Scribd
Upload
Sign up
7 views86 pages

Structural Engineering

The document covers various topics in structural engineering, including stress and strain, bending and deflection, and the analysis of determinate and indeterminate structures. It also discusses soil mechanics, fluid dynamics, and water resources engineering, highlighting principles of stability, drainage design, and sewage disposal. Additionally, it includes objective questions for assessment in these engineering fields.

Uploaded by

SIGDEL
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
7 views86 pages

Structural Engineering

The document covers various topics in structural engineering, including stress and strain, bending and deflection, and the analysis of determinate and indeterminate structures. It also discusses soil mechanics, fluid dynamics, and water resources engineering, highlighting principles of stability, drainage design, and sewage disposal. Additionally, it includes objective questions for assessment in these engineering fields.

Uploaded by

SIGDEL
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
that of BLE, level relevant Bona) fo] y determinate structure: analysis of indeterminate nes for determinate and es and frames; concepls of uo} silty, principal of effective il, stability of slopes, soil ng capacity and settlement soil improvement. tno} bodies, Fluid kinematics, + equation, Navies stokes Iniform and Non uniform > boundary channel, Flow s, Similitude and physical ydrograph Analysis, Unit bao} esign, Highway drainage res, Road intersection and Sridge type, site selection, ethods of tunneling fo) i, WHO guidelines, Nepal fatments-natural, aifical, nveyance of water, Valves rater, Characteristics and ances, Sewage Disposal (Isolated Buildings, Solid ch: oor 1 && Table of Content be concentrated, is called gravity of the area. If this first moment of area is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance £ the position of the body is, / \ J — e between them, the product is known as second moment of area, The nit of MOI is mv or cm! or mm ‘The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the object's center of mass and the perpendicular distance (A) between the axes. ‘Moment of inertia of some standard sections is given below: ba? 1 tegpirectonawurcemet | Peatof-a : necanguarsectinabont ine) 2 , L syuaton =2 }!: Triangular section about base () ‘Triangular section about C.. (1 Solid cirutar section, ) =! cel] | | bs fF Mallow circular section (1) | Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume Il (CivivAgricuture Engineering) 10. Quarter circle (1) Polar moment of inertia Itis inertia about the polar axis, hx + yy Polar moment of inertia Moment of inertia about X-axis Moment of inertia about Y-axis in) Radius of gyration Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the total mas of the body is supposed to cencentrated, so that the moment of inertia about the axis may remain the same. Simply gyration is the distribution of the components of an object. It is denoted by K. In term of radius of gyration, the moment of inertial of the body of Area A is given as; Inertia (1) = AK* Unit of ractius of gyration is mor em or min. In summary, the square root of moment of inertia to the total area of the section is called radius o! gyration, For the maximum value of slenderness ratio, the radius of gyration should be minimum. The radius of gyration will depend on the axis about which bending takes place 1.2.7 Relation among Deflection, Moment, Sheat Force i) Deflection It is the displacement of neutral axis of the beam under transverse load. i) Stope Itis the rotation (8) of cross section of a member/beam uncler transverse load. Itis also known as the rate of change of deflection. ti) Curvature Itis the rate of change of slope. The neutral axis of the beam bends in the curve which is known as elastic curve (deflection curve). iv) Shear force ‘The shear force at any section is equal to the net transverse force (ie, the algebraic sum of the| either tthe right orto the left ofthe section including reactions transverse components of force) ‘obviously will be same, = sending oment Dog momenta Bae eres eer to¥ ate defacion oF tel m1 aoe 1 Rod HT + AY. 8 the slope o 9 BeBe thesope erate of change 0 @y_a0 1. Ms a a He ‘Te ate of change 0 dy dM, 1 Ve a BE The ate of change yw 1 5 Gea Er ‘The rate of change c ‘The following figures she beams and loading. 1. Cantilever beam wi Maximum defi WL Slope, 0» = "55; —— T Cantilever beam w Maximum def Maximum slo} when L — Cantilever beam Maximum del Maximum sto ) a point where the total m: ibout the axis may remain ti t, Itis denoted by K. Inte the section is called radius ation should be minimum. ces place, se load. It is also known a! \ the curve which is kno" (i:, the algebraic su 4 he section including *e™ ‘Structural Engineering + Chapter 4] __ 15 Bending Moment The bending moment at any section is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments about this section of various forces either to the right or to the left of the section including reactions. Ify is the deflection of the beam at a section x distant form origin, 1 _d0_ My Ie > o 2, GE= fp. the slope of the elastic curve at x. ‘The rate of change of defection is called slope. Py da 1 3 Gea Ge ar pp the bending moment at x ‘The rate of change of slope is called bending/curvature/ moment, dy gMy 1 4 Ge dx “HT ‘The rate of change of BM is called shear force. aly av 1 Wy 5 Sa 1 Me toad intensity atX Vs Fy the shear force at x. The rate of change of shear force is called intenity of load. “The following figures show the shear force and bending moment diagram for diferent types of beams and loading 1 Cantilever beam witha point load atthe free end Maximum deflection, yy'= Me WL Slope, 6s Er s 3 ai wf te fe c Figure: SED. Figure: BMD. 2» Cantilever beam with U-D.L Moximam deflection, y, 25 we Maximam slope, 6) = 2 imum slope, 6) = - Pw lont eg sfpeecbeecerecrcen, we i “f oe +o 4 Figue: S.A. Figure BMD, BE cans - Cantilever beam with UV... 16 _| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume Il (Civil/Agricuture Engineering) _— wl ATI ted be: L 3 ° the other end Figue: SED. _ ones wu ee andé Maximum deflection, ye = 35] w/e. Maximum slope, 6) = = 7 mm wt Fi SED. ° : gue 9, Cantilever beam wit Maximum defle 5. Simply supported beam with ccenuic point load weet Slope, 84 = ETL rm t 2 mm , 7 at ! meoeaain, MRM noi spened Figue: SED. 6 Simple supported beam with UDI i Youn” Sel Slope, 0, = Ox= a £15 me, | : 1, Propped cantilever Figure: BMD, Figure: SED, me w 7. Simply supported beam with a triangular load varying gradually form zero at both ends to W per meter at the centre a Yous ™ GOI Ss c= Maximum at centre 2 T EN A — wh iy a 4 5 “yf cg q Figure: BMD. T ~—_ Figure: SED. ‘9) ‘Structural Engineering * Chapter | 17 p Simply supported beam with gradual varying losd form zero atthe endo W per mete of yer" heen Figure: a Hn, x , ail] m |Z a ‘guce ft os Figure: $.F.D. Rye aien: ao wt afl Mo) [9 Cantleer beam wth moment at end Maximum defection: yy «ME siope, oy = Mt J Ml TD | 4 — ri 33 afl +} gue: BALD. 10, Simple supported beam with couple at centre « ML” Yan “Se EI Mi Slope, 04 = 0: = 34K 7 y BoM M 7 oo STM Ms | Ty —_ = a i ; els | rewe Propped cantilever with point load at. Figures BMD. ; 3 ae Sut h en a v 7 2. ly form zero at both end 7 of UTES 3 arp ect omer Ie Soul PP igure: SED. Figure: BMD. Figure: SED, Figure: BMD. 18 _| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume Il (Civi/Agricuture Engineering) 13, Fixed beam with point load at centre awe ve" BT ¥ wi é: k i ccf . STH ioe tq : T 14 Feed beam with UDE. wk! WL Yoox = 38451 ” 384EI ‘WL zit & co, cM ATS R re “pe “a tw ~_____S 2] BEPC) o- a , NOTE 1. The bending moment is maximum where shear force diagram changes sign form positive negative or vice Versa. In other words, the bending moment is utaxisum at 2 point whew: shear force is zero. 2 The point where the bending moment changes sign (or zero) is known as point of contraflexure. This point generally occurs in overhanging beams, 1.2.8 Shear Stresses In Beams ‘The maximum shear stress developed in a beam of rectangular cross-section, as shown in the figure is Tae 15 Ff given by; hy Tran 15 Toy Load where, tw = Average shear stress #385 a ‘The maximum shear stress develop in a beam of circular cross-section, as shown in the figure below fs given by; 4 Tam = bv Tt may be [Link] the shear stress in a beam is not uniformly distributed over the cross-section, but varies from zero at outer fibers to a maximum at the neutral surface ie, the horizontal shear stress distribution is always parabolic, 1.2.9 Shear Stress in Shatt When a shaft fixed at one endl is subjected to a torque (or twisting moment) at the other end, then {every cross-section ofthe shaft will be subjected to shear stresses. It may be noted that the shear is ero at the centroidal axis of the shaft and maximum at the outer surface. The maximum shear stress atouler surface of the shaft may be obtained by the following equation, known as torsion equation. T= Torque of twis = polar nom G= Modulus of rg L = Length of shafi (= Angle of twist NOTE 4 Theterm) is know For solid shaft; Polar modulus ‘And, for hollow she Polar modulus where,‘D = Hollow = Internal Eee 2 Thetermg ory ti 3. Hollow shaftis stro > When the shafts an shaftand each shaf i totes 1eT=T 5. — When the shafts an torque is carried by lee % and, T=Ty+T:+T 13° STATICALLY DET If the forces in the membe ie, 3H=0,ZV=0and determine structur 14s“ DISPLACEMENT | The strain energy stored i 1 U= 9% Stress « Str oe = * Volume load W may be applied 1) Gradually applied ‘When load W is applied g ”) Structural Engineering + Chaptor 1] 19 Too R-y> where, = shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or maximum shear stress. R= Radius of the shaft. fm. T= Torque of twisting moment J Tq 2 7 p= polar moment of inertia = lx + Iyy = "39 G= Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material. L= Length of shaft, 0 = Angle of twist in radians on a length |. wore a eres eee = afi For solid shaft; 5 S yikes cut oa Figure: B.M.D. And, for hollow shaft; =a) Polar modulus (2) "4g where -D = Hollow shaft with external diameter: d= Internal diameter hanges sign form positive maximum at a point whes catia onan ae tones uclomypeeinee aly 3. Hollow shaftis stronger than the solid shaft in the case of torque transmission, 4 When the shafts are used in series, then the angle of twist is the sum of angle of twist of each shaft and each shaft transmit the same torque. at hth. Th=T=T 1 S = 5. When the shafts are-used in parallel, then the angle of twist is equal for all shafts and the total torque is carried by all shafts, | as shown in the figure be en and, T=T,+T,+Ts+ Soca ‘13 _ STATICALLY DETERMINE STRUCTURE {Eth forces in the member of a structure can be determine by the three condition of equilibrium. | ie) 3H=0,5V=0 and EM = 0 or by the principle of statics alone, the structure is called statically determine structure 14 _ DISPLACEMENT BY ENERGY PRINCIPLES stain energy stored ina body due to axial stress is given by; buted over the cross ce i, the horizontal sheat $18 er , U=5 Stress x Strain x Volume 26 * Volume 1oment) at the other end may be noted that the si fe. The maximum shea 1, known as torsion cequati Aloud ‘ |W may be applied to.a body in the following three ways: When Oatly apptied toad ‘is applied gradually to a body, then the stress induced in a body is given by: 20 _| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume I (CiviAgricuture Engineering) w om where, isthe cross-sectional area ofthe body, HW) Suddenty applied toad When a load W is applied suddenly to a body, t induced when the same load is applied gradually. ie, oman A hen the stress induced in a body is twice the stress ll) ling Toad (ato called impactor shock tong When a load W is dropped forms height hiewis oe the stress induced als cal impact tes epee ott en fr RAE erapeype ay 1.4.1 Castiglione Theorem ratte 128 blake the rests ofan elaborate esearch on tail indeterminate sect inwhich he used fvo theorems, The two these Saat ture the material of which is eae and follows Hooks lw and in whi ee Pil ope an te spp uy thei pal dato aca Fae . a Pata force sequal wo te spac of he onto ncn ee forcein the drectn oft line of actions wu. au fe Sem En ly of length I and cross-sectional area A, then “ih any structure, the material of which is linearly elastic or non. inearly elastic and in which the temperature is constant and the supports are unyielding, the frst Partial derivative of the strain sey th fesPect to any particular deflection component is equal to the foree applied at the point and in the direction corresponding to that deflection component au fe, Pas gg, au and, Ma= 3p, ‘These two theorems can be used section of a beam or frame, 1.4.2 Betts Law ‘2 determine the displacement (both linear and rotational) ata ey Pdr = Qdor 1.4.3 Maxwelts Reciprocal Theorem Maxwell’ law of Reciprocal defections stales fellows Hooke's law and which the support deflection of point 1 in a direction AB numerically equal to the deflection of poi the direction AB." ie, due dn "In any structure the material of which is elastic and ' are unyielding and the temperature constant, the due to a load P at point 2 acting in a direction CD is int2 in the direction CD due to a load P at point 1 acting in NOTE x» Incase of pin the system wi x The deflection energy with x desired. If req partial difere: x When the met the deflection, graphical solu diagram) will 1:4.4 Slope and Det There are number of m 1) Double integrs In this method the n deflection ata point of i) Macaulay's mes In integration method, inthe moment curvatu Joads such that there avoid this problem, M: expression, which is v cone constant of integra 4H) Moment area m This method is useful members First moment area theo "The change in slope of senna ig 1) conse bam, This method can direct fictitious beam which sh involving in drawing the Now, the shear force any Corresponding to the slo} thus be stated as Theorem 4 The shear at any point Corresponding point on th ing) ‘Structural Engineering + Chapter 4] 21 NOTE x Incase of pin jointed frames, the members carfy only axialforces. The total strain’energy of the system will be the sum of the stain energy in the members. x The deflection of any joint in any direction will be given by partial derivatives of total strain energy with respect to the force acting at that joint in the direction in which the deflection is desired. [Frequired, an imaginary load is to:be assumed and to be made equal to zero-after partial differentiation. x When the method of virtual work is used! to compute truss deflection, only one component of the deflection of one joint, two separate application of the method are usually required. One graphical solution using Williot diagram with Molw’s correction (known as Williot-Mohr diagram) will determine the resultant deflection ofall joints of truss simultaneously in a body is twice the stres, | cross-sectional area A, they 1.4.4 Slope and Deflection Computation ‘There are number of methods to compute defection of beam, However, following are important methods: 1) Double integration method In this method the moment curvature relationship equation is integrated for finding slope and ally indeterminate structure deflection at a point of any beam. ok's law and in which srivative of the strain energ 2 point of application of thi) 1) Macautay’s method Tmvintegration method, we usually write an expression for each section of the beam and substitute it in the moment curvature relationship for integration. Problem arises when beam carries a number of loads such that there are different segritents and each segment has to be integrated separately. To avoid this problem, Macaulay's method can be used. By this method, itis possible to write only one expression, which is valid for the entire length of the beam. When this expression is integrated only ary elastic and in which ty OTE Constant of integration appears fl) Moment area method ‘This method is useful to cletermine the deflection and rotation ata specified location of the structural members, First moment area theorem "The change in slope of the tangents to the elastic curve between two points A and B is equal to the M ateaunder the Fy diagram between these two points." Second moment area theorem “The deflection of point B on the elastic curve from the tangent to this curve at point A is equal to hh linear and rotational) staticmoment about an axis through B of the area under the M diagram betw : rent about an axis through B of the area under the gy diagram between points A and B. and in which the support 8 El m done by a system of for ee Conjugate beam method extemal virtual work 4onel| gg tod can directly be used for simply supported and cantilever beams. Conjugate beam is a beam which shows the kinematic behaviour of the actual beam. The procedure of analysis Melvins in dravving the conjugate beam fist which i then loaded by M diagram of the real beam. ihe shear f re and bending moments developed due to the loading, in the conjugate beam stat of hich ce Ee bending moments developed due to the loading in the conjugate be temperature constant agi % t0 the slope and deflection of the real beam. The two theorems of this method can ne temperature consi acting in a divection o a load P at point 12 Fen Pong Point on the conjugate beam is equal (in sign and value) to the slope at the "8 Point on the real beam, 22 __| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume i (Civi/Agriculture Engineering) Theorem 2 The moment at any point on the conjugate beam is equal (in sign and value) to the deflection at the corresponding point on the real beam, ‘The figure gives below shown the examples of conversion of real into conjugate beam. Real beam Conjugate beam Z 1 g———_» A 2 1 A z a 2 NOTE M ‘The loading in the conjugate beam is the gy diagram of real beam, *) Virtual work principle Itis always possible to imagine that a real structure system in static equilibrium is given an arbitrary displacement consistent with the boundary condition. During the process, the real system of forces undergoes imaginary displacement. Alternatively imaginary or virtual forces in equilibrium with the given system can be given real. Virtual work is the product of real force and imaginary displacement or the product of imaginary force and real displacement. Displacement by virtual work method is given by following expression. "MyM dx ‘ot EL ‘where, My = Moment of given system loment of unit load wt U=2AE where, P= Axial load 4 Length of beam A= Cross section area of beam E= Modulus of elasticity 2 Strain energy due to Bending Me us foerax where, M = Bending moment 1= Moment of inertia 3 Strain energy ork Gs where, F= Sh G= Me Kesh 4. Strain energy Re 5. Deflection by s By using princi We, External Internal w Equating question (1) 15 STATIC AND! The structures, whose static equilibrium, are 1.8.1 Static Indeterm For statically indeter condition, must be we of the entire unknown problem is knows as ¢ total degree of static in ) External indeter ii) Internal indeter External, indeterminacy The degree of external F=3 for pla F~6 for spa be * Plane structure © Space structures }) EE, For pin-jointed frame A pin-jointed frame is ‘of members (m) require frame is internally inde! m=2j-3, for ple 9) ‘Structural Engineering + Chapter4| 23, 3. Strain energy due to shear where, T= Torsion ) = Polar moment of inertia 5, Deflection by strain energy method (Real work method!) By using principle of conservation of energy; we have, we _| —i—t Wen= Wint oa Exteral work done (We) = Force x Deformation (flection) ® +—s Internal work done (Wa) =, Sav @ Equating question (1) and (2), the unknown deflection is obtained. 15 STATIC AND KINEMATIC INDETERMINACIES The structures, whose reaction components and internal stress cannot be fully ani Static equilibrium, are called statically indeterminate structure. ibrium is given an arbitrary] 1.8.1 Static Indeterminacles the real system of fers] For statically indeterminate structural system, additional equations, based on compatibility rces in. equilibrium. with the condition, must be written in order to obtain a sufficient number of ‘equations for the determination ay eck eethod | Sth entire unknown, The number ofthese additional equations, necessary forthe solution of the by wim work methodll) tiem is knows as degree of static indeterminacy or degree of redundancy ofthe stuctore The foal dopre of static indeterminacy may be considered as sum of following, 1) External indeterminacy (kc) i) Internal indeterminacy (I,)) "al, indeterminacy is related to the support reactions of the structure. ‘degree of external indeterminacy is given by; l= 1-3 for plane structure 1-6 for space structure NOTE n available for static equilibrium’ Plane structure 2F=0, 2F,=0, EM.=0 "Spite structures jo BRr=0, R= 0 : By, n=0, 2M,=0, EM.=0 ALD ™ointed frame alyzed by using Sfmeny frame is said to be statically determinate internally if it has just the minimum number Sintec) (Stired to preserve its geomety. If the number of member is more, the pin-jinted “mally indeterminate. = )-3 for plane frame ope ease wowoyy —(p ou ABoyeue uumjoy (a jeUUojop uaISISUED —_(v uowenba un Jaq 2avy 59010) 1uepunpa: jwaurarmbor quaworeydsip 29 “powpaut aozoy axp uy vaamponas ap azqeue | aze s02t0} porpauy sty up poursm ei0g duo Syesoua8 axe sishyeue anwiajapur Buizs(eue 104 ONI40SISATUNY 91 =Sumy yours jo woystaong 310N (43)-fe=0 3) ya isuayxaUs raquo fe=tg ‘2]qisuayxe soquiot 3] jui9}epu} opeweury 404 O-@+01xd—4 ‘ore s-fe-asmeet ons +19- (0+ ug) = ney aon ej Bsn A Ws Jo 2029p [B04, (qeusaqujo 908g eusayxe joaaifaq suonsos" pu 21181830 ae 0 raqany = uompeey =F 2a — ‘siujol utd sog pur REO “suo! pi8t soy sof prBizyosaquinyy =f sondeo: jewisyya yo 1quinyy = 1 sol uid go oquma aampayry = 8 Squaw Jo Jaquany ww “ouayan tou od ‘sjounv sy “ampnaisaip jo wopsay, fe soulap om 40 Aovunuuoepar neuoupt Jo daiBap am se umouy st suouoduies teauereae, wopuedapuy ayy [Je Jo uoReunUs2}ap ay) 40} Auessadou suopenbo leuonsppe asoyy Jo saquinss ay, “tuntaqtiinbo 2115 Jo suorrenba ayy sopisuoa 0} Azessazou sy ‘aumioniys SIY] JO squtof ye sjuauodutos wewuooetdsp 249 ayenqea9 0} apse wy ‘ouoye suonenbs Aaqiiedutios ka PauRMaTp 9q JoUUeD syuIOL 81 0 Sluouoduo> ywours2ejdsip ayy Jf ateunusarap AeaIeUIOUNY o} pres st aumanays peiapoys y ‘AoouIMa}OpUL ONOWEUDL z°5°L fe~ 4-52-10 fe- (4m) = 4 ‘squiol pits x04 ‘sturol urd Jo zaquimu aanjaaya axy sis asoqj (5440) - Gs we) = aurezy payurol prSty 10g ££ (4+ ws) 51 Aocuusonapiy 99098 0 a0s8op oy, £ = ajqepeae uorenba Jo zaqwnu [eo WwIOf Lue Joy o1qeHeaL axe suonenba waraqyyinbo 25s Om 44+ Ui = sumoujun oy Suooear ustouyun = 2 2910) aqua tmoufun = us auiexy payuyo! uyd og "Le 7 = CD) Aoeumunayapuy anes OL, ‘swuto{ wid ye Buyjaou soquiou yo soquinu ayy stu ‘asaya, (u-w)g-De=% ‘Sq uaat® 51 (auiesy) Nona ouerd © jo Aovuruuoyapuy jeursun ones ayy ‘sof prBu se yom se und 4yoq Buturrc aamonans prigdy 105 ‘sdoo] paso jo soquiny, = > “aroun 2e="1 ‘sureay parurol-pidys 104 Arqeusontr ayeurwuzay9pua Siperneas pu jyH5-I0900 ¢ = [p) < w Arqeusonar aeunsuzeiap Ajqeoneys pur ayqeys (¢ ~ (e) ta Aqqeusmnuy aiqersun (¢ ~ &) > ww 20} pozueuntins wt adsou03 feIop sn say ajqea ButarorO3 a, aurea aveds 103 (9~ fe) - ut = Py aureyy ated 205 (6 = (Z) — ut =] ‘aq wand st awiey © 105 Aoeurutsa}2pur aqe}s Jo 90:89q spol jo zoquunu 9 { pue aurexy xy Jo soquraul jo raquuny ~ ur ‘azoyot ‘auueyy azeds 10)9 = lem us ~_ (GurBeUIBUE BimiRaNB YANG) W BUNA ToOUEAUA PSH IGT IOOR BAOKOT PE ® Engineering) 7 Structural Engineering & Chapter 1 35 where, =r +m | fjoints. = Reaction Number of members Find degre of sac and Kinematic adeterminasy of We gid Jlnted ame given BOO ally a Folate Degree of external indeterminacy (Jy) =2-3=6-3<3 riminacy of a plane struct M indeter y of a plane struc Degree of internal indeterminacy ([,) *2=6 Total degree of static indeterminacy (1) = (Iz) + (L)=3+6=9 By using formula; we have, be Gm*)-@)+s) (For beamand frame always tue) ° Dy=3j-r=3x9-6=27 ‘member inextensible (if not specified); Di=3)-(¢+m) =3x9-(6 +10) the displacement components n order to evaluate the displa indeterminacy but decr r the equations of static equill letermination of all the inceps INDETERMINATE STRUCTURE lic indeterminacy or the ded ray emisate structure, the equilibrium equation not sufficient two method of erally employed in such namely. __ Force method this method forces are treated as unknown and the degree of static indeterminacy i ture, calculated to 26 | Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume Il (Ciiv/Agricuture Engineering) ¢) _Unitload method 6) Conjugate beam method 2) Three moment theorem ii) Displacement method x In this method, displacements are treated as unknown and the degree of kinematic indeterminacy is calculated to analyze the structure. x It consists of writing force displacement relation first and then satisfying equilibrium requirement for the structure. In this case the unknown in the equations are displacements, Once, the displacements are obtained, the forces are determined from the compatibility and force displacement equations. x Following method fall under the category of displacement method a) Slope deflection method b) Moment distribution method ©) Stiffness matrix method d) Minimum potential energy method Flexibifity and stiffness Flexibility The flexibility of a structure is defined as the displacement caused by a unit force Stiffness It is defined as force required for a unit displacement. Flexibility and its converse are known as stiffness and vice versa. Consider a structure member/element with a single degree of freedom such as spring fixed at one end. Then the flexibility of the spring defined as the displacement 83, at coordinate 1 due to unit force at co-ordinate (1). Ifa force P; produces displacement A; at co-ordinate 1; then, 4 Flexibility =p; Similarly, stifeess is required force Kx for unit displacement at co-ordinate 1 Pi Stiffness T= Ku 4 Degree of freedom ‘When a structure is loaded, specific points called nodes will undergo an unknown displacement or rotation. The number of these unknowns specified the degree of freedom for the structure. Nodes are commonly located at: x Supports that allow rotation x Theend of cantilever, which have both displacement and rotation X Joints in frame, which can both move and rotate 1.7 SLOPE-DEFLECTION AND MOMENT BISTRIBUTION METHOD 1.7.1 Slope-Detlection Method x Ibis developed by prof. G.A. Maney. Xx _ Inthis method, all joints are considered tight. ie, the angles between members at the joints are considered not to change in value as load is applied, Inthe slope deflection method, the rotations of the joints are treated as unknowns. % For any one member, the end moments can be expressed in terms of the end rotations. But, t0 satisfy the conditions of equilibrium, the sum of the end moments which any jeint exerts of the ends of members meeting there must be zero. This equation of equilibrium furnished the necessary condition to cope with the unknow® rotation of the jaint and when these unknown joint rotations are found, the end moments ca >be compute from the slope defection equations. x The slope defiec' Mae = Meas Mra = Mra where, Mras =F 8: = Rota Eland ls After getting the simult 84, 05, Bc, ete. are array symmetry and also that Fixed End Moment Loading condition an ‘Structural Engineering & Chapter 27 ng) X The slope deflection equations are; 261 Mas = Mras +75" (20, + 88) 2B : Maa ® Mina += (On + 205) ad the degree of kinematic ¢ where, Mras= Fixed end moment of end A. then satisfying equilibrium Mrta = Fixed end moment of end B. ow inthe eats a = Rotation at end A. rees are cet @s = Rotation at end B. \ethod Eland [ are usual After getting the simultaneous equations having @,, 6, 8c, as unknowns, ifthe coefficients of 4-0, Gc, etc. are arranged in an order in the form of a matrix, the matrix will have diagonal symmetry and also that the elements in the diagonal will be predominant in the particular equations, Fixed End Moment Loading condition and type |FE.M. at leftend anticlockwise] FM. at of Right end anit force clockwise PL PL 8 8 sedinate 1 due to unit force ; then, r = | ra! a v uv inate 1 an unknown displacement m forthe structure. Nodes ween members at the jot ated as unknowns. ms of the end rotations rents which any joint on to cope with the 3 re found, the end more ZA fi) Distortions due t Gpcteccn ——_R 2 | ii) Shear deformatio 3-—. Swi? SWE Shes deforma | 28 __| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume II (CivivAgriculture Engineering) a i ez | 1.722 Moment Distibu i 5 |) 2 Moment distribu indeterminate st Slope and deflection in fixed end (ce. force displacement relationship) | x ita clockwise mi This relationship exists between the member end moments and its end displacement slope and constant cross se deflection). The sinking and rotation of support induce fixed end moments. These can be obtained ‘easily by indeterminate structure analysis. The result is; i) “Support A may rotate clockwise by 8, radian x Inother words, F 810, Js chy 220, rotation of @, can a Wer L will be“ an turn induces a clo 60, 0, 4 = : The expression fi) Support B may rotate clockwise by Ox required to produ M K=9 7 fore 288, —O, se10, xetyg uy ar ; for | Siifiness, k= TE eo, ti, 5 7 7 Stitfness K= SE Lo Axial stiffness is d x Flexural/bending oa A ean p= ps * Torsional siftness x Stifiness factor isc | radiant A oes aba ‘ ama * ‘The induced mom« + nab over factor. Thus, ¢ - tke manent apt iv) Simply supported beam COF=05 3810, = When for end is hie Re COF=0 Flexibiity and stiftness c . Tipps titiness v) Propped beam ‘Type of displacement a Bending (far end fixed) Bending (far end hinged) ‘Assumption of slope-deflection method 4) Alljoints are rigid. i, angle between any two members in joint does not change even after deformation due to loading. Transverse (far end fixed) iit) d displacement (slope and mnts, These can be obtained x « nt does not change eve" 1.7.2 Moment Distribution Method | aublllty and stittness of a various type of displacement Structural Engineoring ¢ Chapter 1} 29 Distortions due to axial deformation are neglected. Shear deformation are neglected. Moment distribution method was developed by hardly cross and use for analysis of indeterminate structure. Its also called iterative method and the all joints are assumed as rigid. Ifa clockwise moment of My is applied at the simple support of a straight member AB, of constant cross section, simply supported at A and fixed at B, the rotation at the simple support Mak Ms will be “7gy- and the moment that is induced at the other end will be“p" clockwise. In other words, For a span AB which is simply supported of A and fixed at B, a clockwise a tu ince edie moment ot Ms = on heer 4e1 ‘The expression “| is usually called the stiffness factor. Stiffness is defined as the moment required to produce unit rotation or force required to produce a unit deflection. M K= Qi foro=1.K=M E Kafjlord=1,K=F Siitiness, K =4E when far end is fixed. outoess 2 E when aren ing Axial stitfness is defined as the axial force required to cause unit deflection. Flexural/bending stiffness is defined as the moment to cause unit rotation. Torsional stiffness is the torque required to cause unit twist. Stiffness factor is defined as the moment required to be applied at A to cause a rotation of 1 at A of a span AB simply supported at A and fixed at B 5 Ma The induced moment at B is known as carry over moment, The ratio of jy~ is known as carry over factor. Thus, carry over factor (COF) isthe ratio of the moment induced at the end B to the moment applied at A. When for end is fixed; COF=05 When for end is hinged; Cor=0 Beef displacement axial | Flexibility | Stiffness AE 3E T = a iE T 3ET 3 T 30 _| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume I! (CivivAgriculture Engineering) Transverse (far end hinge) | & gd 3 Torsional 4 Distribution factor fa joint consist in several members meeting, any applied moment will be distributed among various members in proportion to their stiffness. Therefore, a distribution factor can be defined as the factor that decides the share of moment applied et the joint to be borne by a particular member, x A Joint will be assumed to be a rigid one. Therefore, the rotation of various members meeting at the joint will be same. Each member requires a particular moment to have that rotation. In other words, for a given rotation of the joint, each of the members offers a moment resistance in proportion to its stiffness. The sum cf such resistances equal the applied or induced moments. X Distribution factor; D.F , where K; isthe stiffness of i member. ik At fixed end; D.F. = 0 and at hinge end D.F.=1 ‘Sum of the D.P. of all members meeting at a joint is always 1. 3 x The stiffness of a member when the far end is hinged is] cant be observed On comparison, i thatthe stiffness ofa member when far nd is hinged is (7) of the stiffness roken the far end is fixed. In moment resisting frame sway generally occurs due to the following reason. i) Direct sway force in the structure i) Different support level of column iii) Different sectional properties of column 118 INFLUENCE LINES FOR DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES ‘An influence line is a curve, the ordinate to which at any point equals the value of some particular function due to unit load acting at the point usually from left to right. The function may be bending, ‘moment, shear force or the reactions at supports. When such diagram is obtained for a moving load. of unit magnitude, it is called influence line. Once influence lines diagram (LL-D.) is known, the value of a function for any load can be obtained by multiplying the ordinate of the diagram by the magnitude of load. ‘As maximum value of bending moment and shear force occurs directly under the load, LL.D. indicates how the maximum possible BM. and SF. st a section vary with a moving load of unit magnitude, ‘The ordinate of influence line is a dimensionless quantity. 1.8.1 Influence Lines for Determinate Structure i) Influence line for reaction at A for a cantilever 1 | ag —s igure: LL. for Ry iit) ) Influence line (LL Figure: LL LL. for shear force Figure: LL for LL. for shear force Figure: LL. f LL. for BM, at p f 4-— a Te Figure: LL. for) LL. for BM, atP F Figure: LL. for i) i) Je distributed among various ‘can be defined as the factor rticular member. of various members meeting nent to have that rotation. Ip offers a moment resistance ig splied or induced moments. ber. t comparison, it can be obser sess when the for end is fixed. iy) ITE STRUCTURES : the value of some partic The function may be beni is obtained for a moving I iagram (LL.D.) is known. tit v) rdinate of the diagram by under the load, LL.D, indi¢ ; load of unit magnitude. ‘Structural Engineering & Chapter 4| Influence line ([.L.) for reaction at A and B for simply supported beam Figure: LL. for Ry =k Figure: LL for Ry LL. for shear force at P for a cantilever op Figure: IL. for SF. atP LLL. for shear force at P simpiy supported beam Figure: LL for SB. atP LL for B.M. at p for cantilever 4s B Figure: LL for BM, atP TL for BLM. at P for simply stipported 3 32_| Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume Il (CivivAgrculture Engineering) When a concentrated load acts on a beam at any section, the value of a certain parameter at a From the LL.D, for given section will be equal to the value of the load multiplied by the ordinate of the respective Bis empty and ma influence line diagram, under the load. If a number of concentrated loads act, the total value Also maximum BM of the parameter will be Ewity where, w; is i concentrated load and ris the i ordinate of . . LL.D. under the i load. Maxima 5; % When a U.D.L. occupiers a certain position on the beam, the total value of any parameter will bbe equal to the product of load intensity and the area of respective influence line diagram Maximum -¥ S covered under the load. * Ifa [Link]. longer than span traverse a simply supported beam for maximum +ve or -ve shear Maximum +E force to occurs at a given section, load should completely cover only that portion, +ve or -ve accordingly, of the respective LL.D. ‘The absolute maxim * Ifa UDLL shorter than span traverses a simply supported beam, for maximum +ve or -ve shear force to occur at a given section, the load should cover only that portion, +ve or ve, of the respective LL.D. and extend from the section towards the end leaving the end portion ‘The absolute maxim uncovered, if it comes to. U.D.L. shorter! x Ifa [Link] longer than span traverse a simply supported beam, for maximum bending ‘Die ‘moment to occur at any section, the load should cover the entire span, covering the entire area of influence line diagram. If the U.D.L. is shorter than span, the section of which bending moment is to be maximum should divide the extent of the load on the span in the same ratio, In other words the average load on the left side is equal to the average load on the right side. Graphically, i) U.D.L longer than span 7 Figure: Given beam Figure: Loading for maximum -" SF. atx Figure: LL.D. for BM. atx 2 Chapter 1) 39 of acertain parameter ata -_-Fromthe LL.D, for SF itis clear that max, positive SF. will occur when the AC is loaded and Condinate of the respective CB is empty and max. Positive $F. will occur when the span CB is loaded and CA is empty. “a loads act, the total value Also maximum B.M. at C will occur when the U.D.L. covers the entire span. Therefore, and fis the i ordinate of we Maximum +°S.F. = "57 (Parabolic) flue of any parameter wil ie ey er diagam) Maximum S8.= 242% paral write maximum #¥e or ve set stoximum orn E22 pao nly that portion, +ve or -ve iL ‘The absolute maximum shear force ="5~ at supports x, for maximum ve or -Ve ‘that portion, +ve or ve, of . wi? anreins the end portion, TRE abSolute maximum bending moment = g~ mid span ii) U.D.L. shorter than span am, for maximum bending i) U.D.L shorter than sp: pan, covering the entire arey moment is to be maximus 1 In other words the averas | igure:Given beam Aw t anal be Figur: Loading for maximum -"* SF. atx 7 a B foamed 7 Figure: Loading for maximum "SF. atx igure: ILD. for UML atx 34 | Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume il (Civi/Agricuture Engineering) x The maximum -ve shear force occurs of the section x when head of the load touches at C. ‘The maximum +ve shear force occurs when the tail touches the section C. x Maximum values are obtained by multiplying intensity of the load by the respective area under LL.D. x Maximum BM. at x will occur when the load is partly on AC and partly on CB. Let, 'a! be the length of the load and z be the distance of the tail of the load. The maximum B.M, x_2 occurs ata position, which gives = 3 x When a single load W traverses a simple supported w span maximum +ve SF. or -ve SF. or BM, will occurs. A . ‘always under the load for any position of the load on € the span. Consider a section at a distance x form left support, as shown in the figure aside. aw, Maximum +ve SF. atx ="[7 Straight line variation wa.-x) Maximum -ve [Link]=— 57 Straight line variation Wx(L-x) Figure: LL. for SE. atx Maximum +ve BM. atx=———p— Parabolic variation WL AP atmid span x Absolute max. bending momen x Inthe case of number of point loads on a beam, the Figure: Tl-for Mat ey snd BM, ave the sum of mulpliction of the magnitude of the loads and the drcinate oftheir corresponding ID. diagram xx Whera series of pint loads crosses a girder, simply supported atts ends, the maximum Bi under ary ven load occurs when the centre of the span is mid way between the Oe: ofthe load system and the toad under which the maximum bending moment i required to be found out Inother words, the maximum BI. ata given section X of a girder AB, freely supported at the URgoaceurs when the average load on the portion AX i equal to the average loading on the portion XB. 1.8.2. Influence Lines for Indeterminattion Structure Influence line for indeterminate structures cannot be drawn so, easily, however, since in general they fare curved lines, The first step in preparing influence lines for the various stresses in an indeterminate structure is to determine the influence lines for a redundant. Neutrat points (Focal points) Ina continuous beam, the unloaded span will have points of contraflexure which cannot change, its position even when the load on other span change. Depending upon the position ofthe loaded span the Points of contraflexure in the unloaded span are named as left moment focal point o right moment foal point. The points of contraflexure divide the span in the fixed ratio, which is named focal point rato. Method of construction of LLD. ‘The construction of influence line for redundant structures may be arrived out by using following methods. i) Statical method Using equation of equilibrium ———— i) Kinematic meth Using Maller Br Muller Breslau Princig Ifa unit displacement i scale the influence lin Statement ‘ff an internal stress cc there by causing defon the influence lines for t Lines for reactions ‘The Maller Breslau pr positive unit deformat LL.D. for shear For shear at a section v removed by introducir two sides which is equ LL.D. for moments ing) Structural Engineering 35 read of the load touches atC 5) cinematic methods section. ear UNNgMMlle Brsin principle saat amas 2s Muller Breslau Principle > and partly on CB. Let, Ifa unit displacement is give inthe direction of reaction, the deflected shape or elastic curve gives to he loot, The maximum B.M, a scale the influence line ordinates for that reaction, Statement ‘if an internal stress components (SF, BM. or reaction) is allowed to put through a small distance w there by causing deformation of structure, the curve of the deformed shape represent to some scale, ‘ the influence lines for that stress or the reaction component." _Lines for reactions ‘The Maller Breslau principle requires the removal of the support restraint and the application of a positive unit deformation at this point that corresponds to the direction of the force. A B c D whe sadn mide ide a Figure: LL for Sat Powe Lt Ne ee Figure: LL for BM. at C Figure: LLD. or Ry gritude of the loads and 11.0, for shear For shear at a section using the Milller Breslau principle, the shear resistance at the point of interest is ‘emoved by introducing the type of support in order to produce a relative displacement between the two sides which is equal to unity. : Shear glider srted at its ends, the maxi span is mid way between naximum bending mon der AB, freely supported at | to the average loading om! A | v Coad however, since in general q LD. for moments e position of the loaded sf asl » « > Since A a ae eo Figure: LL.D. for moment atx 36 [Objective Book for [Link]. Entrance: Volume il (CivivAgrculture Engineering) For the moment at a section, using Miller Breslau principle, the moment resistance at the point « interest is removed by introducing, a hinge at the section, and then a positive moment that introduce) relative unit rotation is applied at the section. 19 TRUSSES ‘A truss is a structure that takes advantage of the inherent geometric stability of the triangle to even distribute weight and to handle changing tension and compression. The truss uses a web of triangle tha fre joined so that pressure and tension are applied to the points of the comers of each triangle to tae advantage oftheir stability to support a structure. By connecting a series of trusses together an enormots amount of weight can be safely transferred to load-bearing beams, walls or to the ground directly. =| group of ties and struts so designed and connected that these structure which act In summary; the as a large beam is called a truss. Structure members 1 Truss i) Ties ‘The members which are subjected only axial tension are called ties. ii) Struts The members which are subjected to only axial compression are called struts. 2, Beams ‘The members which are subjected to transverse load, gravity load, vertical loads and capable to bending are called beams. 3. Frame x The structure which has moment resisting joint is called rigid frame, X Combination of beams in horizontal and vertical with appropriate joints. x Frame in general can be defined as a structure macle of several members forming i certain configuration. 110 TWOAND THREE HINGED ARCHES ‘An arch is nothing but a curved structure having convexity upwards and supported at ends. It may) be subjected to vertical, horizontal or even inclined loads; the loads are transferred to the abutment partly by bending and partly axial compression. Due to the curve nature of arch structure, the bending moment is considerable reduced. Some terminologies D Archaxls ‘The centre line of the arch is called arch axis. Crown ‘The highest point on the arch is called crown of the arch. 44) Springing ‘The lowest end points are called springing points or springing of the arch. iy) Rise ofarch ‘The vertical distance of the crown above the springing called the rise of the arch. Crown Archaxis Eddy’s Theorem ‘The bending moment 2 the arch and the line of x Tf the arch axis ec x Theideal arch a are same as th distrusted, the E they are used to x Eddy's theorem x Ifloading is cont ‘Anarch may be circular according to their supp: 1. Three hinge arcl 2. Twohinge arch 3, Fixed arch (stati 1.10.1 Three Hinged A ‘Three hinged arches w between the two ends, hinges. Three hinged etreutas Radius of arch ( yuh-R(-ce @= Angle made by af Three hinged parabo 4h, yaFxd-%) ‘Normal thrust Radial shear (F 3 siope, 0= 2 For tres hinged are Vr ns Tne % Horizontal thr Vin+ L Horizontal thr

You might also like