PHYSICS NOTES
Chapter 1: Measurement | Chapter 2: Motion
Chapter 1 — Measurement
• Physical quantities are the quantities in terms of which the laws of physics may be expressed and which can
be quantitatively measured.
• To express a physical quantity, both a magnitude and a unit are required.
• Length, distance, mass, time, temperature, area, volume, density and speed are commonly used physical
quantities.
Measurement of Area
• The amount of surface occupied by an object or a plane figure is called its area.
SI Unit of Area
• SI unit of area is square metre (sq m or m²) — the area of a unit square whose each side is 1 m long.
Multiple and Submultiple Units of Area
• Hectare — used for a bigger area like a piece of land or a park:
– 1 hectare = 100 m × 100 m = 10000 m²
• Square kilometre (km²) — used for area of a state, country or continent:
– 1 km² = 1000 m × 1000 m = 1000000 m²
• Square centimetre (cm²) and square millimetre (mm²) — used for small objects like a book or matchbox:
– 1 cm² = 1/10000 m²
– 1 mm² = 1/100 cm²
Area of Regular Shapes
• Area of a rectangle, A = l × b (l = length, b = breadth)
• Area of a square, A = a² (a = side)
• Area of a circle, A = πr² (r = radius, π = 22/7)
• Area of a triangle, A = ½ × b × h (b = base, h = height)
Estimation of Area of Irregular Shape using a Graph Paper
• Irregular shapes do not have easily measurable dimensions, so a graph paper (squares of 1 cm, smaller ones
of 1 mm) is used.
• The outline of the object is traced on the graph paper.
• Complete squares within the outline are counted fully.
• Squares with more than half a part within the outline are also counted; squares with less than half a part are
ignored.
• Sum of both counts gives the approximate area in sq cm.
• For a small surface, a square millimetre grid is preferred instead of a centimetre grid, but the method
remains the same.
Measurement of Volume
• The space occupied by an object is called its volume.
SI Unit of Volume
• SI unit of volume is cubic metre (cu m or m³) — volume of a cube of side 1 m.
Submultiples of Unit of Volume
• Cubic centimetre (cm³) is a more convenient unit for smaller volumes:
– 1 m³ = 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm = 1000000 cm³
• Cubic millimetre (mm³) is a still smaller unit:
– 1 cm³ = 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = 1000 mm³
Capacity and its Unit
• Capacity is the maximum amount of liquid or substance a container can hold — the space inside a
container.
• SI unit of capacity is litre (L).
• 1 centilitre (cL) = 1/100 L
• 1 millilitre (mL) = 1/10 cL = 1/1000 L
• 1 kilolitre (kL) = 1000 L
Volume of Regular Solids
• Volume of cube, V = a³
• Volume of cuboid, V = l × b × h
• Volume of cylinder, V = πr²h
• Volume of sphere, V = (4/3)πr³
• Relation between volume and capacity:
– 1 cm³ = 1 mL
– 1000 cm³ = 1 L
– 1 m³ = 1000 L (1 kL)
Vessels used for Measuring Volumes/Capacities
• Measuring (graduated) cylinder — used in the laboratory to measure volume of liquids and small irregular
solids.
• Measuring can — used to measure kerosene and lubricating oils.
• Measuring beaker — used for milk and edible oils.
• Graduated cylinder — also used by pharmacists to measure liquid medicines.
• Measuring cans and beakers can measure only a fixed, marked volume.
Measuring the Volume of a Liquid using a Graduated Cylinder or Beaker
• A liquid's surface in a measuring cylinder is slightly curved — this curve is called the meniscus.
• Reading is taken at the lower level of the meniscus, which gives the volume of the liquid.
• The eye must be kept at the same level as the lower level of the meniscus while reading.
Volume of Irregular Solids
• Irregular solids have no fixed geometric shape, so their volume is found by the water-displacement method.
• Principle: volume of the immersed solid = volume of water displaced by it.
• Method: note initial water level (V₁) in a measuring cylinder → immerse the solid tied with thread → note
final level (V₂) → volume of solid = V₂ − V₁.
• For a solid too big for a measuring cylinder, an overflow can (filled up to the spout) is used along with a
measuring cylinder placed below to collect the overflowing water — this collected volume equals the
volume of the solid.
• For a solid soluble in water (e.g., potash alum), a liquid in which it is insoluble (e.g., kerosene) is used
instead of water.
Density
• Density is the mass of an object contained per unit volume.
Density (D) = Mass (M) / Volume (V)
• Density is a characteristic of the material only.
• Equal volumes of different materials have different masses (e.g., water is denser than kerosene).
• Equal masses of different materials have different volumes (e.g., rice occupies far more volume than the
same mass of iron).
Units of Density
• SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m³).
• A smaller unit is gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm³):
– 1 g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³
• Density of water at 4°C = 1 g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³; density of iron = 7.8 g/cm³ = 7800 kg/m³.
• Since 1 cm³ = 1 mL, we get 1 g/cm³ = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m³.
Finding Density of Solids
• Regular solids (cube, cuboid, cylinder, sphere): find volume using the shape formula, find mass with a
beam/physical balance, then apply D = M/V.
• Irregular solids heavier than water and insoluble in it: find mass with a beam balance; find volume by
water-displacement using a measuring cylinder (or overflow can); apply D = M/V.
• Irregular solids lighter than water (e.g., cork): tie a sinker (small stone) to the solid so both sink together.
– Note initial water level (V₁).
– Immerse only the sinker → note level (V₂); volume of sinker = V₂ − V₁.
– Immerse cork + sinker together → note level (V₃); volume of cork, V = V₃ − V₂.
– Density of cork, D = M/(V₃ − V₂), where M is the mass of the cork found separately.
Speed
• An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position from time to time.
• We describe motion as fast or slow in terms of speed.
• Speed is compared by looking at the distance covered by different objects in a given interval of time — e.g.,
a cyclist covers more distance than a walking child in the same time, so the cyclist is faster.
Definition of Speed
• Speed is the distance covered by an object in unit time.
Speed = Distance covered / Time taken
• If an object covers distance s in time t, its speed v = s/t.
Unit of Speed
• SI system: metre/second (m/s).
• CGS system: centimetre/second (cm/s).
• For automobiles, trains, aeroplanes: kilometre/hour (km/h).
Formula Sheet — Chapter 1: Measurement
Quantity / Relation Formula
Area of rectangle A=l×b
Area of square A = a²
Area of circle A = πr² (π = 22/7)
Area of triangle A=½×b×h
1 hectare = 10000 m²
1 sq km = 1000000 m²
1 sq cm = 1/10000 m²
1 sq mm = 1/100 cm²
Volume of cube V = a³
Volume of cuboid V=l×b×h
Volume of cylinder V = πr²h
Volume of sphere V = (4/3)πr³
1 cu m = 1000000 cm³
1 cu cm = 1000 mm³
1 cu cm (1 cm³) = 1 mL
1000 cm³ =1L
1 m³ = 1000 L (1 kL)
1 centilitre = 1/100 L
1 millilitre = 1/1000 L
1 kilolitre = 1000 L
Density D = Mass (M) / Volume (V)
Density of water (4°C) 1 g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³
Speed v = Distance (s) / Time (t)
SI unit of speed m/s
CGS unit of speed cm/s
Common unit of speed km/h
Chapter 2 — Motion
• Objects at rest (do not change position): a house, a tree, furniture.
• Objects in motion (position changes with time): people walking, moving vehicles, flying birds, falling
raindrops.
Rest and Motion
• An object is at rest when its position does not change with time with respect to its surroundings (e.g., a
blackboard, a picture on the wall).
• An object is in motion when its position changes with time with respect to its surroundings (e.g., a running
dog, a flying mosquito, a running train).
Rest and Motion are Relative Terms
• Rest and motion are defined with respect to some 'reference object' or surroundings.
• An object may be at rest relative to one reference object, and in motion relative to another.
– Example: In a moving train, you are at rest with respect to other passengers, but in motion with
respect to the platform.
• A house is at rest with respect to the earth, but is in motion along with the earth as it moves around the sun.
• Hence, rest and motion are relative terms.
Types of Motion
Translatory Motion
• If every part of an object moves through the same distance in the same time interval, the motion is
translatory — the object moves from one place to another as a whole.
• Rectilinear motion — moving along a straight path:
– Examples: a boy running straight, a freely falling stone, a carom striker, a metro train in a straight
tunnel.
• Curvilinear motion — moving along a curved path:
– Examples: a football kicked by a player, a cyclist taking a turn, a bullet fired from a gun.
• Circular motion — a special case of curvilinear motion, where the object moves around a fixed point
keeping its distance from that point unchanged:
– Examples: motion of the moon around the earth, motion of the earth around the sun.
– Circular motion is repetitive; curvilinear motion is generally nonrepetitive.
Rotatory Motion
• If an object moves about a fixed axis or fixed point without changing its overall position, the motion is
rotatory.
• Examples: a spinning top, a merry-go-round, blades of an electric fan, the earth spinning about its own axis.
• In rotatory motion, the axis of rotation passes through a point inside the object; in circular motion, the axis
passes through a point outside the object.
– Rotation of earth about its own axis → rotatory motion.
– Revolution of earth around the sun → circular motion (axis passes through the sun).
Oscillatory Motion
• Repeated to-and-fro motion around a mean position.
• Examples: a simple pendulum, a swing, the needle of a sewing machine, the piston of an engine.
Vibratory Motion
• A special case of oscillatory motion where only a part of the body oscillates rapidly, not the whole body.
• Examples: a plucked sitar string, strings of a violin/guitar, the membrane of a drum/tabla, leaves of a tree in
air.
• Very fast oscillations are called vibrations.
Multiple or Complex Motion
• When an object shows two or more types of motion at the same time.
• Examples:
– Earth revolves around the sun (orbital) while spinning on its axis (rotatory).
– A car shows translatory motion as a whole, but its wheels show rotatory motion.
– A ball rolling down an inclined plane shows both translatory and rotatory motion.
– A carpenter's drill shows both translatory and rotatory motion.
• Combination of rotatory + translatory motion is called rolling motion (e.g., a spinning ball, a bicycle/car
wheel).
Random Motion
• Motion with no specific path, frequently changing direction and type.
• Examples: a flying mosquito, a flying kite, smoke particles.
• The object may switch between translatory and rotational motion from moment to moment.
Periodic and Nonperiodic Motion
• Periodic motion — repeats after a regular interval of time.
– Examples: motion of a planet around the sun, hands of a clock, vibrations of musical strings, rotation
of the earth, heartbeat/pulse.
• Nonperiodic motion — does not repeat at regular intervals.
– Examples: a man walking in a park, motion of an athlete, motion of a vehicle on a road.
• Some motions are repetitive but not periodic — e.g., breathing, swinging of arms while walking, a rolling
cricket ball — since they don't repeat after a fixed time interval.
Uniform and Nonuniform Motion
• Uniform motion — equal distances covered in equal intervals of time along a straight path.
– Example: a car covering 40 km every hour.
• Nonuniform motion — unequal distances covered in equal intervals of time along a straight path.
– Examples: motion of a train between stations, motion of a car, motion of a falling object.
• In general, motion of objects along a straight path is mostly nonuniform.
Distance or Path Length
• The actual length of the path covered by a moving object is called distance.
• Example: a boy taking one round of a rectangular field (40 m × 30 m) covers distance = 30+40+30+40 =
140 m.
• For circular motion of radius r, distance in one round = circumference = 2πr; for several rounds, multiply by
the number of rounds.
• Distance continuously increases with time and cannot be negative.
• Distance is independent of direction — it is a scalar quantity (magnitude only, no direction).
• SI unit of distance is metre (m); also measured in cm, km, etc.
Speed of a Moving Object
• Speed is the distance covered by a moving object in unit time.
• Speed is a scalar quantity (no direction).
• SI unit: metre/second (m/s); common unit: kilometre/hour (km/h); also cm/s and mm/s.
• Speed is always positive — it can never have a negative value.
• A speedometer measures the speed of a car or motorbike at a given instant.
• In uniform motion, speed stays constant; in nonuniform motion, speed changes from time to time — here
we use average speed.
How to Calculate Speed
Speed (v) = Distance travelled (s) / Time taken (t)
Average Speed
• Average speed is the ratio of total distance travelled to total time taken, used when motion is nonuniform
(e.g., a car in city traffic).
Average speed (v_av) = Total distance travelled (s) / Total time taken (t)
Weight of an Object
• Weight is the force with which an object is attracted by the earth towards its centre — the force of gravity
experienced by the object.
• Weight is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction), unlike mass which is scalar.
• Formula: weight, w = mg, where m = mass and g = acceleration due to gravity.
• Since g varies from place to place, weight of an object also varies from place to place.
• SI unit of weight is newton (N); also expressed in kilogram-force (kgf) or kilogram-weight (kg-wt):
– 1 kgf = 1 kg-wt = 9.8 N (≈ 10 N)
– 1 gram-force (gf) = 1 gram-weight (g-wt) = 1/1000 kgf ≈ 1/100 N
• Weight is maximum on the earth's surface, decreases with height, and also decreases going inside the earth.
• On the earth's surface, weight is maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator.
• Moon's gravitational force is 1/6th of earth's, so weight of an object on the moon = 1/6th of its weight on
earth.
Differences between Mass and Weight
Mass Weight
Quantity of matter present in an object. Force with which an object is attracted by the
earth towards its centre.
Constant, independent of place. Varies from place to place.
SI unit: kilogram (kg). SI unit: newton (N).
Measured by a beam/physical balance. Measured by a spring balance.
Scalar quantity. Vector quantity.
Can never be zero. May be zero in gravity-free space.
Measurement of Weight
• Weight is measured using a spring balance; various types of spring balances are available.
Formula Sheet — Chapter 2: Motion
Quantity / Relation Formula
Distance covered in one round (rectangle) = sum of all sides (perimeter)
Distance in one round (circular path) = 2πr (circumference)
Speed v = Distance (s) / Time (t)
Average speed v_av = Total distance (s) / Total time (t)
Distance travelled s=v×t
Time taken t=s/v
SI unit of speed m/s
CGS unit of speed cm/s
Common unit of speed km/h
Weight w=m×g
1 kgf (1 kg-wt) = 9.8 N (≈ 10 N)
1 gram-force (1 gf = 1 g-wt) = 1/1000 kgf ≈ 1/100 N
Weight on moon = (1/6) × weight on earth