The nervous System:

• The human nervous system consists of the:

Central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all of the nerves in the body
• The human nervous system allows us to make sense of our surroundings and
respond to them, as well as to coordinate and regulate body functions
• Information is sent through
the nervous system as nerve
impulses – electrical signals
that pass along nerve cells
known as neurones
• A bundle of neurones is
known as a nerve
• Neurones coordinate the
activities of sensory
receptors (eg. those in the
eye), decision-making
centres in the central
nervous system,
and effectors such as muscles
and glands.

The nervous system is made up of interconnected neurones specialized for the rapid
transmission of impulses throughout the organism. They carry impulses from special
receptors cells. Neurones also carry impulses to specialized effector cells.
✓ Some neurones carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effector
organs called as Motor neurones.
✓ Some neurones found in the central nervous system and connect the sensory
neurones and motor neurones, and relay information. They are called inter
neurones or relay neurones

1
✓ As the animals increase in size
and complexity, they develop
more specialized concentration
of nerve cells which form a
central nervous system. This is
an arc where incoming
information is processed, and
from where impulses are sent
out through motor neurones to
the effectors to make a response.

2
 Schwann cells: wrap around the axon of the long nerves, creating a thick layer of
membrane, which insulates the nerve and allows for much faster conduction speed. The
thick layer of membranes has gaps in it between adjacent Schwann cells, these are called
Nodes of Ranvier. (un insulated and can conduct action potentials).

3
Simple Reflex Arc

• A reflex response (also known as an involuntary response) does not involve

the conscious part of the brain as the coordinator of the reaction
• Awareness of a response having happened occurs after the response has been
carried out
• Responses are therefore automatic and rapid – this helps to minimize damage to
the body and aids survival
o Pain-withdrawal, blinking and coughing are all examples of reflex responses that
help us to avoid serious injury, such as damage to the eye or choking

The reflex arc

• A reflex arc is the pathway of a reflex response (specifically, the pathway taken
by electrical impulses as they travel along neurones)

4
 • An example of a reflex response is the pain-withdrawal reflex that occurs when
someone steps on a pin.

• The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a (pain/pressure/touch) receptor in the skin

on the person's foot.
• A sensory neuron sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
• An electrical impulse is passed to a relay neurone in the spinal cord (part of
the CNS)
• A relay neurone synapses with a motor neurone
• A motor neurone carries an impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
• When stimulated by the motor neurone, the muscle will contract and pull the foot
up and away from the sharp object (the response)
• This all occurs within a fraction of a second

➔ every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma membrane
called membrane potential.
➔ Messages are transmitted as changes in membrane potential.
➔ The resting potential is the membrane potential of a neurone not sending signals. (-
70 mV)

Resting potential: in a resting neurone there are more sodium ions outside the cell
membrane than inside, and more potassium ions inside than outside.

✓ The inside of the resting neurone has a negative charge in comparison to the outside
due to the presence of chloride ions and negatively charged proteins.
✓ This distribution of ions creates a potential difference of about -70 mV called resting
potential and the membrane is said to be polarized.
✓ The sodium-potassium pump creates gradient across the membrane by pumping 3
sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions into the axon.
✓ The voltage gated sodium channels are inactive.
✓ The potassium leak channels allow facilitated diffusion of potassium back out of the
membrane down their concentration gradient, creating the uneven distribution of
change across the membrane.

5
Depolarization of the axon membrane and generation of action potential:

Sequence of events in an action potential;

1. Nerve is at resting membrane potential (-70mV)
2. A stimulus depolarizes the nerve to threshold (-50mV)
3. Voltage-gated Na+ Channels open
4. Sodium floods into the cell and the membrane potential depolarizes to +30mV. This is
the action potential and the membrane is said to be depolarized.

Repolarization of the membrane

5. Voltage-gated K+ Channels open and voltage gated Na+ channels close.

6. Potassium floods out of the cell and the membrane potential falls to -90mV
7. The nerve is in the refractory period and cannot conduct another action potential
8. The 3Na+/2K+ ATPase (Na+/K Pump) restores the ion concentrations
9. The nerve is ready to fire again

Propagation of nerve impulse (action potentials) along the axon. As one part of the
nerve fires off, Na+ diffuses into the next section of the nerve, which depolarizes the nerve
to threshold. This sequence is repeated like a tiny Mexican wave down the axon of the
nerve

6
7
 ✓ During the refractory period after an action potential, a second action potential
cannot be initiated.
✓ The refractory period is a result of a temporary inactivation of the sodium channels.
✓ Absolute refractory period: (action potential peak time) Na+ channels are open or
recovering. Second action potential absolutely cannot initiate during this period.
✓ Relative refractory period: voltage gated K+ channels are open. Membrane is
hyperpolarized. Action potential are more difficult to generate during this period
relative to resting potential.

Nodes of Ranvier speed this conduction process up. When one node depolarizes it induces
the next section of the nerve to depolarize by forming a mini-circuit between nodes. This
causes the action potential to “jump” between nodes of Ranvier, making conduction speed
much faster.

❖ Action potential have an all-or-nothing nature. The values of the resting and
actional potential are always the same for a specific neurone. A bigger stimulus
increases the frequency of the action potentials. A threshold stimulus must be
applied to produce an action potential.

8
 ❖ Straight after an action potential there is a short refractory period when a new
action potential can not be generated because the sodium ion channels can not open.
This ensures that action potentials pass along as separate signals and are
unidirectional, only able to pass in one direction.

The Acetyl choline is broken down by an enzyme called Acetyl Choline Esterase (AchE),
which allows the postsynaptic receptors to be freed ready for a second synapse.

In a neuromuscular junction the sequence of events in the synapse is exactly the same. The
only difference is that the postsynaptic nerve is a muscle cell and, instead of being flat, the
postsynaptic membrane has deep grooves (t tubules) which allow the depolarization to
spread quickly through the muscle so all parts of the muscle contract at the same time.

Some neurotransmitters can hyperpolarize postsynaptic nerves, which essentially switches

them off. An example of this type of inhibitory neurotransmitter is GABA

9
 Cholinergic synapses Adrenergic synapses

Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Noradrenaline

System Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Effect on mood Calming Increased energy,

alertness, and euphoria

Drugs increasing transmission Nicotine Cocaine and

at synapse amphetamines.

10
 Excitatory post synaptic potential Inhibitory post synaptic potential [IPSP]
[EPSP]
• Opening of Na channels • Opening of chloride channels and
• K and Cl channels are not opened chloride ion influx
• Both the above actions cause • Increased efflux of K ions.
increased positivity of the • Both cause increased negativity inside
neuron and so excitation that the neuron leading to the repolarization
lead to depolarization which and inhibition of the nerve impulse.
generates Action potentials that Thus Action potential will not be
meet threshold and conduct initiated.
impulse.
• Multiple EPSPs sum up to
conduct impulse.

• If the sum of the two EPSPs (E1 + E2) depolarizes the postsynaptic neuron
sufficiently to reach the threshold potential, a postsynaptic action potential
result. Summation thus allows subthreshold EPSPs to influence action
potential production

Pupil reflex in high light intensity Pupil reflex in low light intensity

In high light intensity photo receptors such In low light intensity fewer impulses reach
as rods in the retina cause nerve impulses to the coordinating centre of the brain. The
pass along the optic nerve to a group of cells brain sends impulses through sympathetic
in the brain. The strength of action potential neurones to the radial muscles of the iris.
detected by the brain and the para The radial iris muscles contract and the
sympathetic neurones to the circular pupil becomes dilated, allowing more light
muscles. The circular muscles contract, to reach the retina.
reducing the pupil diameter. So less light
can enter the eye, thus prevent damage to
retina

11
the Effects of Drugs on a Synapse

• Chemical or drugs can have a major impact on the functioning of the brain and
nervous system
• Some prescription drugs can have a beneficial effect on those suffering from
neurological disorders while recreational drugs can have a damaging or even fatal
effect
• Many drugs have been found to produce a specific effect on synaptic transmission
• They can have different modes of action such as:
o Stimulating the release of a neurotransmitter
o Providing the chemicals needed to synthesize neurotransmitters
o Acting in the same way as a neurotransmitter by binding to the same specific
receptor
o Preventing the reuptake of the neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neurone
• Research is ongoing to further understand how several drugs work in the hopes that
they can be used to treat nervous disorders.

Dopamine

• There are many different neurotransmitters that bind to specific receptor

molecules
• They are often restricted to certain regions of the brain so that they have a specific
function
• Some are excitatory and some are inhibitory
o Excitatory neurotransmitters result in the production of an action potential
o Inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent the production of an action potential.
They do this by causing potassium ions to leave the postsynaptic
membrane
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in muscle control
• Individuals that suffer from Parkinson's disease produce insufficient amounts of
dopamine
• There are two types of drugs that are used to treat this disease
o A dopamine agonist - produces the same effect as dopamine by binding to
the same receptors
o A dopamine precursor - this can be used to synthesize dopamine in the
neurones

12
MDMA[3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine]

• MDMA stimulates the release of multiple neurotransmitters most

notably, serotonin
• Serotonin can affect people in many ways including their mood, anxiety and sleep
• When an individual takes MDMA they may feel extreme euphoria and enhanced
touch and bodily sensations.

Nicotine

• Nicotine is the additive drug found in tobacco. It mimics the effect of acetylcholine
and binds to the specific acetylcholine receptors in post-synaptic neuron.
• It triggers an action potential in the post synaptic neuron membrane, but then the
receptors remain unresponsive to more stimulation for some time.
• Nicotine causes rise in heart rate and blood pressure. It also triggers the release of
another type of neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain called dopamine.
• This is associated with pleasure sensations. At low doses, nicotine has a stimulating
effect but at high doses it blocks acetylcholine receptors and can kill.
• It is highly addictive drug. People trying to stop smoking cigarettes, with their lethal
load of carcinogens and other toxins, often need to replace the nicotine to help them
do so.

Lidocaine:
• Lidocaine is a drug used as a local
anaesthetic. It is used by dentists before
drilling or removing tooth.
• Lidocaine molecules block volage gated
sodium channels, preventing the production of
action potential in sensory nerves and so it
prevents you feeling pain.
• It is also used to prevent some heart
arrhythmias.

Cobra venom
• Cobra venom is a substance made by several species of cobra. It is toxic and often
fatal in snake bites.
• It binds reversibly to acetylcholine receptors in post synaptic neurone membranes
at neuro-muscular junctions. Thus, prevents transmission of impulses.
• Prevents the opening of Na channels and action potentials are not generated at
neuromuscular junctions to stimulate muscle contraction and causes paralysis.
• Use of antivenom dissociates the toxin receptor complex, which leads to the reversal
of paralysis.

13
14
Photo receptors in eye:

The photo receptors of the eye are located in

the inner most layer, retina.

The rods are the cells with a photosensitive

pigment Rhodopsin and are sensitive for
black and white vision.

The cones are the cells with outer segments

cone shaped. They are responsible for colour
vision. They contain a pigment called
iodopsin.

The outer segments of the rods and cones

face the retina layer where light rays reach.

The cones are densely located in the region of fovea and gives high visual acuity. The rods
and cones make synapses with bipolar neurone and the bipolar neurones, which conduct
the impulses to the central nervous system through optic nerve.

The Human Retina

• The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour
• Receptors are groups of specialized cells that can generate an electrical impulse in a
sensory neurone
• The eye contains two types of receptor cell:
o Rod cells which are sensitive to light intensity
o Cone cells which are sensitive to different wavelengths of visible light (colour)

Structure

• The purpose of the eye is to receive light and focus it onto the retina at the back of
the eye
• The retina is where the rod and cone cells are located
o There are roughly 125 million rods and 7 million cones distributed on the
retina

Sensitivity to light and colour

• The rods and cones contain optical pigments that absorb light and then break down
o Rod cells contain rhodopsin
o Cone cells contain iodopsin

15
 • The breakdown of optical pigments results in a generator potential being produced
• The pigments within the receptors are broken down by different conditions
o Rhodopsin within rods breaks down in dim light
o Iodopsin within cones breaks down in bright light only
• The receptors have different sensitivities to light
o Sensitivity refers to the amount of light required to stimulate the receptor
• Rods are very sensitive to even low light intensities
o They allow humans to distinguish between light and dark objects when light is
very dim
o They do not allow humans to see in colour
• Cones are less sensitive to light
o They are sensitive to different wavelengths of light
o There are three cone types found in human eyes, each contains a different
optical pigment
o Each pigment is sensitive to light of a different wavelength
▪ Red-sensitive cones are sensitive to wavelengths of light that
correspond to the colour red
▪ Blue-sensitive cones are sensitive to wavelengths of light that
correspond to the colour blue
▪ Green-sensitive cones are sensitive to wavelengths of light that
correspond to the colour green
o The combined effect of all three pigments allows humans to observe all the
other colours that are on the visible spectrum

Visual acuity

• Acuity is the ability to distinguish two separate points, otherwise known as 'visual
clarity'
o Those who can read the smallest letters on an opticians board have high
visual acuity
• There are over 130 million receptors (rods and cones) on the retina
• Receptors that are hit by light rays become stimulated and those that are not hit by
light rays remain unstimulated
• Once a receptor is stimulated it can send impulses to the brain
• The brain is able to interpret the pattern of impulses to form an image
• There is no direct connection between rods and cones and the central nervous
system
• There are synapses connecting the rods and cones to bipolar neurones
• The bipolar neurones connect to ganglion cells via synapses
• The ganglion cells have axons that extend to the optic nerve which is directly
connected to the brain
• Due to the high number of receptors on the retina, it is not possible for there to be
individual connections between each receptor and the brain
• The way that rods and cones are connected to the optic nerve affects visual acuity
o Visual acuity is essentially the resolution or amount of detail that is perceived
in an image
o It is measured by how far apart two spots of light need to be in order to be
seen separately

16
Rod cells provide lower visual acuity

• Multiple rod cells synapse with a single bipolar cell

• Multiple bipolar cells synapse with a single ganglion cell
• Approximately 100 rod cells are synoptically connected to a single ganglion cell
• The brain is not able to interpret which impulses are sent by specific rods
• If multiple rod cells connected to the same bipolar cell detect light, only one impulse
from the bipolar cell is sent
• Therefore, the brain receives a general, not specific, understanding of the fields of
vision that are light or dark

Cone cells provide higher visual acuity

• A single cone cell synapses with a single bipolar cell

• A single bipolar cell synapses with a single ganglion cell
• If two cones are stimulated to send an impulse the brain is able to interpret these
as two different spots of light

Rods and cones are connected to the optic nerve in different ways. The type of
connection affects visual acuity.

17
 • As cone cells detect only one of three colours (red, green or blue) the brain will
receive information about the colour of light detected by the stimulated cone cell and
where this light is
• This is because the brain knows which bipolar cell connects to which cone cell

Each cone produces its own impulse when stimulated

Summation

• There is a benefit to how the rods are connected to the optical nerve
• Each rod is very sensitive to light however a single stimulated rod is unlikely to
produce a large enough generator potential to stimulate the bipolar cell for the
conduction of nerve impulses
• When a group of rods are stimulated at the same time the combined generator
potentials are sufficient to reach the threshold and stimulate the bipolar cell for
the conduction of nerve impulses onwards towards the optic nerve
• This additive effect of rods is known as summation
• Summation produces a less sharp image but enables organisms to see in much
dimmer light than cones allow
• Nocturnal animals tend to have mostly or solely rods present in their eyes.

18
19
Habituation
Habituation is defined as a decrease in
response to a repeated stimulus.
For example, if you have ever noticed a smell
when your nose first comes in contact with
the odor, but sometime later, you don't even
notice that there is an odor present. In this
case, your sense of smell has demonstrated
habituation. You have stopped responding to
the odor even though the odor is still
present. This is a decreased responsiveness to the stimulus. Habituation can occur through
neural adaptation in sensory nerves themselves and through negative feedback from the
brain to peripheral sensory organs.
Study of the gill-withdrawal reflex in the sea slug Aplysia has provided insight into short-
term learning processes This simple behavior exhibits three of the most elementary forms
of learning familiar in vertebrates: habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning.
Habituation is a decrease in behavioral response to a stimulus following repeated exposure
to the stimulus with no adverse effect. If the siphon of a sea slug is touched 10 – 15 times in
rapid sequence, the gill-withdrawal response decreases to about one-third of its initial
intensity. This habituative response is due to a progressive decrease in the amount of
glutamate neurotransmitter released by the siphon sensory neurons at their synapses with
the motor neurons. In other words, repeated weak touching of the siphon (conditioned
stimulus) leads to a decrease in the magnitude of the excitatory postsynaptic potential.

20
In all animals, including humans, control and coordination occur with the help neurons and
a chemical substance called hormones A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic building block of
the nervous system. The neuron is a specialized cell, which functions by transmitting
information throughout the body. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted
directly into the blood by the specialized glands called the endocrine glands. There are
different types of hormones, secreted by different glands and serve as messengers
throughout the body.
Similarities between Nervous and Hormonal mechanism for Control and Coordination in
Animals

• Both Nervous and Hormonal systems work as a receptor and affecter organ.
• Both Nervous and Hormonal systems are controlled by Central nervous system -
Human brain.
Differences between Nervous and Hormonal mechanism for Control and
Coordination in Animals

21
 Nervous system Hormonal system

Transmits information through electrical Transmits information through blood

impulses. cells.

Signal transmission is fast Signal transmission is slow

The effects are short-lived. It has prolonged effects.

Affects only a particular part of the body. Affect different organs of the body

No changes to metabolic processes Effect metabolic processes

22
23
24
25
◼ Phytochrome is a photoreceptor, a pigment that plants use to detect light. It is sensitive
to light in the red and far-red region of the visible spectrum.
◼ Many flowering plants use it to regulate the time of flowering based on the length of day
and night (photoperiodism) and to set circadian rhythms.
◼ It also regulates other responses including the germination of seeds, elongation of
seedlings, the size, shape and number of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the
straightening of the epicotyl or hypocotyl hook of dicot seedlings.
◼ There are two isoforms of phytochrome - Pr
(phytochrome Red) and Pfr (Phytochrome Far
Red). The Pr isoform absorbs red light (at
660nm) while the Pfr isoform absorbs far-red
light (at 730nm). Absorption of light causes
phytochrome to inter-convert. Hence, red light
makes Pfr, far-red light makes Pr.

26
◼ Phytochrome is made by the plant in the Pr form. Since daylight contains a lot of red
light, during the day phytochrome is mostly converted to the Pfr form. At night,
phytochrome will slowly convert back to the Pr form. Treatment with far-red light will
also convert Pfr back to Pr. Since plants use red light for photosynthesis, and reflect and
transmit far-red light, the shade of other plants also can make Pfr into Pr, triggering a
response called shade avoidance
◼ The action of the two forms is usually antagonistic , that is where Pr induces a response
P fr inhibits the response.
◼ During day light Pr is converted to Pfr.
◼ In the dark Pfr is converted into Pr
◼ Phytochrome provides a mechanism to detect the day light or night (photoperiod]
◼ Long day plants which flower when the period of day light exceeds a critical minimum
length eg: radish, clover, barley and petunia.
◼ Short day plants: Which only flower when the period of da light is shorter than critical
maximum length. Eg. Chrysanthemum, poinsettia and tobacco
◼ Day neutral plants: these plants flower regardless of the length of day light. Eg.
Cucumber, begonia, violets and carrot.
◼ Florigen (or flowering hormone) is the hypothesized hormone-like molecule responsible
for controlling and/or triggering flowering in plants. Florigen is produced in the
leaves, and acts in the shoot apical meristem of buds and growing tips. They are
produced in response to the changes in the levels of phytochromes.
Effects of red and far red light
Pr- changes to Pfr Pfr- changes to Pr
Stimulates germination of some seeds eg. Inhibits germination of some seeds eg.
Letuce Letuce
Induces formation of plant pigments Inhibits formation of plant pigments
(anthocyanins)
Stimulates flowering in long day plants Inhibits flowering in long day plants
Inhibits flowering in short day plants Stimulates flowering in short day plants

Inhibits elongation of internodes Promotes elongation of internodes

Induces increase of leaf area Prevents increase of leaf area
Causes epicotyl hook to unbend Maintains epicotyls hook bent

27
28
29
• What is known is that auxins can be synthesized by all plants and have the ability to affect
cell growth, cell division and cell differentiation.
• They are known to have different effects in different parts of the plant. In the stem,
auxins allow the plant to grow towards light by elongating the cells on one side of the
stem, making it bend towards the light.
• In the root, auxins induce new root formation, either by encouraging elongation of the
root or, at the right concentrations, encouraging the root to grow branches.
Gibberellic acids (Gibberellins) are naturally occurring plant hormones that are used
as plant growth regulators to stimulate both cell division and elongation that affects
leaves and stems.
• Gibberellins have striking growth-promoting effects. They speed the elongation of
dwarf varieties to normal sizes and promote flowering, stem and root elongation,
and growth of fruit. Such elongation resembles in some respects that caused by IAA, and
gibberellin also induces IAA formation.
• Gibberellins cause seed germination by breaking the seed's dormancy and acting as a
chemical messenger. Its hormone binds to a receptor, and calcium activates the protein
calmodulin, and the complex binds to DNA, producing an enzyme to stimulate growth in
the embryo.

30
31
Recombinant DNA technology involves the transfer of fragments of DNA from one
organism, or species, to another. Since the genetic code is universal, as are transcription
and translation mechanisms, the transferred DNA can be translated within cells of the
recipient (transgenic) organism.

Fragments of DNA can be produced by several methods, including:

• conversion of mRNA to complementary DNA (cDNA), using reverse transcriptase

• using restriction enzymes to cut a fragment containing the desired gene from DNA

32
▪ A shows a stretch of DNA, within
which is the sequence GAATTC. That
sequence is a restriction site (B). It’s
recognized by a restriction enzyme (C),
▪ This enzyme acts as a type of molecular
scissors, cutting the sugar phosphate
bonds in the DNA between the
nucleotide bases guanine and adenine
▪ The result is two DNA fragments (D),
each with a “sticky end ” (E). The ends
are sticky because they contain exposed
nucleotide bases that are ready to form
hydrogen bonds with complementary
nucleotides.
• Letter “F” represents a second stretch of
DNA from another species or organism
that’s been cut with the same restriction
enzyme. If that piece of DNA (F) is mixed with the DNA fragments at “D,” then the two can
combine as is shown in “G.” “H” represents a gap: a missing sugar-phosphate bond that
would connect the fragments into a single strand.
• DNA ligase (i). DNA ligase creates sugar-phosphate bonds between adjacent nucleotides.
Once ligase has done its work, you have recombinant DNA (J): DNA molecule with
sequences from different species

33
34
35
A microarray is a laboratory tool
used to detect the expression
of thousands of genes at the
same time. DNA microarrays
are microscope slides that are
printed with thousands of tiny
spots in defined positions, with
each spot containing a known
DNA sequence or gene.

36
Transgenic plants are plants that have been genetically engineered, a breeding approach
that uses recombinant DNA techniques to create plants with new characteristics. They are
identified as a class of genetically modified organism (GMO). For example: Golden Rice and
BT Corn.

THE ADVANTAGES OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS:

•Reduced need for herbicides
•Reduced need of pesticides
•Reduced greenhouse emissions as GMOs require less tillage or plowing, thus less
use of fossil fuels
• Ability to manipulate foods to increase desirable components such as nutrients
• Increased production of food for starving third world countries.
DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS:
• A preliminary study from the Russian National Academy of Sciences finding that
more than half the offspring of mother rats fed GM soy died within three weeks
(compared to 9% from mothers fed natural soy).
• The estimated 10,000 sheep that died in India within 5-7 days of grazing on GM
cotton plants engineered to produce their own Bt-toxin pesticide.
• The only human GM feeding study ever published, which shows that the foreign
genes inserted into GM food crops can transfer into the DNA of our gut bacteria.
This study gives new meaning to the adage, “You are what you eat.” Long after
those GM corn chips you munched are history, your intestinal flora may still be
churning out the “Bt” [Bacillus thuringiensis ] pesticide GM corn plants have
been engineered to produce.

37
• Bioinformatics is the application of tools of computation and analysis to the capture
and interpretation of biological data
• Bioinformatics is essential for management of data in modern biology and medicine
• The bioinformatics toolbox includes computer software programs such as BLAST
and Ensemble, which depend on the availability of the internet
• Analysis of genome sequence data, particularly the analysis of the human genome
project, is one of the main achievements of bioinformatics to date
• Prospects in the field of bioinformatics include its future contribution to functional
understanding of the human genome, leading to enhanced discovery of drug targets
and individualized therapy.
38