The above equation shows that carbon dioxide and water are turned into glucose and oxygen in a

plant, using light as energy. Since 6 water molecules are released at the end, out of 12 absorbed,
the net equation of photosynthesis as follows. 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2.

The carbon dioxide enters the plant by stomata (in the leaves) or lenticels (in the stem). The
water enters through the roots and moves up through the plant in xylem vessels. Light is required
as an energy source for the reaction and chlorophyll is necessary to absorb the light.
The glucose made may be used to make other substances or it may be used in respiration. The
oxygen may diffuse out through the stomata or it may be used in respiration. Light energy is
necessary but it must be harvested and trapped by the photosynthetic pigments to be of any use.
Chlorophyll absorbs light from the visible part of the electromagnetic part of the spectrum, but
there are several types of chlorophyll...Not all wavelengths of light are equally absorbed and
different chlorophylls absorb more strongly in different parts of the visible spectrum.
 ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) provides
energy for chemical
reactions in the cells.
ATP is synthesized using
the light energy during
light dependent
reactions.

When
energy
is
needed,
a

phosphate is removed from ATP to give ADP and a phosphate. The energy released is used for
the chemical reactions. During photosynthesis ATP is synthesized in the light dependent reactions
and is used in light independent reactions.

(a) Light is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules (green) on membranes inside the chloroplast.

▪ This is the light trapping stage in which photons of light

are absorbed by the chlorophyll and turned into
chemical energy (electrons).
▪ (b) The chemical energy (electrons) is trapped in
making ATP.
▪ c ) Photolysis: Water used in photosynthesis is split
which provides:

▪ Hydrogen for the formation of organic molecules.

(C6H12O6) * oxygen gas is given off.
 Photosystems: The pigments are arranged in funnel shaped
photosystems that sit on the thylakoid membranes in the chloroplasts.
In each photosystem, several hundred pigment molecules,
called accessory pigments, are clustered around a particular pigment
molecule, known as the primary pigment.

The various accessory pigments absorb light of different wavelengths

and pass the energy down the photosystem. Eventually the energy
reaches the primary pigment that acts as a reaction center.

There are 2 types of photosystem:

• Photosystem One - PS I:
Its primary pigment is a molecule of chlorophyll a with an absorption peak at 700nm. It is
called P700
• Photosystem Two - PS II:
Its primary pigment is a molecule of chlorophyll b with an absorption peak at 680nm. It is
called [Link] I are situated next to PS II on the thylakoid membrane.

Robert Hill (2 April 1899–15 March 1991), was a British plant biochemist who, in 1939,
demonstrated the 'Hill reaction' of photosynthesis, proving that oxygen is evolved during the light
requiring steps of photosynthesis. He also made significant contributions to the development of
the Z-scheme of oxygenic photosynthesis.

Light Dependent Reactions: (light reactions)/ Hill’s

reactions.

The first reactions of photosynthesis require light

energy, and are called light dependent
reactions.

The aim is to produce ATP from ADP and

inorganic P and harvest hydrogen so that
carbon dioxide can be reduced to form a
carbohydrate in the second series of reactions. The
production of ATP using light is called
photophosphorylation. During this process an
inorganic phosphate is added to ADP and the
energy is trapped in the ATP molecule.

There are many electron carriers

involved, but the one that you must know about is NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate).
When light is absorbed by PS I and PS II, electrons in the chlorophyll molecule are boosted
to higher energy levels. They are emitted and passed on to electron carriers.
 The loss of electrons from PS II causes the splitting of water. The water gives up its
electrons to PS II to fill the gap.
This leaves oxygen, which is given off as waste, and hydrogen ions. The electrons are
passed through a series of electron carriers at successively lower energy levels. This means
that energy is released and used to form ATP out of ADP and P.
This occurs in a similar way to ATP production in mitochondria.
The energy is actually used to pump hydrogen ions from the stroma across the thylakoid
membrane. This creates an electrochemical gradient. As the hydrogen ions diffuse back
down the concentration gradient they flow through proteins. Part of each protein is ATP
synthetase.

The energy released as the hydrogen ions diffuse down the concentration gradient is used to
synthesize ATP. The electron eventually reaches PS I and fills the space.

Non- cyclic photophosphorylation: involves both photosystems (PS 2 and PS 1) . Light is absorbed
by PS2 (located in the thylakoid membrane and passed to the PS2 primary pigment (P680).

✓ A pair of electrons in the chlorophyll a (primary pigment) is excited to a higher energy level
and is emitted from the chlorophyll molecule in a process known as photoactivation.
✓ This excited electron passed down a chain of carriers known as an electron transport chain,
before being passed on the photosystem 1. During this process ATP is synthesized from
ADP and an inorganic phosphate group (Pi) by the process of chemiosmosis.
✓ The ATP then passes to the light independent reactions. Photosystem 2 contains a water-
splitting enzyme called the oxygen-evolving complex which catalyzes the breakdown of
water by light.
✓ As the excited electron leave the primary pigment of photosystem 2 and are passed on to
photosystem 1, they are replaced by electrons from the photolysis of water.

• Cyclic photophosphorylation involves photosystem I (PSI) only

• Light is absorbed by photosystem I (located in the thylakoid membrane) and passed to the
photosystem I primary pigment (P700)
• An electron in the primary pigment molecule (i.e. the chlorophyll molecule) is excited to
a higher energy level and is emitted from the chlorophyll molecule in a process known
as photoactivation
• This excited electron is captured by an electron acceptor, transported via a chain of
electron carriers known as an electron transport chain before being passed back to the
chlorophyll molecule in photosystem I (hence: cyclic)
• As electrons pass through the electron transport chain, they provide energy to transport
protons (H+) from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen via a proton pump
• A build-up of protons in the thylakoid lumen can then be used to drive the synthesis of
ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate group (Pi) by the process of chemiosmosis
• Chemiosmosis is the movement of chemicals (protons) down their concentration gradient,
the energy released from this can be used by ATP synthase to synthesize ATP
• The ATP then passes to the light-independent reactions
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation` Cyclic photophosphorylation

Both photosystems PSI and PSII are involved Only PS I is involved

Electrons pass from PSII to PSI and finally Electrons pass from PS I and reach PS I
accepted by NADP
Electrons lost by PS II are replaced by Electrons lost by PS I are replaced by
photolysis of water. Photolysis of water is done. returning back to PS I . No photolysis is
required.
End products are ATP, NADPH and oxygen End products is only ATP.
The Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate and Glycerate 3 Phosphate molecules are used to make
essential biological molecules.
✓ Simple sugars (glucose) are made by joining two GALP molecules together and
polysaccharides (starch and cellulose) are made by joining hexose sugars together in
different ways. The production of glucose is very important as it is used in respiration, which
provides the energy needed for biological process.
✓ Glycerol is synthesized from GALP which can be used to make triglycerides.
✓ Some of the Glycerate phosphate formed during Calvin cycle is used in the synthesis of
fatty acids and some amino acids.
✓ The sugars in the nucleic acids (RNA & DNA) are also synthesized from GALP.

understand the structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis

Stroma: the colorless matrix of chloroplast, consist of enzymes catalyze carbon fixation
(carbohydrate synthesis). The reactions of light independent stage occur in stroma.
Grana: piles of thylakoids, that consists of photosynthetic pigments. Thylakoid is a membrane
bound lamella (sac) usually arranged one above the other to form granum. The membranes of
thylakoids consist of photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, xanthophyll,
carotenoids and carrier proteins involved in electron transport.
Thylakoid space: space in the thylakoid where photolysis of water (water molecules breaks down
to oxygen and hydrogen) occurs.
Double membrane envelope- controls the entry and exit of the molecules. Carbon dioxide, water
and necessary metabolites enter the stroma through the membrane. The sugar synthesized in the
chloroplast can be transported out of chloroplast through the membrane.
Ribosomes and circular DNA- Rings of DNA consists of few genes needed to transcribe the
proteins involved in photosynthesis locally in the chloroplast. Ribosomes are the sites of
translation, during which polypeptide chains of protein is synthesized.
. understand what is meant by the term’s absorption spectrum and action spectrum

Absorption and Action Spectrums

The action spectrum shows the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths.

The absorption spectrum shows how strongly the pigments absorb light at different wavelengths.

The absorption spectrum and action spectrum show that the wavelengths that are most strongly
absorbed (red and blue) are the ones that cause photosynthesis to proceed at the fastest rate.
Green is not strongly absorbed; rather it is reflected, causing leaves to look green.

The shorter the wavelength, the more energy it contains. During photosynthesis the light energy is
converted into chemical energy. The absorbed light excites electrons in the pigment molecules and
the energy can be passed on to be used by the plant.
To separate the photosynthetic pigments the leaf pigments are extracted using leaves such as
spinach. The pigment is applied on the chromatogram paper at one end as shown in the above
figure. The chromatogram paper is kept in organic solvent. The different coloured pigments travel
different distances in the chromatogram paper and observed as shown in the figure. The Rf values
are calculated.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑓 = distance travelled by the solvent front.

As a brief review, we recognize that some organisms are capable of synthesizing organic
molecules from inorganic precursors, and of storing biochemical energy in the process. These are
called autotrophs, meaning "self-feeding." Autotrophs also are referred to as primary producers.
Organisms able to manufacture complex organic molecules from simple inorganic compounds
(water, CO2, nutrients) include plants, some protists, and some bacteria. The process by which
they do this usually is photosynthesis, and as its name implies, photosynthesis requires light.
The Process of Primary Production

The general term "Production" is the creation of new organic matter.

(Definition: the synthesis and storage of organic molecules during the growth and reproduction of
photosynthetic organisms).
When a crop of wheat grows, new organic matter is created by the process of photosynthesis,
which converts light energy into energy stored in chemical bonds within plant tissue. This energy
fuels the metabolic machinery of the plant. New compounds and structures are synthesized, cells
divide, and the plant grows in size over time.

To be very precise about our definitions of "production", and we need to make the terms
associated with production very clear.

* Gross Primary Production, GPP, is the total amount of CO2 that is fixed by the plant in
photosynthesis in a unit time and unit area.

* Respiration, R, is the amount of CO2 that is lost from an organism or system from metabolic
activity. Respiration can be further divided into components that reflect the source of the CO2.

Rp =Respiration by Plants

Rh = Respiration by Heterotrophs

Rd = Respiration by Decomposers (the microbes)

* Net Primary Production, NPP, is the net amount of primary production after the costs of plant
respiration are included. Therefore, NPP = GPP - R
* Net Ecosystem Production, NEP, is the net amount of primary production after the costs of
respiration by plants, heterotrophs, and decomposers are all included. Therefore, NEP = GPP -
(Rp + Rh + Rd)

A measure of Net Ecosystem Production is of great interest when determining the CO2 balance
between various ecosystems, or the entire earth, and the atmosphere.

Measuring Primary Production: You may already have some idea of how one measures primary
production. There are two general approaches: one can measure either (a) the rate of
photosynthesis, or (b) the rate of increase in plant biomass.

Production, Standing Crop, and Turnover: The primary Production can be expressed as the
rate of formation of new material, per unit of earth's surface, per unit of time. The production is
reported as calories/m2/year (energy) or grams/m2/year (dry organic matter).

Standing crop, on the other hand, is a measure of the biomass of the system at a single point in
time, and is measured as calories or grams per m2. The difference between production and
standing crop is a crucial one, and can be illustrated by the following question. Should a forester,
interested in harvesting the greatest yield from a plot, be more interested in the forest's standing
crop or its primary production? Well, the key element to the answer is "TIME". If the forester wants
a short-term investment (i.e., to cut the forest down), then the higher the standing crop the better. If
instead the forester wants to manage the forest over time, then the rate at which the forest
produces new biomass is critical.

The ratio of the standing crop to the production (Standing Crop / Production) is equal to the
Turnover of the system. By dividing standing crop (units of g/m2) by production (units of g/m2/yr),
you can see that the turnover is in units of 1/(1/yr) = year in this example. Thus, the stock or
standing crop of any material divided by the rate of production gives you a measure of time. Notice
how similar (really, identical) this turnover time is to the residence time that you learned about in
earlier lectures. It is really important to consider this element of "time" whenever you are thinking
about almost any aspect of an organism or an ecosystem. Learning about how much of something
is happening and how fast it is changing is a critical aspect of understanding the system well
enough to make decisions; for example, the decision of the forester above may be driven by
economic concerns or by conservation concerns, but the "best" choice for either of those concerns
still depends on an
understanding of the
production, standing crop,
and turnover of the forest.

Summary of Primary
Production
• Organisms are
characterized as
autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
Autotrophs produce
their own food by
fixing energy through
photosynthesis or,
less commonly,
chemosynthesis.
Heterotrophs must
feed on other
organisms to obtain
energy.
• Primary production is the creation of new organic matter by plants and other autotrophs. It
can be described per unit area for individual ecosystems or worldwide. Production also is a
rate, measured per time unit, while standing crop biomass is the amount of plant matter at a
given point in time. The ratio of standing crop to production is called turnover. The turnover
time of a system is important in determining how a system function.
• Production rates can be quantified by a simple method by which oxygen or carbon
production is measured. Production can also be quantified by measuring the rate of new
biomass accumulation over time. The distinction between gross primary production (GPP),
net primary production (NPP), and net ecosystem production (NEP) is critical for
understanding the energy balance in plants and in whole ecosystems.
 • Production varies among ecosystems, as well as over time within ecosystems. Rates of
production are determined by such factors as climate and nutrient supply. Precipitation is
the dominant control worldwide, but nutrient availability often limits primary production in any
particular, local system.

Ecosystem: The interaction of the living organisms among themselves and their interaction with
the environmental (abiotic) factors.
Habitat: In ecology, a habitat is where a species of organism lives or thrives. It is the natural
environment of that species. A habitat meets all the environmental conditions an organism needs
to survive.
Population: The total number of organisms of one species in a habitat in a unit area and in a unit
time. Eg. There were 27000 elephants in India during as per the senses took in the year 2017.
Community: All the populations of different species in a habitat in unit area and in unit time.

In a habitat a species occupies a specific niche determine by environmental conditions (biotic and
abiotic factors) and the way that the species uses the habitat (food, shelter, feeding times, etc.)
The distribution (where they are) and abundance (how many) are determined by these conditions.
Change in these conditions can therefore lead to change in distribution and abundance.

Ecosystems are made up of biotic and abiotic components. The organisms which
comprise the biotic components collectively known as the community. There is a close
association between living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Both affect
each other and are equally important for the ecosystem. The environment in which the
organisms live will be determined by a range of physical or abiotic factors such as light,
heat and moisture.

Example: a beetle living on a fallen tree trunk it is the details of the temperature and
moisture on the log which matter. However, an organism’s habitat is not solely a matter
of physical conditions. Its environment may be modified, or even mainly determined, by
the other living organisms (biotic factors). No matter how good the abiotic conditions,
an organism may not thrive if this also the effect location for its main competition and
predators or lacks its preferred food or nesting materials and so on.
The Biotic factors which affect the survival and distribution of an organism include:

Intra specific factors: those which occur between

members of the same species, such as competition for
food and territory. For example, the barnacles living on
moist rock compete for the nutrients and space to attach
to it. The older barnacles grow in size and the younger
ones have to struggle for the space and may detach from
the substratum due to tides.
Interspecific factors: those which occur between members of
different species, such as predator-prey interactions, host –parasite
interactions, competitive exclusion and resource partitioning (specialization
by different species to make use of different resources).
Other detailed mutualistic relationships such as species-specific pollinators
and fruit dispersal agents.

Other detailed mutualistic relationships such as species-specific pollinators

and fruit dispersal agents.
 Abiotic components:
Light: light is the source of energy for photosynthesis and is essential for life,
but it also influences living organisms in other ways. The intensity, quality (wavelength
or colour), and the duration (photoperiod) of light can all have different effects. The
intensity of light varies with latitude, season, time of the day and aspect of slope.
Photoperiod or day light is more or less constant 12 hours at the equator but at higher
latitudes it varies seasonally. Plants and animals of higher latitudes typically show
photoperiodic responses that
synchronize their activities with the
season, such as flowering and
germination in plants, migration,
hibernation and reproduction of
animals. The need for light by plants
has important effect on the structure of
communities. Aquatic plants confined
to surface layers of water, and in
terrestrial ecosystems competition for
light favors certain strategies such as
gaining height through growing tall or
climbing, and increasing leaf surface
area. In woodland this results in
stratification
The main source of heat is the Sun’s radiation. Geothermal sources are
important only in minority habitats, such as the growth of bacteria in hot springs. A given
organism will survive only within a certain temperature range for which it is metabolically
and structurally adapted. It the temperature of the living cells fall far below freezing, the
cell usually physically damaged and killed by the formation of ice crystals. At the other
extreme, if the temperatures are too high, proteins become denatured. Between the
extremes enzyme-controlled reactions, and hence metabolic activity, double in the rate
with every 100 C rise. As with light intensity, temperature is broadly dependent on
latitude, seasons, time of the day and aspect of slope.
Moisture and salinity: Water is essential for life and is one the major limiting
factors in the terrestrial ecosystems. Plants can be classified according to their ability
to tolerate water shortage as xerophytes (high tolerance to water shortage),
mesophytes (medium tolerance) and hydrophytes (water-adapted). Similarly, terrestrial
animals show adaptations for gaining and conserving water, particularly in dry habitats.
Aquatic animals also are distributed in different habitats based on the salinity
tolerance. Species living in fresh water and marine waters do have specific adaptations
to their habitats. Relatively few plants and animals can withstand large fluctuations in
salinity, such as are found in estuaries or salt marshes. One example is the snail
Hydrobiaulvae which can survive a range of salinities from 50 – 1600 mmol dm-3 of
 sodium chloride. Salinity may also be important in terrestrial habitats; if evaporation
exceeds precipitation, soils may become saline. This is a serious problem in some
irrigated areas.

The pattern of atmospheric circulation will affect the distribution of pollutants and their
eventual precipitation in rainfall. Wind can interact with other environmental variables
to affect growth of vegetation, particularly trees exposed places, where they may
become stunted and distorted on their windward sides. Wind is also important in
increasing evaporation and transpiration under conditions of low humidity. Dispersal of
spores, seeds and so on through the atmosphere, aided by wind, increases the spread
of non-motile organisms, like plants, fungi and some bacteria.
Topography: The influence of topography is intimately connected with the
abiotic factors since it can strongly influence local climate and soil development. The
main topographic point is altitude (height of a place). Higher altitudes are associated
with lower average temperatures and a greater diurnal (daytime) temperature range,
higher precipitation, increased wind speeds, more intense radiation, lower atmospheric
pressures, all of which have an influence on plant and animal life. Another topographic
factor is aspect. In the northern hemisphere south facing slopes receive more sunlight,
and therefore higher light intensities and temperatures, than valley bottoms and north-
facing slopes. Steepness of slope (gradient) is another factor of topography.
Steeps slopes generally suffer from faster drainage and run-off, and the soils are
therefore thinner and drier with more xeromorphic vegetation.
Edaphic (Soil): soil is a mixture of organic and inorganic materials. It is the medium for
plant growth. Soil has four major constituents, the mineral matter, the organic matter (humus), the
soil air and the soil water. The soil air differs from air in the outside atmosphere in several ways. In
water logged soil there is no soil air. The soil water or the soil solution contains dissolved
chemicals that have been produced by wreathing and by mineralization in the process of
decomposition.
 Abiotic factor Measuring
technique
Solar energy input Light meter or lighter sensor (digital)
Climate Information about rainfall (rain gauge) temperature
(temperature sensors) can be obtained from published
sources
Topography Topographic surveys measure the shape of the land,
Surveyors leveling equipment can be used (the simple
method being to use is the ranging poles and clinometers.
Oxygen availability Oxygen probe, or indicator species such as tub flex
larvae etc. (some species have special adaptations to
live in low oxygen concentrations lands)
Edaphic factors (i) soil pH probe or soil pH kit
pH
(ii) minerals Test kits to estimate the important nutrient levels, such as
nitrates, phosphates, potassium etc.
(iii) water Soil sample weighed, dried in oven and reweighed and
weight loss is used to estimate water volume
(iv) organic matter Weighed soil sample is burnt in crucible and reweigh and
difference is calculated to find organic mass burnt
(v) soil texture Soil texture charts can be used to estimate the soil is
mainly clay, silt or sand.
 Distribution and succession: In any habitat a species occupy a specific niche
determined by environmental conditions (biotic and abiotic factors) and the way that the
species uses the habitat (food, shelter, s1tes, feeding times, etc.). The distribut1on
(where they are) and abundance (how many) are determined by these conditions.
Changes in these conditions can therefore lead to changes in distribution and
abundance.

Succession: Change in the composition of a community over a period of time.

Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on an entirely
new habitat which has never been colonized before.

*Examples of such habitats would include newly exposed or deposited

surfaces, such as landslips, volcanic lava and debris, elevated sand banks and
dunes, quarried rock faces.
* A number of stages (seres) will take place in which an initial or 'pioneer' community
will gradually develop through a number of different seres, into a 'climax' community,
which is the final stage.
*Secondary Succession: Succession from an abandoned habitat which previously
supported life. Eg burnt forest, flooded land
*Deflected succession: Secondary succession initiated by human practices such
as grazing clearing forests.
*Plagioclimax: the climax community emerged as a result of deflected succession.
Primary succession happens when an area which is devoid of life is first colonized by
species (usually lichen and algae on bare rock) that can cope in the harsh conditions These
are called pioneer species They alter the environment in a way that makes it an unsuitable
home for them, but suitable for new species to establish. The new species often replace the
existing species A similar process occurs time and again, through stages known as seers,
until a stable community is reached. In stable woodland, for example, trees die but new ones
of the same species grow to fill the gap. This is a climax community If the succession starts
with l1ving things already present, for example if grazing stopped in a meadow, which then
became woodland, this is called secondary success is on.
Results of succession:
• Change in the structure and composition of plants and animals and the biomass
increases.
• Adaptations of organisms to different abiotic zones.
• Soil develops with more humus and enrich with mineral content
• Primary production increases initially and get stable
• Bio diversity increases.
• Habitat diversity increases
The Theory of Anthropogenic Climate Change is that humans are causing most of the current
changes to climate by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
Human factors increasing global warming

Some human activities increase the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere:

• Burning fossil fuels, eg coal, gas and oil - these release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
• Deforestation - trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. If they are cut down,
there will be higher amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• Dumping waste in landfill - when the waste decomposes it produces methane.
• Agriculture- agricultural practices lead to the release of nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases, which include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), tropospheric ozone (O3) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are relatively
transparent to incoming solar radiation but they absorb outgoing infrared radiation emitted from
Earth's surface.
Most of the incoming solar radiation (short wavelength, shown in purple) is absorbed and
converted to long wavelength radiation (shown in red), at or near the Earth's surface.
Thermal energy (heat) results from the absorption of some long wavelength radiation by
atmospheric gases, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and
nitrous oxide (N2O). The greenhouse effect is the retention of this heat in the atmosphere.
Some human activities increase the amount of greenhouse gases, primarily CO2 and causes
global warming. Greenhouse gases:

Greenhouse gas
Carbon dioxide transparent to light but rather opaque to heat rays. Therefore, CO2 in
the atmosphere retards the radiation of heat from the earth back into
space - the "greenhouse effect".
Methane ➢ released by
• mining, processing, and use of coal, oil, and natural gas;
• growing rice in paddies;
• burning forests; raising cattle (fermentation in their
rumens produces methane that is expelled from their GI
tract).
Chlorofluorocarbons • refrigerants (e.g., in refrigerators and air conditioners) solvents
(CFCs) • propellants in aerosol cans (now banned in some countries) in the
manufacture of plastic foams
 • carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and dissolved in water (forming HCO3 )
• carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO3)
• deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas derived from once-living things
• dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soil

✓ Understanding carbon cycle,

gives us the knowledge of the flow of
carbon dioxide between the
atmosphere and the living systems.
✓ This helps us to predict the
carbon dioxide levels in the source
and the sinks.
✓ Calculate and estimate the
levels of carbon dioxide removed from
the atmosphere and amounts added to
it.

There are several pathways in the carbon

cycle that are of particular importance. The
main pathways to and from the atmosphere
are diffusion into and out of the ocean,
photosynthesis which consumes CO2 from
the atmosphere (an output from the
atmosphere), respiration which
producesCO2 (an input to the atmosphere),
and the burning of fossil fuels and biomass
which also produces and input ofCO2 to the
atmosphere.

A2/TOPIC 5/ SPECIFICATION KEY POINTS. 19

 Increased global temperature cause a rise in atmospheric temperature. Temperature is a
factor that influences the enzyme controlled metabolic pathways in living cells. The enzymes
in all living organisms work at a specific temperature at maximum speed, which is called
optimum temperature. It is usually between 25 to 450 C for most enzymes. Enzymes in some
hyper thermophiles may work at still higher temperatures. An increase in temperature by 100
C doubles the rate of enzyme activity, up to an optimum temperature. (Q10)

In most organisms an increased temperature above the optimum inhibits the enzyme activities.
Various investigations on the growth of plants and hatching of eggs and development of
organisms show an increased activity of enzymes with an increased temperature up to
optimum.
However, the enzymes denature at
higher temperatures.

• Higher temperatures lead to the

denaturing of enzymes in living cells
• Affects the breeding and hatching of eggs.
• Reduces the growth rate due to
reduced metabolism
• Increase in temperature changes
the distribution of organisms.
• Example some lizards and
crocodiles hatch their eggs into
females in low temperatures and
males in high temperature.
• Turtle in flip hatches males in low temperatures and females in higher temperatures.
• Increased probability and intensity of droughts and heat waves. The changing
temperature results in changing rainfall patterns. Lack of ground water reduced the
absorption of water by plant roots and primary productivity decreases. The
transpiration rate also decreases, which further reduce rainfall. These changes results
in unseasonal rains, climate change and reduced water table.
• Spread of disease and change in distribution: As northern countries warm, disease
carrying insects migrate north, bringing plague and disease with them. The distribution
of organisms changes due to migration and decreased populations.
• Economic consequences Most of the effects of anthropogenic global warming
won’t be good. And these effects spell one thing for the countries of the world:
economic consequences.
• Hurricanes cause do billions of dollars in damage, diseases cost money to treat and
control and conflicts exacerbate all of these.

A2/TOPIC 5/ SPECIFICATION KEY POINTS. 20

 Some evidences for global warming:
✓ Careful monitoring of both ocean and land temperatures.
✓ Many glaciers and ice sheets are receding.
✓ Woody shrubs are now growing in areas of northern Alaska that 50 years ago
were barren tundra.
✓ Many angiosperms in temperate climates are flowering earlier in the spring
than they used to.
✓ Dendrochronology, The technique of dendrochronology can date the tree rings in
many types of wood to the exact calendar year each ring was formed. Estimate
the carbon fixed in tree.

Trees contain some of nature's most accurate evidence of the past. Their growth layers,
appearing as rings in the cross section of the tree trunk, record evidence of floods,
droughts, insect attacks, lightning strikes, and even earthquakes.

Each year, a tree adds to its girth, the new growth being called a tree ring. Tree growth
depends upon local conditions such as water availability. Because the amount of water
available to the tree varies from year to year, scientists can use tree-ring patterns to
reconstruct regional patterns of drought and climatic change. This field of study, known
as dendrochronology, was begun in the early 1900s by an American astronomer
named Andrew Ellicott Douglass.

A tree ring consists of two layers:

• A light-colored layer grows in the spring

• A dark colored layer in late summer

During wet, cool years, most trees grow more than during hot; dry years and the rings
are wider. Drought or a severe winter can cause narrower rings. If the rings are a
consistent width throughout the tree, the climate was the same year after year. By
counting the rings of a tree, we can pretty accurately determine the age and health of
the tree and the growing season of each year.

A2/TOPIC 5/ SPECIFICATION KEY POINTS. 21

 Computer analysis and other methods have allowed scientists to better understand
certain large- scale climatic changes that have occurred in past centuries. These
methods also make highly localized analyses possible. For example, archaeologists
use tree rings to date timber from log cabins and Native American pueblos by
matching the rings from the cut timbers of homes to rings in very old trees nearby.
Matching these patterns can show the year a tree was cut, thus revealing the age of a
dwelling.

To investigate the extent, speed, and effects of historical climate changes locally and
globally, scientists rely on data collected from tree rings, ice cores, pollen samples,
and the fossil record. Computers are used to detect possible patterns and cycles from
these sources. In dendrochronology, large databases allow scientists to compare the
ring records of many trees, construct maps of former regional climates, and reveal
when, where, and how quickly the climates changed. These historical records are
extremely valuable as we struggle to understand the extent and nature of any possible
future climate change.

Evidences from pollen in peat bogs:

• pollen often has a distinctive shape, so

it is easy to identify the parent plant
• pollen particles are very small and can
travel long distances
• pollen does not disintegrate very
easily, so survives unaltered for many
thousands of years
• Only mature plants produce pollen.

✓ Data collection is the systematic recording of information; data analysis involves

working to uncover patterns and trends in data sets; data interpretation involves
explaining those patterns and trends.

✓ Scientists interpret data based on their background knowledge and

experience; thus, different scientists can interpret the same data in different
ways.

✓ By publishing their data and the techniques they used to analyze and interpret
that data, scientists give the community the opportunity to both review the data
and use it in future research.

A2/TOPIC 5/ SPECIFICATION KEY POINTS. 22

 Biological evolution is genetic change in a population from one generation to another.

❖ The speed and direction of change is variable with different species lines and at
different times.

❖ Continuous evolution over many generations can result in the development of new
varieties and species.

❖ Likewise, failure to evolve in response to environmental changes can, and often does,
lead to extinction

The theory of evolution is about how and why organisms have changed over time. What
actually changes is allele frequency (the relative frequency of a particular allele in a
population). New alleles arise from random changes in the DNA which makes up genes
(gene mutations) and create variation within the population. Once a gene mutation has
appeared it is acted upon by the selection pressure in the environment.

Sources of Variation:

Most phenotypic variation in populations can be explained by sexual reproduction

and the recombination's of gene alleles from generation to generation, thus a large
gene pool develops in a population. However, all new variations that are introduced
into a population must be the result of a mutation in the sex cells. Only mutations in
sex cells are inheritable. Mutations are random with respect to fitness.
Chromosomes (via genes) direct the synthesis of proteins (based on the genetic
code in DNA molecules) by selecting the right amino acids and arranging the amino
acids in a particular sequence. These proteins determine the characteristics of the
organism. Any change in the information (DNA) directing protein synthesis is a
mutation.

Most mutations are not beneficial to the organism, but if the environment changes a
mutation may become beneficial.

A2/TOPIC 5/ SPECIFICATION KEY POINTS. 23

 Speciation: The process by new species comes into existence from a preexisting
species. Populations that were exposed to selection would become different from the
original Form that they would eventually become different species.
If the ideas put forward above were all that was involved, species would change but there would be
no new species in order for a new species to form, part of an existing population must become
reproductively isolated from another part. This usually happens when a barrier comes between
two or more parts of the existing population. Over time natural selection may cause the different
parts of the populations to change to such as extent so that they no longer interbreed to produce
fertile offspring and this makes them two or more different species

pg. 24
..

pg. 25