Kant and Utilitarianism
Immanuel Kant: Deontological Ethics
Deontological ethics is a theory that suggests actions are good or bad according to a clear set of
rules. The word "deon" comes from the Greek word for duty.
Key Concepts:
Duty: Actions that follow established rules are considered ethical, while those that do not are
not.
Goodwill: Kant proposed that individuals should act out of goodwill, rather than focusing on
the consequences of their actions. Goodwill is achieved by fulfilling one's duty and
obligations.
The Contradiction: The core idea is that morality is not about outcomes but about adherence
to moral duties.
Kant's Categorical Imperative:
The Categorical Imperative is Kant's supreme principle of morality. It has several formulations:
1. Universal Law Formulation:
"Act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should
become a universal law."
This means you should only act in a way that you would want everyone else to act in the
same situation. If your action, when universalized, leads to a contradiction or undermines
the very possibility of the action, then it is morally impermissible.
2. Humanity Formulation:
"Act so that you treat humanity both in your own person and in the person of any other human
beings, never merely as a means, but always at the same time as an end."
This emphasizes the inherent dignity and worth of all rational beings. You should not use
people (including yourself) as mere tools to achieve your own goals. They must be
respected as ends in themselves.
3. Kingdom of Ends Formulation:
"Act as if you were through your maxim a law-making member of a kingdom of ends."
This formulation suggests imagining a society where everyone acts according to universal
moral laws. In such a society, each rational being is both a subject and a legislator of these
laws.
Duty and Obligation:
Kant's deontological ethics reiterates the idea of duty and obligation. One should act according
to their duty and responsibility, regardless of personal inclination or potential consequences.
Legal and Moral Rights:
It is important to note that not all legal rights are moral rights. A law may exist that is not morally
justifiable.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that holds that the best action is the one that maximizes utility.
Key Concepts:
Utility:
The property of objects that leads to the production of more pleasure than pain.
The formula for utility can be represented as: Utility = Pleasure - Pain.
Sovereign Masters: Jeremy Bentham identified pleasure and pain as the "two sovereign
masters" that govern human actions and determine what is right and wrong.
Jeremy Bentham: The Felicific Calculus
Bentham proposed the Felicific Calculus as a method to determine the rightness or wrongness
of actions by calculating the amount of pleasure and pain they produce. The factors that
determine the outcome of this calculus are called circumstances:
1. Intensity: The strength of the pleasure or pain.
2. Duration: How long the pleasure or pain lasts.
3. Certainty or Uncertainty: The probability that the pleasure or pain will actually be produced by
the action.
4. Propinquity or Remoteness: The closeness (in time) of the pleasure or pain produced by the
action.
5. Fecundity: The probability that the pleasure or pain will be followed by sensations of the same
kind (e.g., pleasure followed by more pleasure, or pain followed by more pain).
6. Purity: The probability that the pleasure or pain will not be followed by sensations of the
opposite kind (e.g., pleasure followed by pain, or pain followed by pleasure).
7. Extent: The number of individuals to whom the pleasure or pain extends.
Example of Felicific Calculus Application:
Imagine you are deciding whether to tell a white lie to spare a friend's feelings.
Action: Telling a white lie to spare a friend's feelings.
Let's analyze the pleasure and pain associated with this action for both yourself and your friend:
Pleasures:
Friend feels good in the moment (Intensity: moderate, Duration: short, Certainty: high,
Propinquity: immediate, Fecundity: low, Purity: low (as it's a lie), Extent: 1 person).
You feel good for having helped your friend (Intensity: moderate, Duration: short, Certainty:
high, Propinquity: immediate, Fecundity: low, Purity: low, Extent: 1 person).
Pains:
Potential guilt for lying (Intensity: moderate, Duration: variable, Certainty: moderate,
Propinquity: immediate, Fecundity: moderate, Purity: moderate, Extent: 1 person).
If the lie is discovered, the friend's feelings could be hurt, and trust damaged (Intensity:
high, Duration: long, Certainty: moderate, Propinquity: remote, Fecundity: moderate, Purity:
high, Extent: 1 person).
Potential damage to your reputation if others find out (Intensity: moderate, Duration: long,
Certainty: low, Propinquity: remote, Fecundity: moderate, Purity: high, Extent: potentially
many people).
By systematically assessing each factor for both pleasures and pains, and then summing them
up, Bentham would argue you could arrive at a quantitative assessment of the overall utility of
telling the lie. If the total pleasure outweighs the total pain, the action is considered morally right.
John Stuart Mill: Higher and Lower Pleasures
John Stuart Mill, a later utilitarian, distinguished between different qualities of pleasures.
Higher Pleasures: These are pleasures associated with the intellect, imagination, and moral
sentiments. They are considered superior to lower pleasures.
Lower Pleasures: These are pleasures of the body and immediate sensations.
Mill argued that "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be
Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." This highlights his belief that intellectual and moral
pleasures, even if they come with some dissatisfaction, are more valuable than simple,
unthinking physical pleasures.
Generalization: Mill's approach also considers the long-term consequences and the general
good of society, not just immediate individual pleasure.