intestinal wall, composed of two (2)
layers; inner circular layer which encircles the intestine and help with segmentation
(mixing of food), and the outer longitudinal layer that runs along the length of the
intestine and helps with peristalsis. Both layers work together to propagate food from
the proximal to the distal end.

A Diagram Showing the Small Intestine

Anatomically, the small intestine is divided into three (3) segments; duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum.

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  Duodenum: is the most proximal, widest, and shortest aspect which measures about 25cm
long. This C-shaped segment curves around the pancreatic head. Internally, the
duodenum is marked by the major duodenal papilla or ampulla of vater (an opening at
which bile and pancreatic secretions enter the duodenum). The duodenum ends at the
duodenojejunal flexure, which is attached to the posterior abdominal wall by a peritoneal
fold called ligament of treitz.
 Jejunum: is the midsegment of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum.
It extends from the duodenojejunal flexure and end at the ileum. It measures about 2.5m
(8ft) long, has circular folds and intestinal villi that increases it surface area for
absorption.
 Ileum: it is the last and the longest part of the small intestine, measuring about 3.5m (11.5
feet), extending from the jejunum to the ileocecal valve; a functional sphincter formed by
the circular muscle layers of both the ileum and cecum. This sphincter prevents a reflux
of bacteria rich content from the large intestine into the small intestine.

vi. The large intestine: measuring approximately 1.5m (5 feet) in length, consists of the
cecum, colon, and rectum. This organ primarily functions to absorb water and
electrolytes from the remaining chyme while forming and storing feces until elimination.
It receives it blood supply from the superior mesenteric artery (cecum to proximal
transverse colon) and the inferior mesenteric artery (distal transverse colon to rectum).
The large intestine also has 4 layers; mucosa,submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
 Mucosa: the innermost layer which lacks villi but contains numerous goblet cells that
secrete mucus to facilitate fecal passage.
 Submucosa: consist of connective tissues that contain blood vessels, nerves, and lyphatic
vessels.
 Muscularis: is the muscular aspect of the large intestine, composed of two (2) layers of
muscles; inner
circular and outer
longitudinal layer
which has three (3)

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 bands of smooth muscles called teniae coli. The contractions of these muscles facilitate
the
Peristaltic action of the large intestine, propelling the fecal matter and forming the
haustra (small pouches or sacculation). The haustra gives this bowel its baggy
characteristic.
 Serosa: the thin outermost layer of membrane that covers the large intestine and helps to
anchor it to the abdominal wall.

A Diagram Showing the Large Intestine

Anatomically, the large intestine is divided into three (3) segments; cecum, colon, and rectum.

 Cecum: is the most proximal part of the large intestine. It is a blind-ended pouch, located
between the ileum and the ascending colon. Attached to the cecum is the vermiform
appendix (a small, finger-shaped, muscular tube that contains lymphoid tissues that helps
the body fight infections).
 Colon: this makes up the longest part of the large intestine. It extends from the cecum and
ends at the rectum. It measures about 5ft long and its divided into four (4) segments:
ascending colon; the first part of the colon, located on the right side of the abdomen,

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 connected to the small intestine by the cecum, transverse colon; runs across the
abdomen, between the right and the left colic flexures, descending colon; runs down the
left side of the body, and sigmoid colon; an S-shaped portion that connect the descending
colon to the rectum.
 Rectum: forms the part of the large intestine, located between the sigmoid colon and the
anal canal. It measures about 12-15cm long and serves as a temporary storage space for
fecal material before it is expelled from the body through the anus.

Diagram Showing the Anatomical Division of the Large Intestine

Anal canal: this is the last portion of the GIT. It is a short tube that measures about 3-4cm
long, located between the rectum and the anus. It is a channel connecting the rectum to
the end of the gastrointestinal system, allowing the passage of feces, aided by the
coordinated action of the internal and external anal sphincters.

2. Accessory Digestive Organs

Accessory organs of digestion are organs that secrete or store substances needed for the chemical
digestion of food but through which food does not actually pass as it is digested. These organs

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are; salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Unlike the primary digestive tract organs,
these accessory structures do not directly contact food but instead produce and deliver important
substances that facilitate digestion, absorption, and metabolism.

1. Salivary glands: are exocrine glands that produce digestive fluid called saliva (a
seromucinous liquid that has several functions within the oral cavity which include
lubrication, digestion, antimicrobial action, buffering, and taste sensation). These glands
are positioned in the head; in and around the oral cavity and secrete their salivary content
into the mouth for chemical digestion. There are three types of saliva produced by the
salivary glands, these are; serous, mucous, and mixed.

These glands contain three (3) major cell types; acinar cells, ductal cells, and myoepithelial
cells.

 Acinar cells: are the primary secretory cells that produce saliva.
 Ductal cells: these cells line the ducts that transport saliva to the mouth.
 Myoepithelial cells: these are contractile cells that surround the acini and help
squeeze saliva out into the ducts.

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Functionally, the salivary glands contribute to digestion through the enzymes they excrete with
saliva, mainly amylase that starts the digestion of carbohydrates. They also help in the initial
stages of digestion during mastication of food, so that a food bolus is created and ready to be
swallowed for further processing.

Salivary glands are classified into two groups; major salivary glands and minor salivary
glands.
i. Major salivary glands: are paired glands
 Parotid gland: is a serous salivary gland located between the ramus of the mandible and
sternocleidomastoid muscle. Although it is the largest of the three major salivary glands,
it produces only 25% of the total daily salivary output which is released into the mouth
through a channel called Stensen’s duct.
 Submandibular gland: is a mixed gland and the second largest of the major salivary gland
located below the jaw. It produces the largest amount of saliva of all and account for up
to 70% of the total daily output which is released into the mouth through a channel called
Wharton’s duct.
 Sublingual gland: is the smallest of the major glands secreting mucinous saliva, located in
the floor of the mouth, deep to the sublingual folds. It secretes only 5% of the total daily
output which is released into the mouth through a duct called Bartholin duct.

ii. Minor salivary glands: the minor salivary glands amount for approximately 800-1000
individual glands in total, and produce approximately 1% or less of the total daily
salivary output. They can be found in patches around the oral cavity such as the
bucca, the labia, the lingual mucosa, the soft palate, the floor of the mouth and
between the muscles of the [Link] main role of the minor salivary glands is to
lubricate the walls of the oral cavity.

3. The liver: is a reddish-brown, cone-shaped organ located in the right upper quadrant of
the abdomen, positioned beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It represents the
largest internal organ in the human body and serves as a multifunctional powerhouse in
digestive processes. Weighing approximately 1.5 kilograms in adults, this remarkable

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organ performs over 500 different functions, making it indispensable for maintaining
homeostasis and supporting digestive activities. Its anatomical structure consists of four
distinct lobes: the large right lobe, the smaller left lobe, the quadrate and caudate lobes.
The right and left lobes are divided by the falciform ligament which connects the liver to
the abdominal wall.
The liver’s lobes are further divided into eight (8) segments which are made up of
thousands of lobules that house the hepatocytes (cells responsible for secretion of bile).

The liver's primary digestive function involves the production and secretion of bile, a
yellowish-green fluid that plays a fundamental role in fat digestion. Hepatocytes
continuously synthesize bile, producing approximately 800-1000 milliliters daily. Bile
contains bile salts, phospholipids, cholesterol, bilirubin, and various electrolytes. The bile
salts, derived from cholesterol, act as biological detergents that emulsify dietary fats,
breaking them into smaller droplets to increase surface area for enzymatic digestion.
Beyond bile production, the liver serves as the body's primary detoxification center,

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 metabolizing drugs, alcohol, and other potentially harmful substances absorbed from the
digestive tract. The hepatic portal circulation ensures that absorbed nutrients and toxins
pass through the liver before entering systemic circulation, allowing for immediate
processing and modification of these substances. The liver receives its blood supply
through the portal vein and hepatic artery.

4. The gallbladder: also called cholecyst, is a small, pear-shaped organ, tucked under the
liver in the abdominal cavity. This organ measures about 2.8-3.9 inches long and serves
as a storage reservoir for bile produced by the liver, concentrating bile through water
reabsorption and releasing it into the duodenum when stimulated by cholecystokinin.
This coordinated release of bile coincides with fat intake to optimize lipid digestion and
absorption. This organ can store approximately 30-50 milliliters of concentrated bile,
ready for release when needed.
The gallbladder consists of three main regions: the fundus, body, and neck. The organ
connects to the bile duct system through the cystic duct, which joins the common hepatic
duct to form the common bile duct. The gallbladder wall contains smooth muscle fibers
that contract in response to hormonal stimulation, facilitating bile expulsion. This organ
receives its blood supply from the cystic artery, a branch of the right hepatic artery.

Diagram showing the Gallbladder

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5. The pancreas: is a flat, pear-shaped glandular organ that lies in the abdominal cavity,
stretching from behind the stomach to the left upper abdomen near the spleen. It serves as
both an endocrine and exocrine gland, contributing to digestive processes through
enzyme production and hormonal regulation. This elongated organ, measuring
approximately 15-20 centimeters in length, plays an indispensable role in nutrient
digestion and glucose homeostasis.
Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into four (4); head, neck, body, and tail.
Majority of pancreatic tissue has a digestive role, and the cells with this role form clusters
called acini (approximately one million berry-like cluster of cells), connected by short
intercalated ducts. The intercalated duct unite with those draining adjacent lobules and
drain into a network of intralobular collecting ducts, which in turn, drain into the main
pancreatic duct.

Travelling within the entire pancreatic parenchyma from the tail to the head is the main
pancreatic duct (Wirsung duct), which connects with the bile duct in the head of the
pancreas to form the hepatopancreatic duct (Ampulla of Vater). Flow through the
ampulla of vater is controlled by a smooth muscle called Sphincter of Oddi. The
pancreas receives its blood supply from the celiac trunk and the superior mesenteric
artery.
Pancreatic Juice:

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 Pancreatic juice is an alkaline liquid secreted by the pancreas, which contains a number
of digestive enzymes, including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase,
carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases and amylase. Normally, 200-800mL of
this juice is produced per day.
Pancreatic juice secretion is principally regulated by the hormones secretin and
cholecystokinin, which are produced by the walls of the duodenum. The release of these
hormones into the blood is stimulated by the entry of the acidic chyme into the
duodenum.
Group of Pancratic Enzymes
 Proteolytic enzymes: responsible for breaking down proteins into smaller peptides
and amino acids. E.g trypsin, chymotrypsin
 Amylolytic enzymes: breaks down complex carbohydrate like starch into simpler
sugars that the body can absorb. E.g pancreatic amylase
 Lipolytic enzyme: works with bile to break down fats into fatty acids and
glycerol, which are then absorbed by the body. E.g Lipase

The Bile Duct System (Billiary Tree)

The biliary system is a network of organs and ducts that work together to produce, store
and transport bile to the small intestine for digestion. The components of this system
work together to store, concentrate, and transport bile from the liver to the duodenum.
These components are;
 The right and left hepatic ducts emerge from their respective hepatic lobes and represent
the primary drainage pathways for intrahepatic bile.
 The confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts forms the common hepatic duct. This
duct represents the main drainage channel for hepatic bile and serves as the junction point
for bile flow regulation.
 The common hepatic duct demonstrates sophisticated muscular organization with both
circular and longitudinal smooth muscle layers that facilitate bile propulsion.
The cystic duct connects the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct. This structure
exhibits a unique spiral configuration known as the spiral valves of Heister, which

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 regulate bile flow between the gallbladder and the main biliary system. The cystic duct's
muscular wall contains specialized smooth muscle arrangements that respond to
hormonal stimulation, particularly cholecystokinin, to coordinate gallbladder emptying.
 The junction of the common hepatic duct and cystic duct forms the common bile duct.
This structure represents the final common pathway for bile delivery to the duodenum.
The common bile duct traverses the pancreatic head and demonstrates complex
anatomical relationships with pancreatic tissue and blood vessels.

A Diagram Showing the Biliary System

Digestion

Digestion begins in the mouth, which involves both mechanical digestion (through mastication)
and chemical digestion (enzymatic action) of food. The teeth masticate the food, mixing it with
the saliva to form bolus, thereby breaking down carbohydrates and proteins mechanically.
Chemically, salivary amylase begins breaking down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars,
while lingual lipase initiates the breakdown of fats. The food-saliva mixture (bolus) is then
swallowed and passes through the pharynx and the esophagus into the stomach.

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In the stomach, the churning activity of the stomach wall mixes the bolus with acid and enzymes
which further digest the bolus mechanically, and changing it into a fluid-like structure called
chyme. Chemically, gastric juice containing pepsin further breaks down proteins, gastric lipase
breaks down fat, while the high acidity of the stomach stops the action of salivary amylase from
breaking down carbohydrates. The stomach acid also denatures proteins, making them accessible
to enzymes. The stomach takes 40mins to 2hours to complete its digestion.

The partially digested food (chyme) then enters the small intestine, where pancreatic juice
containing enzymes (amylase, lipase, and trypsin/ chymotrypsin) further breaks down
carbohydrates from polysaccharides and disaccharides into monosaccharides, fats into glycerides
or fatty acids, and proteins into amino acids. Bile produced by the liver is also released into the
small intestine, where it emulsifies fats, making them more accessible to enzymes. The broken
down nutrients are then absorbed into the blood stream through the walls of the small intestine.
This aspect of the GIT holds the chyme for 2 to 6 hours before passing it to the large intestine.

The large intestine reabsorbs water and electrolytes, thereby, transforming chyme into feces. NB:
before feces is formed, the remaining undigested macronutrients undergo bacterial fermentation,
producing short-chain fatty acids like acetate and propionate and gases like methane and
carbondioxide. which can take between 10 to 59 hours.

Absorption

Absorption is the process by which the products of digestion are absorbed by the blood to be
supplied to the rest of the body. During this process, the digested products (nutrients) are
transported into the blood or lymph through the mucous membrane through these mechanisms;
passive transport (movement of solute across a cell membrane without energy requirement from
a region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration), facilitated transport (movement
of solute across a cell membrane from higher concentration to region of lower concentration with
the help of carrier proteins), active transport (movement of solute across a cell membrane from a
region of lower concentration to that of higher concentration in expense of energy), co-
transport /secondary active transport (movement of one molecule through the membrane from

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higher to lower concentration to power the movement of another from lower to higher
concentration).

 Carbohydrates: glucose and galactose are absorbed across the apical membrane by
secondary active transport (along with Na+) through the sodium-glucose cotransporter
(SGLT1), while fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
 Proteins: amino acids are absorbed through facilitated diffusion
 Fats: fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed through passive transport.
NB: Digested products from fat cannot be absorbed directly into the blood. These
components attach to micelles which are small droplets and form the micelle-component
complex. These complexes are reformed into chylomicrons (small protein coated fat
globules), which move into the blood. Finally, the digested and absorbed products reach
the tissue where it is utilized.

Metabolism
Metabolism is the process by which the body converts nutrients into energy, builds new
tissues, and repairs damaged ones. After digestion and absorption, nutrients are
transported to the liver for processing and distribution to the rest of the body. The
metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats ultimately leads to the production of
energy. Energy is produced in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the
energy currency of the body. ATP is produced through cellular respiration, which
involves the breakdown of glucose and other nutrients to produce energy.
There are two main processes of metabolism; catabolism- break down of compounds, e.g
glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration, resulting in energy release, and anabolism-
building up (synthesis) of compounds like proteins and carbohydrates, resulting in energy
consumption. Anabolism is essential during an injury, where it plays a role in the healing
process.
Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is then absorbed into the
bloodstream. The liver plays an important role in regulating blood glucose levels. Excess
glucose is converted into glycogen, a complex carbohydrate stored in the liver and

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muscles. This glycogen can be broken down into glucose and released into the blood
stream when energy is needed.
Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are then absorbed into the
bloodstream. The liver helps in regulating amino acid level. Excess amino acids are
converted into urea, which is excreted in the urine. Amino acids can also be used to
synthesize new proteins, which are essential for growth, repair, and maintenance of
tissues.
Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, which are then absorbed into the
bloodstream. The liver helps in regulating fatty acid levels. Excess fatty acids are stored
in adipose tissue.

Defecation

Defecation is the process of eliminating waste from the body through the anus. It is an
involuntary from the colon to the internal anal sphincter, where smooth muscles push
feces out. However, it is under conscious or subconscious control at the level of the
external anal sphincter, which is lined by striated muscles.
The process of defecation begins in the colon, where water and electrolytes are absorbed
from the fecal material, concentrating the waste and forming a solid stool. The muscles in
the colon wall contract and relax in a rhythmic manner, mixing the fecal material and
moving it towards the rectum.
The rectum is the final portion of the large intestine, which helps with the storage and
elimination of feces. It is surrounded by a thick layer of smooth muscle called the
internal anal sphincter, which maintains continence by keeping the anal canal closed.

Defecation Reflex:
When the rectum becomes distended with feces, it stimulates the defecation reflex, a
complex process that involves the coordination of multiple nerves and muscles. This
reflex is initiated by stretching of the rectal walls, which activate the pelvic nerves and
sends signals to the spinal cord. The spinal cord then sends signals to the abdominal
muscles which in turn, contract and increase intra-abdominal pressure. This increased

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pressure pushes the feces into the anal canal. Here, the internal anal sphincter relaxes,
allowing the feces to pass through the anal canal, and then the external anal sphincter also
relaxes, allowing for the voluntary release of feces.

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