Science
Uploaded by
Sachin ChaudhariScience
Uploaded by
Sachin ChaudhariScience
BIOLOGY
eals with the study of living organisms - plants and animals. World of living, their interactions,
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existence and characteristics.
habitat contains both living and non-living components.
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Biotic components - living organisms plants, animals and microorganisms make up the biotic
components of habitat.
Abiotic components - Non-living things rocks, soil, air, water and light make up the abiotic
components of the habitat.
iving (biotic)andNon-living (abiotic)things
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Living -
Plants, animals, birds, microscopic living things like bacteria, fungi.
Breathe :
Animals breathe through lungs,
Grasshoppers through spiracles,
aquatic animals have gills to take oxygen dissolved in water,
Plants breathe through stomata.
Move :
Feel and respond :
Reproduce : Birds - eggs, animals - young ones, plants - seeds
Non Living -
Sunlight, temperature, water bodies, atmospheric gases, minerals and soil.
atural Non living - Mountains, rivers
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Human-made non-living -
Interdependence of Plants and Animals
Food Chain- chain that shows how an organism is dependent on another organism for its food.
Flow of energy from sun to plants, then to animals in the form of food.
Animals - Dependent on plants for oxygen, food and shelter
Exchange of gases-
CO2 released by animals, absorbed by plants. Dependent on other animals for food.
alance in Nature
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If the population of herbivores decreases then carnivores will begin to die of starvation. If
one species ceases to exist the entire food chain will be disrupted.
Causes -
Hunting - animals are killed for their meat, skin, bones and body parts.
orest fires - can occur due to natural causes like lava from volcanoes or lightning strikes or
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human activities.
Deforestation / Land clearing -
Pollution -
Human Body
y Body- Head, Trunk, Limbs
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Sense organs- Skin, Eyes, Ears, Tongue, Nose
Organ System- made up of small building blocks. Makesit possible to walk, play, learn, watch,
grow etc.
he Cell
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Cell- smallest unit of body, responsible for providingstructure to our body. A cell is a structural
and functional unit of life.
imilar cells (group of cells) join together to formtissues,Tissues join to form anorgan.A
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group of organs do a particular work to form anOrganSystem. All the organ systems form an
organism.
All these cells, tissues and organs together control the function of the body.
iscovery of Cells-
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723) - discovered the first simple microscope that used
only one lens for magnification.
Robert Hookein 1665, coined the term ‘cell’, also developed a compound microscope.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoekin 1674, discovered free-living cells in pond-water for the first time.
In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the cell nucleus.
In 1839, Purkinje coined the term protoplasm for the fluid present in the cell
In 1838, Schleiden discovered and in 1839 Schwann reconfirmed the cell theory
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, expanded the cell theory - new cells arise from pre-existing cells.
ells and their Numbers-
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Unicellular organisms- made up of only one cell. I need a microscope to see them.
E.g. Amoeba, Euglena, Paramoecium, and yeast.
Multicellular organisms- made up of several cells. They have tissues, organs and organ
systems. Eg. dogs, trees, humans.
ells and their Shape-
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Spherical- RBCs are biconcave in shape. The shape changes from biconcave to spherical in a
disease called hemolytic anemia, these spherical shapes of RBCs are known as spherocytes.
Oval- Freshwater green algae, Chlamydomonas (a fungi), has an oval shape and is unicelluar
organism.
ylindrical- fibres present in skeletal muscle cells of human body are cylindrical in shape. Eg.
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spirogyra, heart muscles.
Irregular- Amoeba, WBCs
Spindle shaped- smooth muscle cells
Slipper shaped- Paramecium
ize of cells-
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The size of unicellular organisms ranges from 0.2 - 2.0 μm in diameter and multicellular cells
are 10-100 mm in diameter.
Largest Cell in Humans - female egg or ovum which is 0.12 mm in diameter.
Smallest Cell in Humans - male sperm cell in terms of volume, granules present in the
cerebellum are also smaller (4.0 -4.5 μm), then red blood cells, which measure up to 5 μm.
ell Theory
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Formulated by three scientists Matthias Jacob Schleiden, Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Carl
Virchow.
Statements of cell theory:
1. All living organisms are made of cells.
2. The cell is the basic structural organisational unit in organisms
3. New cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Basic structure of a cell
ell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
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Cell is surrounded by a very thin membrane -plasmamembrane, orcell membrane.
A dense jelly-like, semi-solid substance, surrounded by plasma membrane is known as
protoplasm.
Protoplasm has two main parts - Central darker and denser part callednucleusand remaining
semi solid part calledcytoplasm.
All these three components (plasma or cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm) are present in
animal as well as plant cells.
Plasma Membrane or cell membrane
lso called as cytoplasmic membrane. Separates inner organelles from the outer environment.
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Plasma membrane is a bilayer membrane and both its layers are made up of phospholipids.
Proteins are influx in between the layers.
iPlasma membrane provides mechanical support and maintains stability of cell.
Cell Wall
his is a hard and rigid, protective wall around the cell membrane which is present in plant cells,
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bacteria and fungi only. It is a non-living part of the cell and is made of three layers. Cellulose is
the main content of the cell wall.
Cell wall gives definite shape to the cell and provides strength and support to the plant. Protects
plants from mechanical stress. It does not allow harmful substances to enter the cell.
Nucleus
ocated at the centre of the cell. It is round and sometimes oval or disc shaped, depending on
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the type of cell. About 10% of the total space in the cell is occupied by the nucleus.
The nucleus is enveloped by a double membrane called a nuclearenvelopeor membrane. It
regulates the flow of materials into and out of the nucleus throughnuclear pores.The nuclear
membrane surrounds a jelly-like fluid called nucleoplasm.
A dense structure callednucleolusis present withinthe nucleus. It is responsible for the
synthesis ofribosomes. The nucleus also containschromosomes, which possessgenes.
Genes contain hereditary information and other important instructions that assist in cell growth,
development and reproduction.
Nucleus is responsible for cell metabolism and reproduction and is therefore called thecontrol
store. It is responsible for passing hereditary charactersfrom parents to their offsprings. Plays
important part in cell division.
Cytoplasm
he jelly-like substance which is filled inside the cell and surrounds all the organelles of the cells
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embedded in it, it is called thecytoplasm. It ismade up of water, protein and salts. About 80%
of cytoplasm is water and is colourless. It is called protoplasm.
Most important activities in a cell occur in the cytoplasm. It contains enzymes which help in
breaking down waste products and helps in metabolic activities.
In cytoplasm many tiny structures can be found, called cell organelles.
Centrosome- found in pairs near the nucleus, required for the cell division process.
Lysosomes- these digest worn-out cell organelles.Also called suicidal bags. They throw out
harmful and unwanted waste that enters the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
It is a network of membranous tubules within cytoplasm. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum - Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). RER
has ribosomes attached to it and SER does not. The ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
olgi Complex
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If the proteins manufactured by endoplasmic reticulum require further modification, these are
transported to Golgi complex. Golgi bodies are stacked, flattened membrane-bound vesicles.
They are involved in packaging of enzymes and hormones. They also help in the formation of
hormones. Lysosomes are formed by budding from the Golgi complex.
itochondrion
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Provides energy to the cell, hence called energy currency or the powerhouse of the cell. This is
the site for respiration in a cell.
Mitochondrion is a rod-like structure. The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane
is folded into finger-like projections calledcristae.
Vacuoles
hese are fluid filled membrane bound structures present in the cytoplasm of a cell. They are
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made up of water and amino acids and have a single membrane, calledtonoplast. Vacuoles
contain proteins, sugars, minerals etc.
In plant cells, the vacuoles are bigger in size as compared to that of animal cells. This contains
a liquid in it calledcell sap.
In animal cells, the vacuoles store the waste products to be removed. This helps to maintain
hydrostatic pressure inside the plant cell. It stores water and helps in balancing the pH of a cell.
Plastids
lastics are double membrane-bound organelles which are found inside the plants and some
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algae. On the basis of color and pigments, plastids are of three types - chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Chloroplasts -
Green plastids due to the presence of pigment chlorophyll in them. They are mainly
present in leaves and young stems and help in photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts -
These are colored pigments other than green. They impart color to flower petals and
fruits etc.
Leucoplasts -
Colourless plastids are associated with storage of starch, fats, proteins etc.
They play a major role in photosynthesis and enable the light reactions to occur.
Difference Plant cells and Animal Cells
Plant Cell nimal Cell
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1. Cell wall is present 1. Cell wall is absent
2. One large vacuole present 2. Vacuole is absent. If present they are very small
3. Plastids are present 3. Plastids are absent
4. Lysosomes are absent 4. Lysosomes are present
5. Centrosome is absent 5. Centrosome is present.
1. Skeletal System
ones and cartilages in body. Gives shape and support to body and protects soft internal
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organs like brain and heart.
Cartilage- stong, flexible connective tissue, protects bones and joints, serves as shock
absorber.
Types of Bones-
Bones are made of calcium and phosphorus. They are hard and strong, do not bend.
Connected at joints, a pair of muscles attached to bones, allows movement of body
parts.
1. Short Bones- wrist, ankles, hands, feet
2. Long Bones- legs and arms
3. Flat bones- skull and hip
4. Irregular bones- lower jaw & spine
arts of Skeletal System-
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Skull-
Bony structure of head, made up of 22 bones. Protects brain and organs like
eyes, ears and nose.
Cranium- round, hollow case holds the brain. Madeup of 8 bones.
Face + lower jaw - consist of 14 bones
There are 3 tiny bones in each ear (smallest bone in ear -Stapes) and 1 bone in throat.
Jawbone-
U shaped bone. Largest and strongest bone in face.
Holds lower teeth in place and helps chewing food.
The mandibleis hardest bone - forms lower jaw.
Backbone(vertebral column or spine) -
Attached to the skull. Made up of 33 vertebrae (Vertebra)
Helps to bend and twist easily. Protects delicate spinal cord.
Ribcage-
In the chest region.
Consists of 24 ribs (2 sets of 12 ribs), protects heart and lungs
Attached to long and flat bone calledSternum
First 10 pair of ribs are attached to sternum in front and to back bone at the back,
the last 2 pairs are not attached to sternum calledfloating ribs.
Other Bones (limbs and girdles):
upper limbs and shoulder girdle
Shoulder girdle- Two collar bones and two shoulderbones, joins upper limbs to
spine.
Each arm consists of one upper arm bone (humerus)and two lower arm bones.
8 bones in wrist, palm of each hand made of 5 bones and fingers of hand
made of 14 bones.
Lower limbs and hip girdle
ip girdle is a single bone formed by fusion of 3 bones. There are two hip bones,
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connected to the spine with the lower limbs. The urinary bladder lies inside hip
girdles.
Each leg has :
1 thigh bone -femuris the longest and strongest bone in our body.
1 kneecap (thick, round bone) - protects the knee joint from hurt / damage.
2 other bones one isshinbone(tibia) - larger and stronger bone of two
bones, connects to knee and ankle bones.
There are 7 bones in each ankle and 19 bones in each foot.
Joints:
A place where two bones meet. Held together by tissues by ligaments. Cartilages
protect joints and facilitate movement.
ypes of Joints:
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Immovable Joints -
do not allow movement. E.g. cranium in skull, ribs in breastbone, bones of girdles
Slightly Movable Joints-
Outer covering of cartilage, allowing it to move slightly. E.g. joints of backbone.
Movable Joints- allow movements of body parts
Ball and Socket Joint
Ball like end of one bone fitted into another bone with cup shaped end.
Allows movement in all directions. E.g. shoulder and hip joints
Hinge Joint
Like hinges present in a door. Allows movement of bones in only one
direction, back and forth movement. E.g knees, elbows, fingers and toes.
Gliding Joint(plane joint or planar joint)
One bone slides over another bone. Allows back to bend, twist and turn at
each joint.
E.g. bones of wrist and ankle, between 2 vertebrae of spine.
Pivot Joint
Between head and first two vertebrae of spine.
Helps in upward, downward and sideways movements of our head.
X-rays can pass through muscles and tissues but not through bones.
2. Muscular System
600 muscles in the human body. Bones are covered with tissues called muscles.
Muscles
are attached to bones with the help oftendons.
Types of Muscles:
Skeletal Muscles (striated or striped)-
ovement can be controlled - calledvoluntarymuscles. E.g. arms, hands, legs
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and feet.
Smooth Muscles (Non-striated or Unstriped)
These muscles work on their own and we do not have control over their
movement calledinvoluntarymuscles.
E.g. During digestion muscles contract and relax for movement of food
Cardiac-
Involuntary Muscles present in heart. They work all the time, pumping the blood
to different parts.
3. Digestive System
he process of taking in food and its utilisation in the body for its growth and
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development is callednutrition.
nimals and human beings get their food directly or indirectly from plants. They are
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calledheterotrophsorconsumers. This mode of nutrition is calledholozoic nutrition.
1. Ingestion
Process of taking in food through mouth.
2. Digestion
Complex components of food are broken down into simpler and soluble substances so
that it can be easily taken in or absorbed by the body.
3. Absorption
When food is broken down its nutrients are passed into the blood, so that they can be
transported to different parts of the body.
4. Assimilation -
Assimilation is a process by which digested food reaching the cells through the blood is
either converted into products necessary for them or is utilized for their activities.
5. Egestion:
The waste materials are expelled out from the body, along with undigested food in the
form of faeces through the anus.
limentary canal
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It is a long tube, coiled in some places and varying in thickness.
The gastrointestinal tract or alimentary canal is a pathway by which food enters the body
and solid wastes are removed.
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outh-
First part of alimentary canal, performs ingestion
Buccal Cavity- food is chewed with the help of teeth, this process is called
mastication.
Tongue mixes chewed food with Saliva.
alivary glands- secrete digestive enzyme calledsalivary amylase or ptyalin, which
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breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars. (starch into maltose).
Bolus- soft and moist food, which can be easily swallowed.
Tonguegives sense of taste, pushes food down, mix saliva with food
Taste buds are located around small structures on the upper surface of the tongue called
papillae.
Pharynx
After chewing food is swallowed, it slides down the pharynx. This is a common passage
for both food and air.
Divided in three parts -
Upper - allows air to pass through it
Middle - allows both air and food
Lower - allows only food to pass
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ood Pipe or Oesophagus
Connects mouth to stomach, long muscular tube like structure. 25 cm long. When
muscles in its wall contract, they produce a wave like motion, this movement is called
peristalsis.
Helps to push down the food into stomach. Food is transported from buccal cavity
through oesophagus into stomach.
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tomach
Food stays here for 3 hours. Muscular sac like organ, J shaped. Widest part of the
alimentary canal.
The inner lining wall produces dilute hydrochloric acid, gastric mucosa and digestive
juices. Dilute hydrochloric acid kills microbes/germs that enter with [Link] juices
help in digestion of proteins. Gastric mucosa keeps the inner wall safe from the harmful
effects of acids.
Stomach secretes two main enzymes,pepsinandrennin,that help in the digestion of
proteins.
Pepsinbreaks down complex protein molecules intosimpler form calledpeptones.
Renninconverts the milk protein, casein into insolubleparacasein.
The food that is partially digested in the stomach is calledchyme. This passes into the
small intestine.
ssociated Glands-
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Liver -largest gland in the body.produces greenish-yellowbile juicewhich helps
digestion of fats. Bile is stored in a small sac like organ below the liver calledgall
bladderuntil needed for digestion bysmall Intestine.Bile is a fluid that is critical to
the digestion and absorption of fats
ancreas- it is a glandular organ located in the abdomen (across the back of the
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belly behind the stomach). Secretes pancreatic juices that contain enzymes
trypsinfor digesting proteins andlipasefor breakingdown fats.
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mall intestine-
Long coiled tube about 7.5 metres long with partially digested food.
ilebreakdown fats from the food. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes like trypsin,
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amylase and lipase, converts starch, protein and fats into smaller molecules such as
glucose, amino acids and fatty acids respectively. Most of the food is digested in the
small intestine. This process of breaking down large fat globules into small globules is
calledemulsification of fat.
Digested food is absorbed by blood.
Divided in three parts:
Duodenum - anterior U-shaped part
Jejunum - middle part
Ileum - posterior part
Food from duodenum enters the jejunum and moves into the ileum, the final part of the
small intestine. Below enzymes act on food:
Erepsin- converts peptones and peptides into aminoacids (the smaller unit of proteins)
Maltasechanges maltose into glucose.
Sucraseconverts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Lactaseconverts lactose into glucose and galactose.
inger-like projections calledvilli(singular - villus) present on the inner walls of the small
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intestine. These increase the surface area of inner walls forabsorptionof digested
food. Each villus has a network of blood vessels to absorb the nutrients in the digested
food.
ssimilation of food
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Glucose- final product of carbohydrate digestion,is broken down with the help of
oxygen into carbon dioxide and water to release energy. Excess glucose is converted
into glycogen and stored in the liver for use when needed.
Amino acidsare used by the cells in the synthesisof proteins and also for the growth
and repair of the worn out cells.Fatty acidsandglycerolare stored below the skin as
energy reserves.
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arge Intestine-
Small intestine leads to large intestine, which is shorter than the small intestine in length.
It is about 1.5 to 1.8 m long. Minerals and extra water absorbed by blood.
Caecumis the first part into which the ileum of the small intestine opens.
Undigested food moves into the large intestine to a part called the colon where some
salts and water are reabsorbed. Colon is the biggest part of the large intestine.
Remaining undigested food moves torectumfor sometime.
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nus
And then removed through anus as faeces, this process is calledegestion
onstipation- passing hard stools with difficulty
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Indigestion ordyspepsia
lucose is given to get instant energy because carbohydrates in the form of sugar are
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digested fast compared to other nutrients.
Teeth
ppearance of the first tooth in infants is calledteething
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4 -7 months - start teething
3 years - 20 milk teeths (temporary teeths)
6 years - temporary teeths start falling off gradually.
12 - 13 years - permanent teeths
17 - 25 years - + 4 teeths at back of mouth called wisdom teeth
Adult has 32 permanent teeth. Upper and lower jaw has 16 teeths each.
Types of Teeth
1. Incisors- front teeths : 4 upper + 4 lower | cuttingand biting food
2. Canines- besides incisors 2 + 2 | helps in tearingfood
3. Premolars- behind canine teeth 4 + 4 | flat uppersurface, help to crack, crush
and chew food
4. Molars- 12 in number (6 + 6), behind premolars -broad upper surface. |
chewing and grinding of food. Out of 12, 4 molars grow during late teens or early
twenties called wisdom teeths.
Structure of tooth: Crown and root
1. Crown- upper visible part, covered by hard shinymaterial called enamel.
Enamel - hardest substance in our body, protects tooth from wear and
tear.
2. Root- lower part of tooth, covered by gums.
Made of cementum that anchors tooth to jaw bone
Below enamel layer lies dentine, which protects inner part of tooth called
‘Pulp’
In pulp, lie nerves and blood vessels
Soft tissue surrounds the base of tooth is called gum
Plague- yellow sticky coating of germs
Floss- soft thread used for cleaning the spaces betweenthe teeth.
4. Circulatory System
ransport system in humans and animals that carries the nutrients, water, oxygen and
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other essential substances to the various parts of the body is calledcirculatory system.
Is consists of heart, Blood vessels and blood
1. B lood -
Blood is a fluid connective tissue which contains specialised cells.
Red coloured fluid flows through blood vessels from the heart to all parts of the body and
back to heart.
Transports nutrients absorbed from food, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water
Transports waste products to excretory systems. An average adult normally has about 5
litres of blood.
ifferent components of blood:
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Plasma
This is a yellowish colored part of the blood.
Plasma is a fluid substance that transports gases, nutrients and waste products. It helps
in carrying food material to the cells, and waste materials away from the cells. Plasma
contains proteins like fibrinogen (helps clotting of blood) and globulin. Globulin is a major
contributor to maintaining the osmotic pressure of plasma to assist in transport of lipids,
hormones and ions.
lood Cells
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Blood cells are also called corpuscles, they are unattached, freely-floating cells.
Types of blood cells-
1. Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs)(Erythrocytes)
presence of Haemoglobin (contains iron). Takes up oxygen from air and transport
to all cells of the body.
They are biconcave discs and do not contain any nucleus. Lifespan for RBCs is
four months, after which it breaks down and disintegrates in the liver.
Anaemia- deficiency of hemoglobin.
2. White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs)(Leucocytes)
They are fewer in number as compared to the red blood cells but much larger in
size. The lifespan of white blood cells is about two weeks. They are irregular in
shape and size, and contain a nucleus. Helps in building the immune system.
Fights against disease - causing agents
Leukemia - disease caused when WBCs are greater in number than RBCs
3. Platelets(Thrombocytes)
helps clotting blood and prevents loss. They are colorless and do not have a
nucleus.
Haemophilia- disorder in which ability to clot blood is severely reduced. This
person bleeds severely even in case of small injury.
World Haemophilia Day- 17 April
In Dengue fever, the count of platelets falls to extremely low levels, and might
lead to loss of life.
2. Blood vessels-
Thin tube-like structures that start from the heart and run through the entire body.
Blood circulates in our body through a network of blood vessels.
Three types of Blood Vessels:
Arteries
Carry blood from heart to different parts of the body. Arteries carry oxygenated blood
from the heart to various organs of the body. Except pulmonary arteries which carry
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.Aortais the largest artery in the body.
Veins
carry blood from different parts to the heart. Veins contain valves which prevent blood
from flowing backwards. All veins carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein
which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Two important veins-
1. Superior Vena cava - brings blood from organs that lie above the heart
2. Inferior Venda cava - brings blood from organs that lie below the heart
Capillaries
Very thin blood vessels, connected to the veins and arteries.
Arteries branch out to smaller arterioles and further even smaller blood vessels called
capillaries. Many capillaries reunite to formveins.Exchanges gases, water and nutrients
Capillaries are present in all the tissues of the body, but found more in metabolically
active parts like the brain and lungs.
ymph
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The Lymph is a colorless fluid (containing white blood cells) which filters from the blood
capillary walls into the intercellular spaces or the tissue spaces. It transfers the water,
salts and other waste substances from the cell to the blood. The cells take in food which
is collected in the lymph capillaries.
lood pressureis the force or pressure exerted bythe blood against the walls of he
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blood vessels. Measured using a device called asphygmomanometer.
The normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm of Hg. Hypertension- if higher than 140/90
mm of Hg (high BP). Hypotension - if lower than normal (low BP)
. Heart
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fist sized muscular organ, Pumps blood into larger blood vessels which branch into smaller ones
to reach all organs of the human body.
Protected by a sac of membranes called thepericardium. There is pericardial fluid between
heart and the pericardium that protects the heart from external jerks and also acts as a shock
absorber. In 24 hours the heart pumps about 16,360 litres of blood.
Divided into 4 chambers
pper - auricles or atria (atrium)
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Atrium/Auricle-
Right Auricle - receives blood from different parts. This blood contains waste
materials (carbon dioxide)
Left auricle - receives oxygen rich blood from lungs
ower - ventricles
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Ventricles- are much thicker walls than the auricles. They have special kind of muscles
calledcardiac muscles.
Right ventricle - pumps blood containing waste material to lungs
Left ventricle - pumps blood out of heart to different parts of body (rich in oxygen)
he blood flows in one direction, from the auricle to the ventricle. It can't flow back from
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the ventricles to the auricle.
Two types of valves -
1. The tricuspid valve - allows blood to flow between the right auricle and right
ventricle and prevents backflow of blood between the same.
2. The bicuspid value - (Mitral valve) allows flow of blood between the left auricle
and left ventricle and prevents backflow of blood between the same.
he two auricles are separated by a partition calledseptum(inter-ventricular septum)
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(separates the left side of the heart from the right).
he right side of the heart collects the impure and deoxygenated blood from the body
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and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart collects the oxygenated blood from
the lungs and pumps it to the other parts of the body through blood vessels.
eartbeat- rhythmic movement of heart while pumping blood. A normal human heart
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beats 72 times per minute.
ulse- throbbing (beating of the heart) feeling ofthe artery near the wrist is called
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pulse. Normal human pulse rate is 60 - 100 beats perminute
Higher pulse rate indicates hypertension or fever, whereas low pulse rate indicates poor
functioning of the heart.
doctor uses an instrument called thestethoscopeto listen to your heartbeat. Sound
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like Lubb-Dubb can be heard with this instrument.
Lubb - when bicuspid and tricuspid valves close which prevents the blood from flowing
back into the ventricles from the auricles.
Dubb - when the semilunar valve closes, preventing the blood from flowing into the
ventricles.
irculation of Blood
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Pulmonary (Lung) circulation:
Systemic (Body) circulation:
1. C arbon dioxide rich blood enters the heart and flows through the right atrium
which further flows into the right ventricle. From here blood leaves the heart and
flows through lungs through arteries where it gets purified. Carbon dioxide is
released and blood is enriched with oxygen.
2. Oxygen rich blood again flows from lungs again and enters the heart through
veins into the left atrium, which flows into the left ventricle. From here blood is
pumped throughout the body. The body uses this oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide into the blood.
Cardia Cycleis a sequence of events in one heartbeat.
It can be divided into two stages:diastoleandsystole.
Diastole(Phase of relaxation) - heart muscles relax,while chambers are filled with
blood.
Systole (phase of contraction) - ventricles start releasing blood into the aorta and
pulmonary artery. This causes ventricles to contract.
lood Groups:
B
Antigensare the protein molecules present on thesurface of blood.
Antigen A and Antigen B
Blood Group Antigen and Antibody Combinations
A Antigen A, Antibody B
B Antigen B, Antibody A
AB Antigen A and B, no antibodies
O No antigens, Antibodies A and B
A person having blood group O can give blood to a person with any blood group and is
called a universaldonor.
A person with blood group AB can receive any type of blood and is calledUniversal
recipient.
Blood Group an donate to
C an receive from
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A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB All groups
O All groups O
Transfer of blood from one person to another is calledBlood Transfusion.
hesus or the Rh Factor
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The Rh factor is a protein found on the surface of red blood cells. Rh factor can be
positive or negative. Rh negative people do not have an antibody in the plasma as
against the Rh factor.
AB+ve blood group means there is presence of Rh factor. O-ve blood group means there
is absence of Rh protein.
5. Excretory System
xcretion- removing harmful wastes and excess waterfrom the body.
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Kidneys- pair of kidneys, Bean shaped, filters urine and excess salts from blood
Ureters- Two thin tubes, urine passes from kidneys to urinary bladder
Urinary bladder- Stores urine collected from kidneys
Urethra- Thin tube lets the urine pass out.
6. Respiratory System
espiration- is the process in which food is brokenin the presence of oxygen to releases
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energy.
Respiratory Organs -
1. Nose and Nasal cavity
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea (windpipe)
5. Bronchi
6. Lungs
ain processes of respiration:
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External respiration or Breathing-
Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out.
Internal respiration or Cellular respiration-
Food (glucose) is broken down to obtain energy for the cells of our body to function
normally. This process carried out inside cells and in presence of oxygen, thus it is called
aerobic respiration.
ose and Nasal Cavity
N
We take air through our nose,it enters thenasal cavity,from there air travels down theTrachea
(windpipe) into lungs.
The nasal cavity is filled with mucous membranes and hair.
harynx
P
Inhaled air enters thepharynx, then thelarynxthrough theepiglottis(flap-like structure) which
is located between the passage of pharynx and larynx.
arynxis also called a voice box. It hels in breathing and talking, and in swallowing food. It
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directs the air to enter the trachea. It also prevents food from entering the respiratory system.
Trachea (windpipe)
onnects pharynx and larynx to the lungs. Walls of trachea have small hair like structures called
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cilia. These cilia catch dust and other contaminants from inhaled air and remove it through
coughing.
ronchi
B
The windpipe branches into two smaller tubes calledbronchi(singular - bronchus).
Each bronchus enters into a lung and branches out into smaller tubes calledbronchioles. At
the end of these tubes, there are tiny air sacs calledalveoli(singular - alveolus). The walls of
the alveoli are lined with a network of blood vessels andcapillariesto facilitate the exchange of
gases.
ungs
L
Lungs are surrounded by ribs forming a cage like structure called theribcage.
A large tissue sheet with muscles at its ends is calleddiaphragm, that forms base of the
ribcage.
The lungs are spongy, bag like structures covered with a pair of membranes, called thepleura
or pleural fluid. This fluid helps to keep the surface of lungs moist for easy diffusion of gases and
protects it from friction with the chest wall when lungs expand and contract.
The oxygen that enters the capillaries from the alveoli enters the red blood cells (RBCs) of
blood. Haemoglobin from RBCs binds with oxygen and forms a compound called
oxyhaemoglobin, this is carried through the bloodto all the cells of the body and oxygen is
released. Cells use this oxygen to break down glucose to form carbon dioxide and water. During
this process energy is released, which is used for movement of muscles, growth and repair of
cells. The carbon dioxide generated diffuses into the blood, and carried back to the lungs by
blood and expelled during exhalation.
reathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and the rib cage. During inhalation ribs
B
move up and outwards and diaphragm moves down. This movement increases space in our
chest cavity and air rushes into the lungs. The lungs get filled with air.
During exhalation, ribs move down and inwards, while diaphragm moves up to its former
position. This reduces the size of the chest cavity and air is pushed out of the lungs.
Inhaled air- rich in oxygen,
Exhaled air- rich in carbon dioxide,
Breathing- process of taking oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide (Inhalation and Exhalation)
Lungs- sponge like, cone shape.Function- to providefrom inhaled air to the bloodstream and
exhale carbon dioxide.
Diaphragm- muscle below lungs.
Alveoli- tiny air sacs in our lungs.
Cilia- tiny hair keeps mucus and dirt out of our lungs.
he number of times a person breathes (inhales and exhales) in a minute is termed as the
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breathing rate.During exercise breathing rate increases.
erobic and Anaerobic Respiration:
A
When food (glucose) is broken down in the presence of oxygen, it is calledaerobic respiration.
Carbon dioxide is liberated and water is used for cellular functions.
ood can be broken down in the absence of oxygen, which is calledanaerobic respiration.
F
This respiration is exhibited by yeast and certain bacteria.
Alcohol produced by anaerobic respiration gets further degenerated by enzymes in organisms
such as yeast and bacteria. We use yeast and bacteria to produce alcoholic beverages such as
beer and wine.
uscles in animals and humans also respire anaerobically when oxygen supply falls during
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exercise or sprinting. In this case instead of alcohol lactic acid is produced and accumulation of
lactic acid causes muscle cramps, which can be relieved by a hot water bath or a massage as it
improves blood circulation.
Anaerobic respiration in muscles takes place only for short durations. Aerobic respiration
produces more energy than anaerobic respiration.
7. Nervous System
ne of the most important organ systems of human body. Controls activities of all other organ
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systems of the body.
Brain:
Control centre of our body. Space between brain and skull is filled with clear fluid that acts as
cushion to protect brain from injuries and also present inside the brain.
Three Parts:
Cerebrum-
The largest part of the brain, responsible for thinking and logical reasoning. Controls thoughts,
memory, intelligence, learning and sense organs.
Cerebellum
Located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. Controls balance of our body, its
movement and coordination
Brainstem / Medulla
Lies beneath the cerebellum and connects the brain to the spinal cord. Controls involuntary
activities like breathing, digestion and blood circulation.
pinal Cord:
S
Thick bundle of nerves that extends down from the brainstem to the lower end of spine.
Protected by bony vertebral columns. The spinal cord transfers information between the brain
and the remaining body throughnerves.Also controls involuntary actions that are automatic
and without brain involvement, such actions arereflex actions
Nerves:
re long thread-like structures that carry messages between the brain or the spinal cord and
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other parts of the body. Nerves around the head and neck join the brain while nerves from other
body parts join the spinal cord.
Three types of Nereves:
Sensory nerves
Carry messages from the sense organs to the brain or sense organs
Motor nerves
Carry messages from the brain or the spinal cord to the muscles of the body.
Mixed nerves
Perform function of both sensory and motor nerves, carry messages to brain or spinal cord from
different body parts. Also carry messages from the brain or the spinal cord to different body
parts.
ense Organs:
S
These organs collect information and send it to nervous system through sensory nerves.
Eyes-
Cornea - transparent layer that covers and protects the front portion of eyes.
Iris - round colored (blue, black, brown, grey) part of the eye. Lens is behind Iris.
Pupil - small black spot at the centre of the eye through which the light enters.
Retina - thin layer of tissue, sensitive to light at the back of the eye. It is the part of the eye
where images are formed.
Optic nerve - this is a sensory nerve which sends pictures captured by the eye to the brain.
Ears-
Three parts:
Outer ear-
The outer visible part is called pinna, receives sound and sends it to the eardrum through the
ear canal. Eardrum is present in the middle ear.
Middle ear-
Made up of 3 bones that send sound waves to the inner ear.
Inner ear-
Changes sound waves to nerve signals and sends it to the brain through auditory nerves. The
brain interprets nerve signals making us hear different sounds. The inner ear is filled with a fluid
that helps us to keep our balance.
Tongue-
The surface is covered with numerous taste buds that help us to identify the taste of the food we
eat. Tastes - sweet, bitter, sour and salty. Nerves carry messages from the taste buds to the
brain.
Nose-
Helps in breathing and smell, two openings called nostrils, that are lined with hair and mucus to
trap dirt from air. The upper part of the nose has special nerve cells that help us to identify
different smells by sending messages to the brain.
Skin-
The largest sense organ, many tiny nerve endings, helps us to feel sensations like heat, cold,
pain and pressure. Has pores that allow body waste to come out in the form of sweat,
Internal Organs:
Bones- 206 bones form a framework called skeleton. Long bones are hollow and filled with
bone marrow (spongy tissue, site of formation of new blood cells)
Joint- where two or more bones meet, 360 joints in our body.
Muscles- help bones to move, 600 muscles in our body.
Brain- helps to think
Heart- hollow muscular organ, pumps blood through tiny tubes (Blood vessels) to different parts
of the body.
Kidneys- removes waste from blood and produces urine. Ureters carry urine from kidneys to
urinary bladder.
Stomach and Intestines-
Chew food in mouth, food travels to J-shaped bag - Stomach, through food pipe.
Food is churned and mixed with digestive juices, moving to the small intestine.
Food digested by intestinal juices, nutrients from digested food absorbed by blood.
In the large intestine extra water is absorbed and undigested food is sent out through theanus
in the form of faeces.
Food Groups:
alanced Diet
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Nutrients - substances help body to grow and stay healthy.
1. E nergy giving foods /Carbohydrates- bread, rice
Fats- oilseeds, nuts, butter
Saturated Fats - butter, solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fats - mustard oil, liquid at room temperature.
2. Body building foods /Proteins- egg,meat, pulses
3. Protective foods /Vitamins & minerals- protectsfrom illness - fruits, vegetables, nuts
Vitamins:
Fat soluble vitamins - A,D,E and K. stored in fat tissues of liver, kidney and muscles. For
maintenance of skin and bones.
Water-soluble vitamins - B1,B2,B3,B6,B12 and C. cant be prepared or stored in our body. We
get these from the food we eat.
Vitamin rich foods:
A - Orange, ripe yellow fruits, green vegetables, carrot, pumpkin, squash, liver and milk
products | Healthy skin and improves eyesight
B Complex (B1,B2,B3,B6,B12) - Oats, rice, milk, broccoli, leafy vegetables, fish, cereals, eggs,
meat. | helps body to produce energy, for production of red blood cells and proper functioning of
the nervous system.
C - Citrus fruits - Orange, lemon, cauliflower and cabbage | growth & repair of body tissues
D - milk, fish, eggs, mushroom | absorbs calcium and promotes healthy bones and teeths
- Vegetable oils, nuts and seeds, wheatgerm, yam, mango, kiwi, beetroot leaves | boasts the
E
body's resistance against bacterial and viral infections, absorption of vitamin A.
K - Spinach, fenugreek, Pomegranate, figs, berries, avocado, tomatoes, beef, egg, liver.
A,D,K - makes bones strong.
inerals-
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healthy bones, building muscles, blood and teeth
Types -
Major Minerals- require in high quantity. Calcium,chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium and sulphur.
Trace Minerals- require in very less amount. Iron,zinc, cobalt, copper and iodine.
Calcium - formation of bones | milk, curd, cheese
Iodine -
Potassium -
Iron - formation of blood | leafy vegetables, whole grain & beans.
4. R
oughage (Dietary Fibre)
Provided by plant products such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains. Helps in easy bowl
movement, preventing constipation.
Types -
Soluble fibre- gives us a feeling of fullness aftereating. E.g. peas, soybean, oats,
berries, apples, oranges, cucumbers etc.
Insoluble fibres- whole wheat, tomato, cabbage, greenvegetables.
ats, barley, corn, cereals, fruits & green leafy vegetables contains fibres that cannot be
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digested by our body.
Helps remove waste material smoothly from our body in form of stool.
5. Water- essential for proper functioning of body.Many chemical reactions happen
alories- units used to measure the energy valueof food.
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BMR- Basal Metabolic Rate
PAL- Physical Activity Level
icrobes
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Tiny living organisms cant be seen with naked eye.
Main Categories-
Bacteria (Bacterium)
Viruses (Virus)
Fungi (Fungus) - grow on dead & decaying matter
Protozoa (protozoan)
Uses-
- Bacteria changes milk into curd
- Bacteria & fungi help breaking down dead matter
- Protozoa - used as soil fertilizer
- Fungi - yeast - help in making bread
- Some bacteria helps in digestion of food
- Medicines from some bacteria & viruses
Harms - Germs and pathogens
- Bacteria causes diseases - typhoid, tetanus, cholera
- Viruses - flu, chicken pox, dengue, mumps, cold
- Fungi - skin diseases - ringworm, candidiosis
- Protozoa - diseases - malaria, dysentery
Food Preservation Methods
Refrigeration
Drying - remove water content
Pickling - using oil, salt
Deep freezing - frozen so they do not rot
Canning and bottling - airtight
Jellying (using sugar) - Jam
Diseases
ommunicable Diseases- spread from a sick personto a healthy person.
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By pathogens and germs, Through direct contact, Air , Food & water, Insects, Carriers
hrough Air : Influenza, cold, measles, Tuberculosis
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Through contaminated water and food : Typhoid, Cholera and dysentery
Through Insects and other animals: Zika disease, Dengue and Chikungunya by aedes mosquito
Through direct contact: conjunctivitis, scabies, chicken pox
Disease causing Pathogens: due to bacteria, fungi,viruses and protozoa.
Bacterial diseases
● Cholera - contaminated food and water | Diarrhoea, vomiting
● Typhoid - contaminated food and water | high fever, sweating, Diarrhoea
● Whooping cough - contaminated air | cough with deep noise inhalation
● Tuberculosis - contaminated air | prolonged cough more than 3 weeks, coughing
blood, pain in chest
● Pneumonia - Airborne | high fever, shaking chils, cough produces greenish or yellow
sputum
● Diphtheria - Coughing & Sneezing | fever, sore throat, bluish skin, difficulty in breathing
and swallowing.
● Tetanus - through cuts and wounds caused by dirty nails, tools and animal bites. |
prolonged contraction of skeletal muscles, stiffness, lockjaw, suffocation.
Viral diseases
● Common cold • Running nose • Sneezing and coughing • Sore throat | Air borne through
droplets released while sneezing and coughing
● Influenza• Chills• Pain in body• Fever with high body temperature | Air borne
● Measles• Runny nose• Red blotchy skin• Inflamed eye | Air droplets
● Mumps• Swelling of salivary gland• Headache• Pain in chewing | Nasal or oral air
droplets
● Small pox• High fever• Headache• Chill• Red rashes on body | Direct contact
● Chicken pox• Fever• Lesions on body turn into blisters• Headache | Air borne, direct
contact
● Rabies• Partial paralysis• Hallucinations• Abnormal behaviour | Bites of infected animals
● Polio• Fever• Paralysis in one or more limbs• Muscular pain | Contaminated water
● Jaundice• Loss of appetite• Mild fever• Yellow coloration of skin, eyes, nails and urine |
Contaminated food and water
● AIDS• Weakened immune system• More prone to other infectious diseasesTransfusion
of infected blood or syringes | Through sexual contact
Fungal diseases
● Athlete's foot• Itching on affected skin• Pain, swelling and inflammation | Transmitted in
moist environment where people walk barefoot
● Ringworm• Reddish or brownish raised patch on the skin with lighter centre that gives an
appearance of a ring | Skin to skin contact
Protozoan diseases
● Malaria• Fever• Shivering• Joint pain | Bite of female Anopheles mosquito
● Amoebic dysentery• Severe diarrhoea• Blood in mucus and faeces | Contaminated water
and food
● Sleeping sickness• High fever• Headache• Swelling of lymph nodes | Transmitted by
tse-tse fly
● Kala-azar• Skin sores• Damage to spleen | Bites of certain species of sandfly
● Elephantiasis• Parts of body swell excessively | Transmitted through mosquitoes
● Ascariasis• Nausea and vomiting• Irregular stools• Worms in stool | Transmitted through
contaminated objects
● Taeniasis• Worms in stool• Indigestion | Undercooked or raw meat
lague- a rare, severe infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Common
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Symptoms - Sudden high fever and chills, Extreme weakness, fatigue, and headaches, Muscle
and joint aches, Shortness of breath or coughing
on-Communicable Diseases
N
Do not spread from a sick person to a healthy person. e.g. Anaemia, Cancer, scurvy, rickets
Cancer-Cells divide abnormally and result in the formation of tumors.
ever-temperature of our body increases 37 Deg C. It is a mode of action of our immune
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system to fight against infection. Person feels cold when temperature of body rises.
eficiency diseasescaused by insufficient intake or total lack of important nutrients that are
D
essential for the growth and maintenance of the body.
besity- too much body fat
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Causes - too much consumption of junk food and lack of physical activity
Anaemia- Pale skin, shortness of breath, dizziness, lack of appetite.
Causes - lack of iron in diet. (green leafy vegetables, lentils, beans), Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
Diabetes
Pancreas do not produce enough insulin or when body is not effectively able to use insulin
produced by the pancreas.
Type I - low production of insulin
Type II - ineffective use of insulin by the body.
Excess hunger and thirst, weakness, abnormal BP, urge to pass urine frequently.Blood sugar
levels (glucose) are high. Causes - Unhealthy food, lack of exercise and obesity.
igh Blood Pressure
H
The heart pumps blood at a faster rate. Dizziness, chest pain, breathlessness
Causes - high salt and sugar content, lack of physical exercise.
alnutrition(PEM) leads tomarasmus.
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The child becomes very thin, skin becomes loose and legs get weakened. There is lack of
energy and poor muscle development.
hyroid disorder-
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Goitre- low levels of thyroid hormone in the blood causes thyroid gland enlargement and
hypothyroidism.
Cretinism- In pregnant woman with hypothyroidism, it may lead to severe mental retardation
and stunted growth in the infant
Graves disease- caused due to abnormal levels of secretion of thyroid hormones. In this eyes
protrude out and swelling of other tissues around eyes happen.
washiorkor-
K
Swollen belly , ankles and feet, thinning of hairs, reduced growth
Cause - severe deficiency of proteins
Marasmus-
Lack of energy, poor muscle development,
Cause - severe deficiency of proteins and carbohydrates
one and Teeth decay -
B
weak bones and tooth decay
Cause - calcium deficiency
Night Blindness-
Inability to see in dark or in poor light
Causes - lack of vitamin A
Rickets(children),Osteomalacia(Adults) -
Pigeon chest, knock knees and bow legs, Bone pain and prone to fracture.
Cause - lack of vitamin D in diet, minerals - calcium and phosphorus.
Scurvy-
Wounds take longer to heal, swollen gums bleeds easily
Causes - lack of Vitamin C (Abscorbic acid) in diet
Beriberi-
Weak muscles and nerves, getting cramps and tired easily
Causes - lack of Vitamin B
Goitre-
Swollen neck | lack of Iodine in diet
Bleeding disorder-
uncontrolled bleeding from wounds, delayed blood clotting. | Vitamin K
ood Adulteration
F
Is unethical practice in which food quality is lowered by addition of harmful inferior quality
ingredients (called adulterant)
riboflavinosisandPhotophobia-
A
cracked lips, mouth ulcers, dry and scaling skin, eyes become sensitive to bright sunlight.
lack of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
ellagra-
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Diarrhoea, drying of skin and irritability. | Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Vitamin A Night Blindness
Loss of vision in poor or dim light and at night
Vitamin B1 Beriberi
Tiredness, weak muscles, digestion problems and heart problems
Vitamin B2 Skin diseases
Swelling in throat and tongue, cracked skin and lips
Vitamin B3 Pellagra
Affects skin, digestive and nervous system
Vitamin B12 Anaemia
Low count of RBCs makes the skin look pale, lack of energy, shortness of breath & loss
of appetite.
Vitamin C Scurvy
Swollen and bleeding gums, loosening of teeth, delay in healing pain
Vitamin D Rickets
Weak and soft bones, stunted growth, bowlegs, pigeon chest and decaying teeth.
Vitamin K Haemorrhage (uncontrolled bleeding)
Difficulty in clotting of blood, gum bleeding and getting bruised easily.
ineral Deficiency:
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Calcium - Osteoporosis (in adults), rickets (in children)
Weak brittle bones, decaying teeth, excessive blessing, short and deformed bones
Iron - Anaemia
Fatigue, pale skin, white nails, loss of weight and loss of appetite.
Phosphorus -Rickets in children
Weak bones, stunted growth, teeth deformities, bowlegs, pigeon chest and curved spine.
Iodine - Goitre
Enlarged thyroid gland, retarded physical and mental growth in children
Sodium and Potassium - Muscular weakness, paralysis.
Muscle pain, weakness, vomiting, diarrhoea, difficulty breathing.
halassemia- genetic disorder, inability to produce enough haemoglobin in the blood.
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Alzheimer’s disease- degenerative disease in elders. Memory loss
Cataract- clouding of the eye’s natural lens
Asthma- difficulty in breathing due to allergy of pollens, dust or certain food items.
Eczema- strong allergic reaction of the skin
Hives- red itchy bumps on the skin, due to allergy of some medicines or food.
Animals & Birds
and Animals - cows, lions, giraffes.
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Tree animal - monkey,
Garden animal - grasshoppers, ants.
Wild Animals - leopard, tiger, elephant, fox
Water Animals - Fish, dolphin, octopus
Amphibians - frog, turtle, alligator
Movement in Organisms:
Invertebrates - do not have backbone. Spiders, scorpions, snails, crab
Vertebrates - Animals that have backbone. Fish, Amphibian, reptile, Bird, Mammal
ovement in Animals:
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The way animals move is called gait. The presence or absence of a backbone affects the gait of
an animal.
ovement in Earthwarm:
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Earthwarms have special muscles and hair-like structures calledsetaebelow their body. It has
many ring-like structures on its body calledsegments.Earthworms move by crawling. By
alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles, it moves forward slowly. It also secretes a
slimy substance -mucus, which helps them in easymovement.
ovement in Snail:
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Snail has a hard rounded structure on top called Shell, which is made of mainly calcium. It is not
a bone, helps protect snail from cold and danger. It consists of head, tentacles and long
muscular foot. Snails glide along the ground using foot. Muscles of foot move like a wave,
leaving mucous trail. Mucous makes the movement easy and prevents injury.
ovement in Cockroach:
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Cockroaches can walk, swim, crawl and fly. Don't have bone, only an external skeleton that
protects its body. Has six jointed legs and two pairs of wings. Muscles are attached to the legs
and wings.
ovement in Fish:
M
The gait of fish is swimming. They are vertebrates, body shape is called streamlined shape.
Helps to cut water easily. Swims by curving its body and tail muscles. These curves cause body
to twist and turn, pushing fish forward. Fish changes its direction, balances and swims forward
with the help of its fins. A special structure called Swim Bladder is present in most fish. It can be
filled in with air or emptied out to move up and down in water.
ovement in Bird:
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Ostrich and kiwi cannot fly but are good runners. Birds show two types of flight - flapping and
gliding movements.
Flapping flight - wings are flapped up and down to propel the bird forward or maintain balance.
E.g. sparrows and mynahs.
Gliding and soaring - wings are kept spread as it appears to move effortlessly in air. During
gliding, the wings are flapped occasionally. E.g. eagles and kites.
ovement in Snake:
M
Do not have legs or arms. They move by using muscles and a long backbone. They have stong
muscles attached to their ribs, skin and backbone. Snakes move by slithering or in a zigzag
manner. The free end of ribs acts like limbs to hold on the surface, and the contraction and
relaxation of muscles help the snake move.
Respiration in Organisms:
reathing:
B
Inhalation (taking in oxygen rich air in the body) and exhalation (giving out carbon dioxide rich
air) are collectively calledbreathing.
Oxygen inhaled is used by all the cells in the body to break down food and release energy.
Respirationis the process of using oxygen to breakdown food to release energy, carbon
dioxide and water. Also called the universal chemical process as every living cell respires to
survive.
espiration
R | reathing
B
Release of energy at the end | there is no release of energy
Intracellular process (takes place inside | extracellular (takes place between organism
cells) | and environment)
Biochemical process involving breakdown | physical process involving inhalation and
of digested food | exhalation
rgans for Breathing:
O
Skin:
Exchange of gases takes place through the slimy surface of the skin.
Earthwarm - moist skin
Air holes:
Exchange of gases through small openings or pores calledspiracles. These are openings of a
network of air tubes calledtrachea, which carry oxygento different parts of the body.
E.g. Cockroaches / Grasshopper and Whales / dolphins - air holes
ills:
G
Water alongwith dissolved oxygen enters the mouth and the absorption of oxygen takes place
through the gills. Carbon dioxide diffuses in water which is released through the openings in the
gills.
E.g. Fish / Crab - Gills
Lungs:
Amphibians - Salamander, newts and Frog - use Moist skin (in water) and lungs (on land)
Reptiles, birds and mammals also breathe through lungs.
Mammals / Human - Nose, air goes to lungs
Birds - lungs
Pulmonary respiration- Respiration through the lungs.
Cutaneous respiration- Respiration through the skin.
Buccal Respiration- frog takes air through nostrilsinto buccal cavity, the gaseous
exchange takes place through the lining of the buccal cavity. This method of respiration
is known asbuccal respiration.
In humans, the right lung is a little larger than the left lung, which shares space in the chest with
the heart.
lants- take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, oxygen released is utilized for breathing.
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Stomata (lotus has stomata on upper side of leaves).
Birds
eak- birds are toothless, they eat with beaks.
B
- Strong, Sharp and hooked beaks - flesh eating birds/birds of prey e.g. Eagle, Vulture
- Strong, Short and Hard beaks - eating grains and seeds. E.g. pigeons, peacocks,
sparrows, finches
- Curved Beaks - eating nuts and hard fruits like walnut. Curved beak helps to climb trees.
e.g . parrots and parakeets
- Strong, Pointed, Chisel-shaped Beaks - poke holes in tree trunks and pull out insects to
eat. E.g. woodpecker
- Long and Pointed Beaks - long, slender and pointed beaks - pierce to suck nector from
flowers. E.g. hummingbird and sunbird
- Broad and Flat Beaks - has holes on the sides, along with muddy water they take
insects, worms and water plants - water flows out through holes. E.g. Duck , geese,
spoonbill
- Broad and Short Beaks - stick inside. E.g. Swallow
eet and Claws-
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- Flesh eating birds - eagle, vulture - sharp claws known as Talons.
- Perching birds - three front toes and one at back. Help them to sit on branch with a grip.
E.g. sparrow, crow, mynahs
- Scratching Birds - Hens, roosters - sharp claws to scratch and dig in the ground, to pull
out buried insects, worms and seeds.
- Climbing Birds - two front and two back toes, helps to climb and cling on trunks of
tree.E.g. woodpeckers, parakeets
- Swimming Birds - webbed feet. E.g. ducks, swans
- Wading Birds - long legs with spread-out toes. Can wade through muddy water. e.g.
cranes, Herons, storks
How Birds fly- hollow bones, makes their body lightallows them to fly for longer period of time.
Wing movement :
Upstroke - upward and backward movement of wings
Downstroke - downward and forward movement of wings
Tail helps to change direction while flying.
Feathers:
Body feathers - covers exterior of bird’s body.
Flight Feathers - large in size, found in wings and tail
Down Feathers - small, soft, fluffy keep birds warm.
Nesting habits-
Tailor bird - uses beak as needle to sew leaves
Weaver bird - uses twigs and grass to make strong nest
Swallow bird - builds its nest using its own spit
oodpecker - create hole inside the trunk of tree
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Penguin - collects pebbles and stones to build nest on ground.
Insects
Body parts of an Insect - six legs, body divided in 3 - Head, thorax and abdomen.
Pair of antennae on head to sense and feel things.
No bones but has hard outer covering made of Chitin.
Terrestrial Animals
Elephant, cat, dog, camel, snake
Aquatic Animals
Fish, octopus, dolphin
Amphibians
Frog, toad, newt
Aerial Animals
Arboreal Animals - living or moving through trees
Monkeys, squirrels, koala, bear and lizards
daptations for Food
A
Consumers
Herbivorous - deer, buffalo, zebra, goat, cow
Carnivorous - lion, tiger, leopard, eagle, wolf
Omnivorous - bear, racoon, crow, woodpecker
Scavengers - feed on dead plant and animals. E.g. vulture and hyena.
Decomposers
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead and decaying organisms. The
nutrients present in the dead body are returned to the soil by the action of decomposers. E.g.
bacteria and fungi
Parasites - organisms that live on or inside the body of other living beings for food. They depend
on Hosts for the food. E.g. mosquitos, leeches, hookwarms and tapeworms.
Camouflage - grasshopper, owl, frog, chameleon, blend with surrounding
Hibernation / winter sleep -
Bear, frog, lizards sleep several months to avoid winter season.
Aestivation / Summer sleep -
Crocodiles, lungfish, rest in cool and shady places to protect from high temperatures
Migration of birds & fish / turtle -
Due to climate change and food availability
Endangered - close to disappeared, tiger, black rhinos
Extinct - already disappeared. Dodo bird, saber toothed cat.
luffer - thick layer of fat under skin e.g. polar bear and walrus
B
Hooves - hard covering present in foot of some animals e.g. Camel
Life cycle Stages :
Butterfly
1. Egg
2. Larva
3. Pupa/Chrysalis - Caterpillar - protective covering - Cocoon.
Moults - caterpillar sheds old skin.
4. pupa develops into Adult Butterfly.
Tadpole
1. Egg
2. Tadpole
3. Froglet
4. Adult frog
Mosquito
1. Egg
2. Larva
3. Pupa
4. Adult Mosquito
Human
1. Sperm egg
2. Baby
3. Child
4. Young / Teen
5. Adult
ocial Insects- wasps, ants, honeybees
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Harmful Insects- ants, Termites - eat wood, Silverfish- destroy clothes, cockroaches - ,
mosquitoes, honeybees - can sting, bedbugs - live in sofa, bed mattress, houseflies, head lice -
live in human hair.
Sounds of Animals / Birds :
Dogs bark
Cats Mew
Ducks Quack
Bees Buzz
Bears Growl
Lions roar
Horses Neigh
Kangaroos Chortle
Jackals Howl
Cows Moo
Elephants Trumpet
Frogs Croak
Sparrows Chirp
oats
G leat
B
Donkeys Bray
Crows Caw
Koalas Scream
Monkeys Chatter
Foxes Bark
Oxen Bellow
Hens Cluck
Camels Grunt
Bats Screech
Seals bark
Reproduction in Animals
- Produce young one of their own kind
Egg laying animals (Oviparous) -
Incubation - eggs are kept in warm place or animals sit on eggs to keep them warm.
Birds -
Egg shell - egg membrane (Albumen + yolk), air sac
Albumen - white jelly like substance
Yolk - yellow coloured, development of growing baby called embryo.
Embryo - turn in to young one.
Fish -
Lay plenty of eggs in water
Warmth for incubations they get from sunlight
Frogs -
Spawn - large number of eggs (larger clusters of jelly like substance)
Tadpoles - young ones that hatch from eggs
Metamorphosis - transformation of young one into adult
Tadpoles becomes frog.
Butterfly -
Lay eggs on leaves
Caterpillar hatches from eggs (larva stage)
Caterpillar grows & develops protective covering around (Pupa stage)
Moulting - sheds old skin and adult butterfly comes out
Maggot - larval form of a housefly
Wriggler - larval form of a mosquito
Grasshopper and Cockroaches
1. Larvae hatch from eggs - nymph
2. Nymph undergoes moulting several times
3. Develops into adult
Reptiles - snakes, lizards lay eggs on ground
Mammals (Viviparous)
Suckle -
feed young ones with own milk e.g. dog, cat, monkey, cows, rabbit, elephant
Warm blooded -
Maintain body heat even when surrounding is cold or hot
Marsupials
Pouched mammals as kangaroos & koala
Aquatic Mammals - Dolphins & whales
uckbilled platypus & spiny anteaters reproduce by laying eggs, but they are still called
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mammals as they feed their young ones with their milk, have hairs & breathe through lungs.
utrition in Animals:
N
Ingestion - the process by which food is taken into the body of an organism.
Octopus - uses tentacles for ingestion of food.
Cockroaches - specialized mouth parts, designed for biting and chewing.
Frogs - long, sticky tongue and retracting it into their mouth, swallow the prey by opening their
mouth wide and gulp it.
Bolas spider - (orb-weaver spider), they spin a single silk line with one or more sticky droplet at
its end, which are called Bolas. They drop silk line and swing it at moths or other insects to
capture their prey.
emale mosquitoes suck blood of animals by feeding tubes, known asproboscis. Male
F
mosquitos feed on nectar from plants by the same method.
Housefly uses saliva to dissolve its liquid food and forms a solution. And then sucks this using a
feeding tube to consume.
Butterflies use specialised proboscis to suck nectar from flowers. Proboscis is kept coiled inside
the mouth when not in use.
Starfish have a specialised structure called oral disc under their body, surrounded by numerous
tube feet. It extends their stomach and wraps the prey. They release digestive enzymes to break
down the food into semi-liquid form, which is then absorbed by the stomach.
Birds have beaks to locate, capture and consume their food.
Amoeba:
Amoeba is a single celled aquatic organism. It senses its food and moves to that direction, using
pseudopodia(finger-like projections of its cytoplasm). It surrounds the food and engulfes it with
a drop of water, this forms afood vacuole. The digested food is absorbed into the cell and
vacuole with undigested food moves towards the edge of a body and bursts open to throw out
the waste. This process of removing undigested waste from the body is calledegestion.
Hydra:
Hydra lives in freshwater, has long flexible tentacles around its mouth, which have special cells
calledstinging cells. Food is digested in centralbody cavity, and undigested food is thrown out
via mouth.
Anteater - feeds on ants, termites and other insects. Its tongue can reach 2ft in length.
Human beings:
. Ingestion - intake of food through mouth
1
2. Digestion - ingested food is swallowed and enters the alimentary canal (tubular passage
extending from the mouth to the anus). Digestion is the mechanical and chemical
breakdown of complex food into simple substances in an easy to absorb form.
3. Absorption - digested food is absorbed by cells of the intestinal wall and carried to all
cells of the body via blood cells. This process is called absorption.
4. Assimilation - absorbed food is either stored or used by the body to generate energy and
for growth. This energy is used for metabolic activities and to repair and replace
worn-out tissues.
5. Egestion - undigested food removed from the body.
igestion in Ruminants (Grass eating animals):
D
Plant eating animals quickly swallow their food after chewing it once. This food goes to a
chamber calledrumen. They bring back the food later into their mouths and chew it again.
These animals are calledRuminantsand the process is calledRumination.
Stomach of ruminants consists offour compartments-
Rumen- swallowed food first enters here, it has microorganisms that can break down cellulose,
a complex carbohydrate present in plants.
Reticulum- food is mixed with saliva and separated into layers of solid and liquid material.
Solids clump together to form thecudorbolus.
The cud is brought back from Rumen to mouth and chewed slowly by mixing with saliva and
further breaking down. This is calledchewing the cudorrumination.
Omasum- when the cud is chewed and swallowed again it goes to Omasum, where the food is
broken down into simpler compounds.
Abdomasum- Simpler compounds then enter the abdomasum. Digestive juices are secreted
in this chamber and the food is now fully digested.
It is then sent to small intestine for absorption and leftover undigested food is passed to the
large intestine to excrete.
Plants
Main parts of a Plant - root and shoot
oot- grows under the soil, away from sunlight
R
Types of root system -
Taproot- grows deep, produces many smaller lateral/side roots (Beans, peepal, turnip,
mustard, carrot)
Fibrous root- many / number of fine, branching rootsarise from end / base of the stem.
Function -
Holds the plant firmly to the ground.
Absorb water and minerals
tore food (carrot, turnip, radish)
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Prevent soil erosion
Modifications of Roots -
Food storing roots- swollen. E.g. carrot, radish,beetroot.
Prop and stilt roots-
Prop roots- arising from branches and growing downwards to the soil. E.g. Banyan
tree.
Stilt roots- in maize plant, thin stem gets support from roots that are produced from the
main stem.
Climbing roots- produce roots from nodes. E.g. betelnut, black pepper and money
plant.
Breathing roots- mangroves in marshy areas. The rootscannot get oxygen from
marshy soil, they produce breathing roots. They grow from underground but rise
vertically upwards and come out of the water like a conical spike.
hoot- Stem, branches, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits,seeds. Parts that are above the ground.
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Stem-
Node - part of the stem where branches and leaves arise is called node.
Internodes - parts between two nodes.
Buds - apical (or terminal) buds and axillary buds.
Carry water and nutrients from roots to different parts of the plant.
Food made by leaves is distributed throughout the plant.
Modifications of Stem:
Storage of food- Underground stems - potato, turmeric and ginger. Modified in 3 types - tuber,
bulb and rhizome.
Tuber - potatoes, have small depressions called eyes, they are nodes that have buds
from which a new shoot can grow.
Bulb - onion and rhizome - ginger.
Vegetative propagation (reproduction)-
Stems bear buds that give rise to new shoots. They have horizontal stems that strike roots at
the nodes and new shoots grow from these nodes. They separate from the mother plant to grow
independently or sometimes continue to remain attached to the mother plant. E.g. grasses and
Pistia.
Protection-
Thorns growing on stems protects plants from predators. E.g. rose and bougainvillea.
Support-
Creepers and climbers take support from wall or other strong plants. E.g. grapevine, bitter
gourd.
Creepers-
Spread horizontally along the ground. Pumpkin and watermelon do not strike roots, whereas
grasses do.
Climbers-
Have special roots, sticky stems or tendrils for support. E.g. pepper, vanilla and money plant.
Leaf
reen pigment - Chlorophyll
G
Parts of Leaf:
Leaf base- expanded area where leaf attaches to thestem.
Petiole- stalk of the leaf, attaches the leaf tothe stem.
Lamina- flat broad part, called Lamina or leaf blade.
Axil- the upper edge between leaf stalk and brach and the stem or trunk from which it is
growing is called Axil. An axillary bud can be seen in the area between the base of leaf
and the stem.
Leaf apex- tip of the leaf lamina.
leaf margin- edge on all sides of the leaf lamina.
Veins- thin lines on the leaf.
At centre - main vein calledmidrib.
Midrib has many branches calledveinlets- sideveinscarry water and food.
Venation- arrangement of veins on the lamina of leafis called venation.
ypes-
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Simple Leaf-one complete lamina, not divided into smaller parts. E.g. mango, banana,
Hibiscus.
Compound leaf- lamina is divided into smaller parts called leaflets The midrib of
compound leaf is calledrachis. E.g. Tamarind, rose.
enation of Leaves:
V
Reticulate venation -
Net like arrangement of veins, rose and hibiscus plants. These leaves have a
broad lamina and a petiole. E.g. mango, peepal and guava.
Parallel venation -
Parallel arrangement of veins seen in leaves of maize and wheat plants. Have
smooth and long lamina. E.g. banana, sugarcane, wheat.
rrangement of leaves:
A
Alternate - in a spiral manner, do not overlap each other. Eg. china rose, mango, mint
Opposite - placed opposite to each other. Guava and basil
Whorled - set of three or more leaves develop at each node. E.g. Nerium, Lilium.
eaves have tiny pores underside of leaves calledstomata.This helps plants to breathe.
L
Guard cells surround the stomata, they control opening and closing of stomata.
Foliage- the entire set of leaves on a plant is referred to as its foliage.
Functions-
ake food using minerals, carbon dioxide, sunlight and chlorophyll through the process of
m
photosynthesis.
Gives out oxygen and extra water
Food is prepared in the form of simple sugar / glucose. Extra food is stored in the form of starch
(leaves, stems and roots).
Transpiration-
Process in which there is loss or evaporation of water from plants (esp. leaves) at Some time
uptake of water takes place from roots to soil. Takes place through special pores - Stomata.
odification of Leaves-
M
Leaf tendrils- slender, coiled structures helps plants to climb. E.g. pea plant, glory lily and wild
pea.
Leaf Spines- sharp pointed structures called spines. Used for defensive purpose and to reduce
rate of transpiration. E.g. prickly pear or cactus.
Scale leaves- thin, dry, stalkless and membranous structures. Protects young leaf bud. E.g.
Onion.
Phyllode- petiole of a compound leaf becomes flattened leaf like structure. E.g. australian
acacia
Hooks- In Begonia, the three terminal leaflets of a leaf get modified into claw-like hooks, hlp in
climbing.
Insect eating leaves-
Pitcher plant
Venus Flytrap
Bladdervort
Flower
lowers- produces fruits and seeds
F
Parts of a Flower: arranged in four whorls or fourconcentric rings.
1. Sepals- outermost, green, leaf-like part located at the base of the flower. Protect bud
while it blooms and as it is green, performs photosynthesis.
Group of Sepals -Calyx.
2. Petals -most attractive part, brightly colored to attract insects.
Group of petals -Corolla.
3. Stamens(Androecium) - male reproductive part, hasa thin stalk calledFilamentand a
lobed structure at its tip calledanther. Anther containsa fine powdery substance called
PollenorPollen grains. They are male reproductivecells orgametes.
4. CarpelorPistil(Gynoecium) - female reproductive part,
Three parts-
Ovary- swollen part at the base. Inside ovary arethe ovules, which contains eggs or
female gametes. After process of fertilisation, the ovary develops into a fruit while ovules
develop into seeds.
tyle- thin stalk,
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Stigma- thickened top part
Stalk/pedicel- attach the flower to the stem.
Thalamus- Tip of the pedicel is swollen and is calledthalamus. At its top bears the whorls of
the flower.
Calyx and corolla do not take part in the fertilisation process hence they are called accessory or
Non-essential parts of a flower.
Types of Flowers:
Complete Flower: has all four whorls.
Bisexual Flowers / hermaphrodites- both male andfemale reproductive parts are
present. E.g Hibiscus, mustard, daffodil
Incomplete Flower: lacks at least one whorl.
Monosexual Flowers / Unisexual- either male or femalereproductive parts are
present. So they are called incomplete Flowers E.g maize, bitter gourd and muskmelon
In pineapple and strawberry, several flowers (each with ovary) develop into small fruits.
These are clustered or fused together to form larger fruit.
ruits- some fruits have seeds
F
Seeds-
hard covering called seed coat. Seed leaves inside a seed are called cotyledons. Contain food
supply for baby plants.
Seeds with two cotyledons are called dicotyledons or dicot seeds. E.g. Kidney beans.
Seeds with one cotyledon are monocotyledons or monocot seeds. E.g. corn seeds
A baby plant inside a seed is called an embryo. The embryo has shoot(grows into stem) and
root spread under ground.
Germination- seed grows into young plants or sapling.
Transport of food and water in plants: water from roots to Stem, to leaf, to flower
ood we get from plants
F
Fruits, Vegetables,
Pulses and dals - masur, arhar/tur, kidney beans/Rajma, whole moong, black gram/chana. Split
pulses are calles dals.
Cereals / grains - wheat, bajra, rice, corn, barley, oats
nuts () and seeds (mustard, corn, sunflower).
Food from Animals - Milk (cow, goat, buffalo), eggs, meat.
dible roots - Sweet potato, carrot, turnip, radish, beetroot
E
Stems - Potato, ginger, water chestnut, lotus stem
Leaves - spinach, lettuce, methi(fenugreek), cabbage
Flowers - cauliflower, broccoli, banana flower
edicinal Plants - Tulsi, cloves
M
Fibres - cotton, jute, coir
Rubber - latex of rubber trees
Gum - juice of acacia and keekar tree
Paper - bamboo plant
ypes of Plants -
T
Trees-
Big, tall and strong e.g. peepal, ashoka, gulmohor, Banyan
Brown, hard, thick, woody and strong stems -Trunk, Trunk is protectedby hard covering called
Bark
Shrubs-
small but strong, grows close to ground, woody stems e.g. rose, champa, croton, tomato,
cotton, hibiscus, mehendi
Herbs-
small and weak, thin, green and soft stems e.g. mint, tulsi, coriander, spinach
Climbers-
weak stems, grows with support, cannot grow straight e.g. grapevine, money plant, pea plant
Creepers- weak stems, grow along the ground, have big fruits e.g. watermelon, pumpkin, bottle
gourd.
Habitat-
A place where living organisms live in nature.
Adaptation-
Features that help plants and animals to survive ion nature.
1. Terrestrial Plants - grow on land
Deciduous Trees- Neem, peepal, gulmohor, banyan.
Several branches, survive hot climate, shed leaves in autumn (less rainfall)
Evergreen Trees- heavy rainfall. Rubber tree, teaktree, sugar cane, rice.
Coniferous Trees-
Growing on mountains - pine, deodar, fir.
Tall straight and conical shape
Flowerless- cones with seeds inside
Needle like leaves, with wax coating
Desert Trees- Xerophytes
Cactus, very few or no leaves, or modified into thorns
Store water in stem - fleshy
Swampy areas- mangroves
Breathing roots - grows above swamp, marshy areas
Near coasts- coconut trees survive in salty water.
2. Aquatic Plants- grow in water
Emergent Plants-
ixed to shallow waterbed but their leaves and stems extend out of the water body. E.g.
F
bulrush, cat tail, arrowhead, sedge.
Floating plants- water lettuce, Duckweed, water hyacinth
Fixed plants-
lotus , water lily. Long hollow stem, wax coated and broad leaves to prevent wilting.
Stomata on upper surface.
Underwater Plants-
Seagrass, Hydrilla, Tape grass (Vallisneria)
3. Insectivorous Plants(Carnivorous) -
Venus flytrap, pitcher plant, Sundew
. Nongreen Plants
4
Indian pipe, coralroot
Saprophytic Plants- absorb food from dead animals, - Mushroom
Epiphytes- mosses, ferns and orchids
- Grow on other plants
- Absorb moisture from air
Parasitic Plants-
Depend on other plants for their nutrition
Eg. Cuscuta, mistletoe
Plant Reproduction
Pollination
ransfer of pollen grains from theantherto thestigmaof the flower is called pollination.
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Only then the ovary will develop into a fruit and ovules will form the seeds.
Pollen is transferred to the female reproductive part of the plant, to enable fertilization. Pollen
contains male gametes and carpel contains female gametes. Both gametes must come in
contact with each other for reproduction to take place.
Ways of Pollination:
1. Self Pollination- transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower
or another flower of the same plant.
2. Cross Pollination- transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on different plants of the same species.
3. Insect PollinationorEntomophily-
The bright color of petals and the fruity smell of flowers attract insects. When insects sit
on flowers to feed on nectar their bodies brush against the powdery pollen that stick to
their bodies. When these insects visit another flower, the pollen grains are deposited on
stigma of that plant, thus enabling pollination. Insects are very important for pollination.
4. Wind Pollination or Anemophily
E.g. maize, sugar cane, rice, wheat and grass.
5. Water Pollination or Hydrophily
E.g. water weeds, pond weeds, Vallisneria and Hydrilla.
. Pollination by Animals or Zoophily
6
Agents of Pollination- air, water, animals, and insects.
Fertilisation
hen mature pollen grains reach the stigma, they stick there due to the presence of sticky
W
substances produced by the stigma.
The outer wall of pollen grain bursts and produces a pollen tube carrying the male gamete.
Male gamete has to find a way to reach the female gamete (egg cell) present in the ovule of the
ovary.
Once male gamete reaches there male and female gametes unite and fuse together forming a
fertilised cell calledZygote.This fusion of themale and female gametesis calledfertilisation.
The zygote further develops into anembryo. Othermale gamete fuses with two polar nuclei
present in the embryo sac, to form theendosperm.Endosperm provides food and nutrition to
the embryo. The embryo slowly develops into plumule (tiny shoot) and radicle (tiny root) forming
a seed. Fertilized ovules develop intoseeds. Theovary begins to ripen and changes intofruit.
ruit
F
Ovary begins to grow and develops into a fruit. The ovule inside the ovary develops into a seed.
Remaining parts of flower like petals, sepals, stamen, stigma and style dry off and wither away.
Ovary swells, becomes big and ripens called the fruit.
Fruits can be fleshy (mango, tomato, grapes) or hard (groundnut, maize, coconut
alse Fruit- if any part of the plant except ovarytakes part in fruit formation it is called false
F
fruit. E.g. In apples, thalamus develops over growing ovaries and forms skin and flesh of the
fruit.
True Fruit- only ovary grows to form a fruit is calledtrue fruit. E.g. Mango.
Parthenocarpic fruit- fruits developed from unfertilisedovaries are called parthenocarpic
fruits. These fruits do not contain seeds as there is absence of fertilization. E.g. varieties of
pineapples and grapes.
arts of Fruit-
P
Pericarp- outer fleshy part, contains seeds.
Three parts of Pericarp:
1. Epicarp - outermost thin skin
2. Mesocarp - middle, sweet and fleshy layer
3. Endocarp - hard innermost layer, encloses seed.
leshy fruits - pericarp of soft e.g. papaya, tomato, grape
F
Dry fruits - pericarp is not pulpy e.g. walnut, pea pod.
Seed
Structure of a Seed
eeds have a hard covering called theSeed Coat(testa).It protects the seed. A baby plant
S
inside is called anembryo. The embryo has aradicleand aplumule. The radicle develops into
the root system and the plumule develops into the shoot system along with seed leaves or
cotyledons. Seed leaves inside a seed are calledcotyledons.
Cotyledons contain all the food supply for the baby plant. Seeds with two cotyledons are called
dicotyledonsordicotseeds. E.g. Kidney beans, allpulses, tomato, potato, apple etc. Seeds
with only one cotyledon are calledMonocotyledonsormonocotseeds. E.g. Rice, wheat,
garlic, onion and corn.
The portion of the stem that lies above thecotyledonis called the epicotyl while the portion that
lies below the cotyledon is calledhypocotyl.
he Bean Seed -
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Observe soaked seed, white area on the seed called hilum, small opening above hilum is called
micropyle.
The Maize Seed -
The endosperm surrounding a protein layer is called thealeurone layer.
Plumule covered withcoleoptileand radicle coveredwithcoleorhiza.
ermination:
G
Germination is the process by which a seed produces a baby plant or seedling in the presence
of water, air and warmth. If any one condition is missing, the seed will not germinate.
Water - helps the enzymes to become active in the seed.
Warmth - optimal moderate temperature
Air - Oxygen is necessary.
he root of the embryo pushes the seed coat, grows down into the soil and forms the root. The
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cotyledons are pulled upwards. Seedling (the baby plant) starts coming out of the cotyledons.
The stem grows longer and leaves appear first.
When leaves develop, cotyledons fall off. Later branches, buds, flowers and fruits appear. The
process of germination is thus completed.
Types of Germination:
Epigeal germination - Cotyledons are pushed above the ground, due to elongation of hypocotyl.
Slowly it dries up and falls off. E.g. castor, bean and sunflower.
(epi - above, geal - soil)
Hypogeal germination - cotyledons remain in the soil due to elongation of epicotyl. Eg. mango,
pea, groundnut, maize and coconut.
ispersal of Seeds:
D
Agents of dispersal - wind, water, animals or explosion.
The process by which seeds are scattered away from the parent plant is called dispersal.
If seeds fall just below the parent plant, they will not able to develop and grow as there will be
shortage of water, space and nutrients.
ind:
W
Small and light seeds are dispersed by wind. E.g. cotton, Dandelion, maple and drumstick.
These seeds also have hair-like structures or wings that help the seeds to glide even in gentle
breeze.
Water:
Plants that grow near water, these seeds have spongy or fibrous covering that helps them to
float. E.g. coconut and lotus
Animals:
Animals eat the fruit, hard seeds egested by them fall at various places. Also fruits also develop
hooks, spines, bristles, or projections that attach to the bodies of animals or clothes of humans
and carried to faraway places, they fall off and germinate.
Explosion:
In some plants when ripened fruit bursts open, seeds are dispersed. They are expelled and
thrown out with force. E.g. balsam fruit, poppy, pea pod.
eproduction in plants through Vegetative Parts
R
Some plants grow from stems, leaves and roots etc.
Plants from Stem:
Onion, Potato and ginger are underground stems, there are small buds on potato and ginger
which grow into new plants.
Money plants and sugar cane grow if the stem is cut and planted in the soil. Eg. rose, Hibiscus
Methods -
Stem cutting - Rose, sugarcane and bougainvillea grow from stem cutting.
Grafting - portion of shoot(stem) of a plant cut and attached to shoot of another plant of
same species. The host plant grows into a new healthy plant.
Layering - stems of jasmine or raspberry plant can be bent until it touches the ground. A
portion of the stem is covered with soil leaving the growing tip open. Part of the plant in the soil
grows roots and this portion can be cut to grow a new plant.
Strawberries reproduce through layering as they have horizontal stems, these stems are called
runners.
Plants from Roots:
Buds appear on the roots of a sweet potato that grows in new plants. E.g. Sweet potato, carrot
and turnip
Plants from Leaves:
Leaves of Bryophyllum, begonia (elephant ear) grow buds along their edges. These buds grow
into new plants when they fall on ground, and find soil, water and warmth.
Plants from Spores:
Some plants do not bear seeds and flowers, they reproduce through special structures called
spores. These spores fall on ground and grow into new plants. E.g. ferns, mosses & some fungi.
abitat and Adaptation
H
Habitat - place where organisms live naturally.
errestrial Habitats- habitats on land.
T
Grasslands - dominated by grass, small trees and shrubs. Animals Zebra, giraffe, deer, tiger and
lion.
Mountains - higher altitudes, cold and windy. Yak, Sheep, mountain goat.
Forests - large numbers of plants and trees.
Tropical forests- found near equatorial regions. High temperature and significant rainfall.
Plants- Orchids, vines, mosses and ferns. Animals - elephants, king cobra, apes, hornbills,
parrots etc. Many plants have pointed leaves called drip tips, allowing water to run off quickly.
Temperate forests- mild winters and moderate rainfalls.
Plants - Oak, pine. Animals - deer, giant pandas etc.
Boreal forests- also called Taiga. Low temperature and nutrient-poor soil. Filled with snow.
Rabbits, wolves, owls, bald eagles. Plants - cone bearing, needle leaved or scale-leaved
evergreen trees such as pines.
Deserts- sandy lands, hot during day and cold during night. Gobi Desert in Asia - always cold.
Sahara Desert in Africa - hottest desert. Plants - cacti, and thorny plants. Animals - camels,
kangaroos, rats, rattle snakes.
Polar Regions- covered with snow and very cold. Animals - Polar bears, penguins, seals and
walruses.
quatic habitats-
A
Freshwater habitat - rivers, streams, canals, lakes, ponds. Fishes, frogs, lotus and water lilies.
Freshwater plants are calledhydrophytes.
Marine habitat- saltwater habitats. Planktons, seaweeds, fish, whales, crabs, [Link],
turtles and starfish.
Estuaries- coastal regions where a river or stream meets salt water of the sea. Horseshoe
crabs, mangroves and sea grass are found in estuaries. Varieties of fish and shellfish. Shrimp
and salmon are found here.
Coral reefs- community of underwater creatures called corals. Made up of hard and soft corals,
sponges, lobsters, snails, octopuses, fish, sea turtles, sharks, dolphins etc.
cclimatization- The adjustment made by the body to overcome chronic changes in the
A
surrounding environment within a short time is called acclimatization.
iodegradable waste- the waste that decays and decomposes naturally
B
Non-biodegradable waste - the waste that does not decays and decomposes naturally
utrition in Plants
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Nutrition - process by which living organisms obtain nutrients for their growth and development.
wo types:
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Autotrophic Nutrition- food is made by the organism itself. All green plants areautotrophs.
They make their own food by a process calledphotosynthesis.
Photosynthesis:
sing Carbon dioxide, water and minerals to make food in the presence of sunlight and
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chlorophyll.
Water and minerals: root system absorbs water andminerals from the soil. These are carried
to the other parts of the plant through tubular structures (tissues) calledXylem.
Carbon Dioxide: absorbed through minute openings on the upper side of the leaves called
Stomata. Stomata are surrounded by bean shaped guardcells. When water is taken up in
leaves, it enters guard cells and causes them to swell. The guard cells expand and pulled apart,
creating the gap or an opening, which is called astoma. When water is lost from the guard cells
they shrink and the gap is closed. Gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged via
stomata.
Light: chlorophyll helps in absorption of sunlightand converts into chemical energy, which is
used to prepare food. Cells of the leaves have special chlorophyll containing structures called
chloroplasts.
Oxygen is released through the stomata after photosynthesis. Glucose produced during
photosynthesis is used by the plant as food. The food synthesized in the leaves is transported to
all parts of the plant through a network of pipe like structures (tissues) called thePhloem.
Organisms such as Algae also perform photosynthesis, they have chlorophyll. Non flowering
plants like fern and mosses also perform photosynthesis.
eterotropic Nutrition- Nutrients are obtained fromother organisms. These organisms are
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called heterotrophs.
Parasitic Nutrition-
Parasitic plants obtain their nutrition completely or partially from other plants. Plants that
provide nutrition to parasites are called hosts. A parasite plant slows down the growth of host
plant, so it is harmful to its host.
E.g. Cuscuta(dodder) sucks food from host plants through adventitious roots (grows from stem)
called haustoria. Therefore Cuscuta is total parasite.
Rafflesia is a parasite of the Tetrastigma plant.
Mistletoe plants have green leaves, so they can carry out photosynthesis. But absorbs minerals
and water from the host plant. Therefore mistletoe is called a partial parasite.
aprotropic Nutrition- organisms that obtain nutrition from dead and decaying plants and
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animals are called saprophytes or saprotrophs.
Fungi produce enzymes that can break down plant and animal matter into liquids which can be
absorbed by their root-like structures called mycelium. Plants like Indian pipe, coralroot and
birds nest orchid absorb nutrients from the mycelium of these fungi.
Insectivorous plants- some plants grow in harsh soil conditions where soil is deficient in
nitrogen compounds. These plants attract insects with the help of their attractive colour, scent
and nectar and lure them into traps. The plants that trap and consume insects to obtain nutrition
are called insectivorous plants.
Eg. venus flytrap, the pitcher plant, bladderwort and sundew.
ymbiosis: mutually beneficial relation between two or more organisms in which food and
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shelter are shared by both the organisms. Both the organisms coexist and are benefited without
any harm done to either of them. Such plants are called Symbiotic plants. E.g. Lichens and
algae and fungi. Algae have chlorophyll and fungi provide shelter to algae. Fungi also absorb
water and minerals from the soil and help algae in photosynthesis.
Acacia trees are guarded by ants.
eguminous crops do not need as much nitrogenous fertilizers as cereal crops. This is because
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the roots of leguminous plants contain legumes or nodules within which reside bacteria called
Rhizobium. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates, a soluble form that can
be absorbed by the roots. The plants provide nutrients to these bacteria. E.g. Peas, beans and
pulses are examples of leguminous plants.
PHYSICS
Deals with study of matter and its interaction. Energy like light, sound, heat and electricity.
Matter
verything around us is known as matter, anything that has mass and occupies space.
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The amount of space occupied by an object is called itsvolume.
The quantity of matter that an object or body has is known as itsmass.
atteris composed of tiny particles (molecules).Molecules are made up of atoms (extremely
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small - microscopic), not visible to the naked eye.
We can say matter is made up of atoms and molecules.
orms / States of matter: Solid, liquid and Gases
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atoms and molecules are held together by a force of attraction between them. This force of
attraction is known as intermolecular force or attraction. There is some gap between the
particles called intermolecular space.
Molecules are in specific patterns and have strong intermolecular forces of attraction.
olid
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Fixed shape and size (volume). Molecules do not move but vibrate. Eg. ice, sugar, salt, brick,
coins etc.
he intermolecular force of attraction is very strong.
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Particles have a small amount of kinetic energy (associated with motion of particles).
Liquid
water. Do not have a fixed shape, but take up fixed space and flow easily. Can take the shape of
the container in which they are kept.
Intermolecular forces of attraction are less strong in liquids and molecules are loosely packed.
Particles have a higher amount of kinetic energy than solids.
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow. Higher viscosity, greater the resistance. Honey is
more viscous or thicker than water.
Gases
steam. Do not have fixed shape, and do not take fixed space. Flows easily and take up the
entire space of the container, most gases cannot be seen. Molecules vibrate and move freely at
high speed. Least intermolecular forces of attraction.
Particles have a very high amount of kinetic energy, as they are moving fast all the time.
hysical Quantity - measurable quantity such as length, mass, temperature, time or volume.
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Fundamental quantities- do not depend on any other physical quantity for their
measurement. Seven physical quantities - length, mass, time, temperature, amount of
substance, luminous intensity and electric current.
Derived quantities- directly dependent or derived from other physical quantities for
their measurement. E.g. area, volume, density, speed.
International System of Units (SI Units)
Length Metre m ( centimetre, Millimetre, Kilometre, inch, foot)
1 inch = 0.0254 m, 1 m = 39.3701 inch
1 ft = 0.3048 m, 1 m = 3.28 ft
Instruments - Ruler and Measuring tape
Parallax error- error in measurement arising due to wrong positioning of the eye.
Mass Kilogram kg ( gram, Milligram, Quintal, Metric ton)
1 quintal = 100 kg, 1m ton = 1000 kg
Instruments - Beam balance, Physical balance, electronic balance.
The amount of mass contained in a certain space is calleddensity. The SI unit of density is Kg
per cubic metre.
Time Second s ( minute, hour, day, week, year, decade, century,
Millennium)
Instruments - clock, watch, stopwatch
emperature
T Kelvin K (celsius, fahrenheit)
Instruments - Thermometer, Digital thermometer
Kelvin Scale Celsius Scale Fahrenheit Scale
reezing point of water
F 73 K
2 °C
0 32°F
Boiling point of water 373 K 100°C 212 °F
Difference 100 K 100°C 180°F
Divisions between two ref.
Temperatures 00
1 00
1 180
Measure of each division 1 K 1°C 1 °F
lectric current
E Ampere
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Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
ibre to Fabric:
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Fibre - a thin hair like strand from which yarns are made
Yarn - continuous strand of twisted threads of fibres obtained from plant and animal sources.
Fabric - material we use for making a cloth.
Types of fibres:
Natural Fibres -
Obtained from plants:
Cotton - from cotton balls,
fruits of cotton plants. Cotton fibres are separated from the seeds by the process of ginning.
Ginning machines are called gins. The ginned cotton is made into compact bundles called
bales. Cotton yarn is spunned from bales and yarn is woven to make a cotton fabric.
Jute - stem of jute plants
Mostly grown in delta regions of Bramhaputra and Ganga river. Jute stems are tied in bundles
and immersed in water to rot. Once stems become soft, fibres are removed by hand. This
process is called retting. Jute fibres are strong, durable and inexpensive. Gunny bags, mats,
ropes, sacks and clothes are made from jute fibres.
Flax - stalk of flax plants
Hemp - stem of hemp plants
Coir - outer covering of coconuts
Sisal - leaves of sisal plant
Silk cotton - fruits of silk cotton trees, known as kapok.
Obtained from Animals:
Silk - cocoons of silk moth
Wool - from hair of sheep
Synthetic or Man-made fibres -
Nylon, Rayon, polyester and acrylic.
btaining fabric from Fibre:
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Yarn from fibre:
pinning - process of obtaining yarn from fibres. Spinning is done by using a hand spindle (takli)
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or a spinning wheel (charkha).
Fabric to yarn:
Weaving - two sets of yarn are arranged together to make a fabric. Yarns that are running
lengthwise are calledwarp. And those that are running across are calledweft. Weaving is done
on looms.Handlooms- operated manually.Power looms- run on electricity.
Knitting - process in which single yarn is used to make a piece of fabric. Manually knitting is
made by needles.
ool:
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Animal fibre obtained from fleece (soft, fine hair from the body of an animal) of some animals.
Wool fibres trap air in the spaces between them. As a bad conductor of heat, this prevents loss
of heat from the body, keeping the animals warm.
Animals yield wool-
Sheep- Main wool yielding animal. The best wool is obtained from Merino sheep. Fibres
obtained are coarse beard hairs and soft and fine underhair grows close to skin.
Goat- Breeds - Angora - found in the Ankara region of Turkey, wool obtained is called Mohair
and Cashmere - found in Tibet and China, wool is called cashmere, its rare and expensive fibre,
as this goat produces a small amount of hair in a year.
Camel- best quality of wool obtained from Bactariancamels (of Siberia, Mongolia and China).
Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama are animals of the camel family mostly found in South America.
Rabbit - Angora wool is obtained from Angora rabbit.
Yak- cow species, found in Ladakh and Tibet.
earing and Breeding of Sheep:
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Sheep move in groups called -flocksand a big group of sheep is calledherd.
The process of domestication and raising of sheep is calledrearing.
The process of selecting parents for obtaining desirable characters in their offspring is called
selectivebreeding. The bred animals are calledbreeds.
Indian breeds of sheep:
Lohi (Rajasthan, Punjab) - Good quality wool.
Rampur Bushair (UP, HP) -Brown fleece.
Nali (Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab) - Carpet wool
Marwari (Gujarat) - Coarse wool
Patanwadi (Gujarat) - for hosiery
Breeds around the world:
Merino (Spain) - Fine wool
Barbados (Texas, USA) - short, coarse wool
Damara (Angola, Namibia) - short wool
Katahdin (USA) - Thick and coarse wool
Targhee (USA) - Fine and long wool
Processing of Fleece to Fabric(Wool Production) -
hearing- process of removal of fleece from the body of animals. A person who removes wool
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is called a shearer. The uppermost layer of the skin of the sheep is almost dead, so removing it
does not hurt the skin. Shearing is done mainly in summer, this helps sheep to keep their bodies
cooler.
Scouring- Sheeps wool contains Lanolin (oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands
present on skin) which is removed by washing the sheared fleece with detergent and alkali. This
process is calledscouring.
Carding- dried wool is removed and the fibres are passed through the rollers with a series of
metal teeth that straighten and blend into slivers. This process arranges the wool in flat sheet
called a web.
Sorting- removal of any damaged and stained wool from the fleece is called sorting.
Grading - grouping wool according to their length, colour, texture and ease of dyeing
Dyeing- sheared wool is dyed in various colours, depending on the requirements.
Drying- dyed wool is passed through machines to squeeze out the excess water. It is then
passed into bales and then transported to the mill.
Spinning- fibres are oiled, straightened, combed, washed, twisted and spun into yarns.
Weaving and knitting- larger fibres are spun into yarns and knitted for making sweaters,
shorter fibres are spun and woven into other woolen clothes.
ealth Hazard -
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Anthrax- common bacterial disease of goats and sheep,might affect the workers involved in
shearing and sorting. It is calledsorter’s disease.This leads to skin, lung and intestinal
disorders and also results in lesions in arms, neck and lungs.
Usage of chemical dyes may result in irritation of eyes, infection of skin and lungs and breathing
problems.
ILK-
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Discovered in China around 2698-2598 BCE.
- Lustrous and soft, bad conductor of heat.
- Very elastic, thus resisting creasing.
- Strong as steel wire of the same diameter.
- Resistant to dust
- Peculiar natural shine and dyes well.
Lifecycle of Silk Moth:
Laying of eggs - female silk moth lays hundreds of eggs on the mulberry leaves.
Hatching into larvae or caterpillars - eggs hatch and form larvae that develop into caterpillars
(silkworms). Caterpillars feed on mulberry leaves for 3-4 weeks. They shed their skin at least
four times during this feeding stage. This process of shredding their skin is calledmoultingand
with each moult caterpillar grows in size.
Formation of Cocoon - after final moult caterpillar cease to feed and begin to grow as pupa.
Start secreting a thin, filament-like substance made up of protein called fibroin. Also contains a
protein called sericin that adheres two filaments together. Caterpillars swing their heads from
side to side in the form of figure 8. This secretion hardens when it comes in contact with air and
the filaments stick together to form fibres. Pupa completely covers itself with silk fibres this is
called cocoon.
Emergence of silk moth- pupa develops into an adult moth.
Sericulture:Process of rearing silkworms for productionof silk.
Silk moth eggs are collected and placed on strips of cloth or paper, and stored under optimal
conditions of humidity and temperature to facilitate hatching.
As the eggs hatch larvae or silkworms come out, they are placed in clean trays made of
bamboo containing freshly chopped mulberry leaves.
Silkworms are fed on leaves for about 20-35 days. Silkworms are then moved to small
chambers of bamboo trays to spin cocoons after they stop eating and begin to pupate.
Spinning of cocoons takes about 3-7 days.
Processing of Cocoons:
Boiling of Cocoons- pile of cocoons are kept under sun or immersed in boiling water to kill the
pupae inside. On boiling, the silk fibres separate out from the cocoons because the sericin that
adheres the silk filaments together gets dissolved. This process is calleddegumming.
The process of reeling- taking out silk fibres or threads from the cocoons is called reeling.
Done by using special machines to unwind the threads from cocoons.
Fibres from a few cocoons are joined and twisted together to make a strong thread that is
wound around a reel. The fibre that is obtained by the process of reeling is called raw silk.
Dyeing of Raw Silk- silk fibres are dyed in various colours and spun into silk threads.
ypes:
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Mulberry Silk- from Bombyx mori | soft, shiny, elastic and strong.
Tassar Silk- Antheraea paphia grows on plants of Arjun and Asan. | Brown in color, less shiny,
rough texture, used for furnishing
Oak tassar- Antheraea proyeli, grows on oak plants |
Kosa silk- Central India - Sal or Saja or Arjun trees | Soft and Shiny texture, used in producing
sarees.
Mooga (or muga) silk- Antheraea Assamensis grows on Soalu and Som plants | golden yellow
in colour
Force
ush - force that moves things away
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Pull - force that brings things near you
Force - is a push or pull exerted on an object when it interacts with another object.
All forces have a magnitude (strength) and a direction in which it is applied.
Magnitude is measured in newton (N) - SI unit of force.
Kilogram-force (kgf) - 1 kgf is force required to vertically lift a mass of 1 kilogram.
Types -
1. Muscular Force - force exerted by muscles
2. G ravitational Force - force of earth that pulls objects towards itself
Tides on the earth are caused due to the gravitational force of the moon.
3. Magnetic force - force with which magnet attracts certain materials
4. Frictional force - force exerted by a surface when an object slides or rolls over it.
5. Mechanical force - force produced by a machine.
6. Elastic Force - Elasticity - object regains its original shape after being stretched.
7. Buoyant force - when we try to push an empty vessel into water. The upward force of
water that pushes an object upwards is called buoyant force or upthrust.
riction as force -
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Contact force - a force exerted at the point of contact of one object with another object
Force of friction - all contact forces are examples of force of friction. E.g. ice & glass have less
friction.
Friction comes into play when there is motion.
Uses of Friction:
- Applying brakes to vehicles
- Holding nail to wood or wall
- Football studs, prevent from slipping
- Friction between floor & feet prevents us from slipping.
ork- is done when force is applied on an object makes the object move along the direction of
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applied force.
Difficulties by Friction:
Causes noise in machines, so oil, lubricants are used.
Produces heat in various parts of machines
Causes wear and tear - shoe soles, tyres,
How to reduce Friction
Make surface smooth
Lubrication
Making object streamlined (aeroplane)
imple Machines-
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Tools we use to make our day to day work easy are called simple machines
E.g. bottle openers, pair of tongs, pulley, knife, screw driver.
Complex Machines -
Combination of two or more simple machines.
E.g. car, bicycle, mixer-grinder, drill, lawnmover, typewriter, tractor, crane, sewing machine.
Types of Simple Machines:
1. Lever - scissors, bottle openers, broom, seesaw, trolley
Fulcrum(F) - fixed point or support on which the rod moves freely.
Effort(E)- force applied to move object
oad(L)- weight of the body on which work is tobe done.
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1. First class lever (class one)
Fulcrum is exactly in the middle of load and effort.
Effort > Fulcrum > Load.
e.g. see saw, trolley, scissors, pliers, catapult
2. Second class lever (class two)
Load is placed between fulcrum and effort
effort > Load > Fulcrum
e.g. bottle opener, nut cracker, wheelbarrow.
3. Third class lever (class three)
Effort is applied between load and fulcrum. fulcrum > effort > Load
e.g. Fishing rod, tongs, stapler, forceps, tweezers.
2. Pulley - with wheel & rope, used to pull up something.
Fixed pulley and Movable pulley.
.
3 Inclined plane - loading cars in trucks
4. Wheel and axle - easy to move heavy things, speed multiplier. Bicycle, car steering
wheels, taps, screwdriver, door knob.
.
5 Wedge - knife and axe , razor, door stopper,
6. Screw - car jack, nut and bolt, cap of a container bottle.
Energy
bility or capacity to do work. Various forms of energy are interconvertible. They can change
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from one form to another.
Types of energy:
Mechanical energy - possessed by bodies due to their motion or position.
Potential energy - energy possessed by an object due to its position. E.g. stone kept on top,
water stored in the overhead tank.
Kinetic energy - energy possessed by an object due to its motion. E.g. moving ball, water falling
Electrical energy - comes from electric power plants.
Heat energy - from Sun, burning of wood, coal and petrol etc.
Light energy - Sun, bulb, LED etc.
Wind energy - windmills use wind energy for generating electricity.
Solar energy - energy from the Sun used in Solar devices.
Hydro Energy - water mills to produce electricity.
Geothermal energy - produced from heat of the earth.
The USA has the largest geothermal power plants, followed by New Zealand, Iceland,
Philippines and Central America.
Biogas - is gaseous fuel, developed from organic wastes like dead plants, farm wastes, kitchen
wastes, animal and human wastes which emits methane and carbon dioxide.
easurement:
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Yojana was the unit of length used in Vedic times in India.
I system of Units -
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Scientists worldwide have accepted a standard set of units for measurement called International
System of Units or SI units. SI Unit of length - Metre, mass - Kilogram, time is second.
Different Systems of Measuring Units
Instruments:
Length -
Ruler, Measuring tape,
Vernier calipers, Screw gauge - when lengths are smaller than a millimeter.
Laser rangefinder - to measure long distances.
SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) - depth of oceans.
Motion
body is said to be in motion when it changes its position with time with respect to its
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surroundings.
If the position of a body does not change with time with respect to its surroundings, then body is
at rest.
ypes of Motion:
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Translational Motion- Motion of a car, all parts of a car move equal distances in equal
intervals of time. Such motion is called translational motion.
Two types:
Rectilinear motion- motion of an object is in a straight line. Directions remain the
same, as it is moving along a straight path.
Curvilinear motion- motion along a curved path. The direction of the motion of the
object changes with time, but the orientation remains the same.
otational Motion: Fan rotating on its axis, distance moved by different points on the fan is not
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the same but all points complete rotation in the same time. Such motion is called rotational
motion. E.g. rotation of earth and rotation of a flywheel.
eriodic Motion: motion of an object is repeated along the same path at regular intervals of
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time, such motion is called periodic motion. E.g. motion of hands of a clock. Simple pendulum,
moon around earth. Rotation of earth about its axis and revolution of earth around sun.
scillatory Motion- pendulum moves in a to and fro manner in regular intervals of time, such
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motion is called oscillatory motion. E.g. motion of a swing.
arth rotates about its axis and around the sun - it undergoes rotational as well as periodic
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motion.
Batsman hits a cricket ball - it undergoes both translational motion and rotational motion at the
same time.
Distance- measurement of total length covered by the moving body.
Electricity and Circuits
lectric Cell - is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It produces an
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electric current due to the chemical reactions taking place inside them.
The cells used in torch are called dry cells. It has two terminals positive and negative. Electric
current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal of the cell.
A dry cell has a zinc container inside which there is a layer of ammonium chloride paste. A
carbon rod covered with a metal cap is at the centre of cell. The carbon rod is surrounded by
mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon powder. Whole setup is then sealed leaving only the
metal cap exposed.
A dry cell is classified into AAA cells, AA cells and D cells as per size of the cell.
olar Cells -
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Cells that are capable of converting solar energy into electrical energy are called solar cells.
When many solar cells are connected together to obtain the required current it is called Solar
Panel.
lectric Circuit:
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Electric current follows a complete path to flow between the two terminals of an electric cell.
This path is called an electric circuit. (closed path for flow of electricity)
An electric circuit can be kept closed or open using a device called switch.
A diagram drawn using symbols of the components of the circuit is called a curduit diagram.
lectric Bulb:
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A device that produces light when electricity is passed through it is called an electric bulb. A coil
inside a bulb is called filament if the bulb. (made up of tungsten) if filament is broken, bulb cant
produce light and it is called a fused bulb. Tungsten has high resistance to eclectic current
compared to other metals. It has a very high melting point, so it does not melt when it becomes
glowing hot.
The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current is called resistance.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931), invented the electric bulb.
Torch:
Magnetism
reeks discovered magnets before 500 BC, Shepherd named Magnes found his stick with a
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small iron piece attached to it stuck to a black stone. Which was found in a place called
Magnesia, it was namedmagnetite. It was a naturally occurring substance made up of oxides
of iron. When suspended freely this stone always came to rest in the N-S direction. Hence used
to find directions and was namedLodestone. (Leading stone).
atural magnets- obtained naturally from the earth.E.g. lodestone, magnetite.
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Artificial Magnet- made of magnetic material usingartificial methods. E.g. bar magnet,
horseshoe magnet, circular, cylindrical, ring, disc and magnetic needles.
agnetic Materials- materials attracted towards magnets. Not only iron but nickel and cobalt
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are also attracted to magnets as magnetic materials.
Non magnetic materials- materials not attracted towards magnets. Wood, plastic, rubber.
ttraction and repulsion between Magnets:
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Attraction- North pole of a magnet and South Poleof another magnet always attract each
other. Unlike poles of magnets that always attract each other, this property is called the
attractive property of magnets.
Repulsion- like poles of a magnet always repel each other. This is called the repulsive property
of magnets.
Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
arth as a magnet-
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Earth has magnetic properties and therefore acts like a huge bar magnet. It aligns itself in the
geographic North-South Direction.
agnetic Compass:
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Device used to find directions. Consists of magnetic needle pivoted on a sharp pointed support
and free to rotate horizontally. Magnetic needle always points North-South direction.
agnetic Field
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The area around any magnet where its force of attraction or repulsion can be felt, is known as
themagnetic field.
ersted experiment:
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In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted (Danish Physicist) found that electric conductors can exhibit
magnetic properties. A magnetic needle kept close to a current carrying wire deflects from its
(N-S) position.
aking Magnets:
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The process of making a magnet from magnetic material is calledmagnetisation.
Touch method / stroke method - two methods,single touch methodand thedouble touch
method.
agnets made by stroke methods are weak, strong magnets are made by electrical methods.
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In the electrical method, material is kept inside a coil and electric current is passed through it for
the desired amount of time. Then the material becomes electric.
reserving magnets-
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Bar magnets are stored as pairs with unlike poles close to each other. Two pieces of iron called
keepers are kept at the two ends. Or magnet will slowly lose their power if left exposed for a
long time.
emagnetization
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The process by which a magnet loses its magnetic properties is called demagnetisation. A
magnet slowly loses its magnetic properties if subjected to heat or mechanical shocks such as
dropping and hammering.
olenoid- a cylindrical shaped coil which behaveslike a magnet when electric current is
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passed through it.
emporary magnets - which tend to lose their magnetic properties easily are known as
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temporary magnets. Eg. made of soft iron, electromagnet.
Permanent magnets - which tend to hold their magnetic properties for a very longer duration of
time are known as permanent magnets e.g. magnets made up of steel, cobalt and nickel.
Light
Speed of light
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Air or Vacuum 3 x 10 m/s
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Water 2.25 x 10 m/s
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Glass 2 x10 m/s
ources of Light -
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Luminous objects - that emit their own light.
Non-luminous objects - do not emit their own light.
atural sources of light - Sun, stars, fireflies
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Artificial sources of light - Candle, electric bulb, torch
Light always travels in a straight line, this property of light is calledrectilinear propagation.
ight ray- single and very narrow path of light.
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Light beam- broad path of light (number of light rays)
eflection of Light- the phenomenon by which lightrays falling on an object / surface are sent
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back completely or partially.
irrors- mirrors are reflective surfaces which bounce back or reflect most of the light that falls
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on them.
Curved mirrors are calledspherical mirrors.
hadows
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Dark patches formed behind an opaque object, when light rays are blocked by that object.
Two portions of shadow -
Umbra (the darker part) - where all light is blocked by the object
Penumbra (the lighter part) - where some of the light is blocked
clipses
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The process of casing a shadow by celestial bodies over the other is called an eclipse.
Lunar eclipse - sun , earth and moon are aligned in a straight line, with the earth in the middle.
Solar eclipse - Sun, the moon and earth are aligned in a straight line, with the moon in middle.
Images- An image is formed when light rays from anobject are reflected off a surface. E.g.
mirror.
Pinhole camera- simple camera, with light proof boxwith a small hole on one side and a
screen on the opposite side. It does not have a lens. Light rays from the object pass through a
small hole and form an inverted image of the object on the screen at the opposite side of the
box.
Why inverted image- each point on the surface ofan illuminated object reflects light in all
directions this is known asscattering of light. But the hole lets through only the rays in straight
lines until they meet the screen. Due to rectilinear propagation of light, light rays coming from
the top part fall on the bottom of the screen and rays coming from bottom fall on top of the
screen. Therefore an inverted image is formed.
If aperture size increases- with a bigger aperture image will be bright (more light) but blurred
due to overlapping images. Smaller the aperture sharpens the image but gives a dull image
instead of a bright picture.
Use of a pinhole camera is to capture movement of the sun over a long period of time. This type
of photography is calledSolargraphy.
rimary Colours:
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The colours of light that produce white light when combined with the correct intensity are called
primary colours.
Red, Green, and Blue (RGB)
Complimentary Colours:
Two colours give white light when mixed together. Red and Cyan, Blue and Yellow, Green and
Magenta
ir pressure - the pressure exerted by the air is called Air pressure.
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The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth due to the weight of the air. This is known as the
atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called a Barometer.
ind speed is the rate of flow of wind in the atmosphere of the earth. Measured using a device
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called an anemometer expressed in km/h.
he intensity of a tomato is measured in Fujita scale with ratings between F0 and F5.
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Tornadoes that form in the ocean are called waterspouts.
lassification of Materials:
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Lustre - property of a material to shine.
Lustrous materials - gold, silver, bronze and iron
Non-lustrous materials - wood, cardboard, and wool.
Texture -
Rough materials - stones, wood, sandpaper
Smooth materials - cloth, cotton, sponge, foam
Hardness -
Soft material - easily compressed.
Hard material - difficult to compress.
State -
Solid, liquid and gases.
Solubility - property of a substance to dissolve in a given liquid.
Soluble -
Insoluble -
Miscible liquids -
Immiscible liquids -
Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water.
Flotation - property of a material to float in water is called flotation. Density - mass per unit of
volume of a substance.
Materials that are denser than water will sink in water. Materials less denser than water will float
in water.
agnetic Property- attraction of materials towardsmagnet.
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Magnetic - attracted towards magnet. E.g. iron
Non-magnetic - not attracted towards magnets. e.g. rubber.
Conductivity- property of material to allow heat or electricity to pass through.
Conductors of heat- materials that allow heat to pass through them. E.g. copper, aluminium,
iron.
Insulators of heat - do not allow heat to pass through them. E.g. wood, cotton oven mittens
Conductivity of Electricity- property of materials to pass electricity through them.
Conductors of electricity - e.g. copper and iron, aluminium
Insulators of electricity - e.g. wood and [Link] and cotton.
Transparency
amount of light allowed to pass through materials.
Transparent - allow light to pass completely.
Translucent - do not allow light to pass through
Opaque - allow light to pass through them partially.
CHEMISTRY
eals with study of different matter, their composition, methods of preparation and properties.
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Performing experiments, making hypotheses, checking them, making observations and
inferences.
Inorganic Chemistry -
Study of elements and compounds (metals and non-metals) their occurrence in nature and
properties.
Organic Chemistry -
Study of carbon and its compounds, called Hydrocarbons,that are made up of mainly carbon
and hydrogen. In addition to carbon, hydrangen and oxygen, hydrocarbons may also contain
nitrogen (N), sulphur (S), and halogens [Fluorine(F), Chlorine(Cl), Bromine (Br) and Asratine
(At)]
Physical Chemistry -
Study of physical nature of matter and properties of physical quantities such as heat,
temperature and pressure.
Chemist - scientist trained in th study of chemistry. Chemists study composition of matter and
their properties.
ntoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) - Father of Modern Chemistry. Book - Elements of Chemistry.
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John Dalton (1766-1844) - Father of Atomic Theory. First to propose the atom as building block
of matter.
Dmitri Mendelev (1834-1907) - Father of the Periodic Table.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) - known for discovery of hydrogen or inflammable air.
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) - discovered oxygen.
onverting base metals like lead and copper into silver and gold is termed as alchemy. People
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cho practiced alchemy were known as Alchemist.
Elixir of life - a chemical that could make people live longer.
edicines:
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Analgesics - help to control pain - aspirin and ibuprofen
ntipyretics - to reduce fever, combating bacterial growth - paracetamol
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Anesthetics - for inducing unconsciousness - Barbirurates, Amobarbital & Methohexital
Antiseptics - applied to skin to reduce infection - swabbing alcohol, boric acid, hydrogen
peroxide and iodine.
Antihistamines - treatment of allergic reactions, cold, fever insect bites etc
Antacids - to relieve acid reflux, heartburn
angerous Drugs and Chemicals:
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LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) , angel dust (Phencyclidine), brown sugar, cocaine.
RDX (Rapid Detonating Explosive), TNT(Trinito Toluene)
HANGES:
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Reversible changes -
We can get back the original substance by changing the conditions.
Melting of butter, process of freezing, stretching of a rubber band.
Irreversible changes -
We can't get back the original substance. Forms new substance during or after the change.
Curdling of milk, Ripening of fruits, Burning of paper, growth of an organism.
hysical Change- no new substance is formed. Meltingof ice, freezing & boiling of water,
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tearing of paper, cutting of an iron rod.
Chemical Change- new substance is formed. changeis irreversible. Burning of a wax candle.
Burning of paper. Cooking of food, burning of crackers, digestion of food
hemical Substances
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Matter- all substances are made up of matter. Anythingthat has weight and occupies space is
called matter.
Chemical substances are made up ofatomsandmolecules.
tom- smallest unit of matter. Smallest particleof an element or a compound that exhibit all the
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properties of that substance and may or may not exist independently.
olecule- two or more items that are chemically boundtogether form a molecule.
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The number of items present in a molecule of a substance is called itsatomicity.
onoatomic Molecules - contains only one atom. Eg. noble or inert gases - helium, neon etc.
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Diatomic Molecules - molecule of an element contains two atoms, then atomicity is two. E.g.
hydrogen
Triatomic Molecules - contains three atoms, atomicity is three. eg. ozone
Tetraatomic Molecules - four atoms, atomicity is four e.g. phosphorous,
Polyatomic Molecules - two or more than two.
Pure substances- consist of only one type of atomsor molecules.
- Are the substances that have a fixed composition and are homogenous in nature.
Elements and Compounds are pure substances.
Elements- substances that consist ofonly one typeof atomsand cannot be broken down into
simpler substances physically or chemically are called elements.
lassified asMetals, Non-Metals and metalloids.
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Metals-
Aluminium, mercury, magnesium, copper, Tin, platinum, gold, silver.
Non-Metals-
Carbon, nitrogen, bromine, phosphorous, sulphur
Metalloids- elements having properties of both metals and non metals are called metalloids or
semi-metals. E.g. silicon, germanium, arsenic, boron.
Inert or Noble gases:
In some elements atoms do not join to form molecules, but exist as single atoms. E.g. Neon,
Argon, xenon and radon. These are gaseous elements and known as inert or noble gases,
They do not react with other elements, they are unreactive or inert.
ompounds- substances in which two or more elementsare combined together chemically in
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definite proportions are called compounds.
When two elements combine to form a compound, they lose their characteristic properties. And
new compound formed has its own properties. E.g. water - H2O, Sulphide - iron + sulphur,
which is non-magnetic in nature.
Impure substances- mixture of different types ofatoms or molecules.
- Do not have fixed composition.
- Further classified into homogenous mixtures and heterogenous mixtures.
Mixtures- substances in which two or more substancesare mixed together physically in no
definite proportion are called mixtures.
ixture:
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Pure substance - made up of only one kind of atoms or molecules
Mixture - contains two or more different substances mixed together.
Types-
Solid - solid mixture , salt and pepper
Solid - liquid mixture , sugar and water
Liquid - liquid mixture , water and milk
lassification:
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Homogenous - components of mixture are distributed uniformly and and cannot be seen clearly
or separately. E.g. air and other gases, salt and water.
Heterogenous - components of mixture are not distributed uniformly and and can be seen
separately. E.g. oil and water.
eparation:
S
Solid-solid mixtures -
Handpicking - food grains, pulses, stones
Threshing - process of separating grains of stalks of harvested crops either by beating
the stalks against hard surface or by threshing machine. E.g. all types of grains, millets, wheat,
oats, barley, rice.
Winnowing - separating grains (heavier components) from chaff (lighter components) by
action of blowing wind. E.g. rice and wheat.
Sieving - based on size of the component. Large component left behind and smaller
component passes through the pores of sieve.
olid-Liquid Mixtures:
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Separation of insoluble substances
Filteration - using a porous filter.
Sedimentation - impurities settle down at bottom from water and
Decantation - pour the clean water to another vessel
Centrifugation - settling down insoluble solid particles by mechanical rotation in a
solid-liquid mixture. When insoluble solids are very fine particles.
vaporation - liquid changes to vapour or gas. Leaves solid component behind.
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Crystallisation - forming crystals
Separating soluble substances from liquids:
Distillation -
method of separating two miscible liquids from their mixture, following continuous
evaporation and condensation is called distillation.
Apparatus - Liebig’s condenser is used for distillation.
Different liquids have different boiling points, once liquid reaches its boiling point,
it completely evaporates. Vapours of liquid are then cooled and consensed to
obtain pure liquid.
Boiling -
Water is heated to a specific temperature till it changes its state and the
dissolved substance (salt) is left behind.
Separation of Miscible liquids -
Fractional distillation -
Separation of Immiscible liquids -
Separating funnel
Water
Some properties of water
Water as Solid -
Water as liquid -
ater as a gas -
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Change of forms of water : States of water
Solid to liquid -Melting, ice melts into water.
Liquid to gas -Evaporation. Water becomes vapour (steam) on heating.Boiling
increases the rate of evaporation.
Gas to Liquid -Condensation. Ice in glass - water droplets form on the surface of glass.
Water vapor from the atmosphere condenses when it comes in contact with the cool
surface of glass.
Liquid to Solid - Solidification. Water kept in freezer,Freezinghappens and it changes
to ice.
Gas to Solid - Deposition. Snow flakes
Solid to gas - Sublimation.
ater Cycle -
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Evaporation / transpiration - condensation - precipitation - collection
ources of Water -
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Above surface water -
Rain water, water vapour
Surface water -
Rivers, Ocean, lake, pond, stream
Saline water - water present in sea and oceans, due to the presence of high
concentration of dissolved salts.
Underground water -
Borewells, well, spring.
Water Solutions:
Solution = Solute + Solvent.
Solute - substance that dissolves, Sugar
Solvent - substance in which solute dissolves. Water
Solubility- is the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance at a particular
temperature.
Conditions-
temperature - faster if solvent is heated. If solute isstirred. If solute ispowderedor
broken in tosmall pieces. Ifquantityof solvent is increased.
aturated Solution - A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent.
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Unsaturated Solution - A solution in which more solute can be dissolved in the solvent.
ypes of Solutions:
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Solid in liquid- Sugar solution
When molecules of solid occupies intermolecular spaces in the molecules of liquid, the
solid mixes with the liquid.
Liquid in liquid- water in milk.
Soluble / miscible liquid - dissolves in solvent completely. FormsHomogenoussolution.
E.g. Salt & Sugar, Milk & Water
Insoluble / immiscible liquid - do not dissolve in solvent. forms a Heterogenous solution.
E.g. oil and water
Gas in liquid- soda water (carbon dioxide in water),oxygen dissolved in water, Aerated drinks
- gas is dissolved under pressure.
The molecules of gases find space between water molecules. Aquatic animals like fishes
breathe in the oxygen dissolved in water.
bjects float in water - If an object displaces (take place) more water than its own weight it will
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float.
Objects sink in water - If an object displaces(take place) less water than its own weight it will
sink. Go to the bottom.
AIR
ir is a mixture of gases.
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78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen
0.9% argon,
0.03% carbon dioxide and
0.1% other gases (neon, helium, hydrogen, methane, xenon, ozone and krypton)
Water vapour, dust particles and smoke are also present in air.
The amount of water vapor in the air at a particular time is calledhumidity.
Properties-
Air is colourless, tasteless and odourless:
Air occupies space
Air has weight
Air exerts pressure - ink dropper
Hot air rises up - hot air balloon
When something is hot, its particles are farther apart than when it is cold. This
makes hot air lighter than cold air.
Hot air expands -
Uses-
Nitrogenis an important plant nutrient. Bacteria from soil convert nitrogen in air into a
form that can be used by plants. From plants nitrogen reaches other organisms.
Nitrogen neither burns nor supports burning.
Oxygenis needed by living things to breathe. Oxygenis also needed for burning.
Carbon Dioxide- (0.03 %) is used by plants to preparefood during photosynthesis.
Neongas is used in glowing signboards.
Argonis colourless and odourless gas used to makefluorescent tubes and bulbs.
KryptonandXenonare also useful because of their light emitting properties when
electrically charged.
hemical Symbols
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There are about 118 known elements. 94 found naturally and 24 synthesized in laboratories.
John Dalton - first scientist to use symbols for elements.
The representation of an element using the short form or abbreviation of its name is called its
Chemical Symbol. All names and symbols of the elements are approved by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Modern Periodic Table:
tomicity - the number of atoms that make up a molecule of an element is called its atomicity.
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Atomicity of an element is written on the right-hand side of its symbol as a subscript.
elium - 1 (Monatomic)
H
Argon - 1 (Monatomic)
Hydrogen - 2 (Diatomic)
Nitrogen - 2 (Diatomic)
Chlorine - 2 (Diatomic)
Oxygen - 2 (Diatomic)
Ozone - 3 (Triatomic)
Phosphorus - 4 (Tetraatomic)
hemical Formulae:
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Symbolic representation of the composition of a chemical compound is called itschemical
formula.
Chemical formula shows different elements present in a molecule of a compound and number of
atoms of each combining or constituent element in the compound.
tomic Model:
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The central part of an atom is calledNucleus.
An atom is composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons (positively charged) and Neutrons (No charge / neutral) are present within the
nucleus of an atom.
Electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the nucleus in various fixed paths called
orbits or shells.
Shells are represented by the numbers n = 1,2,3,4 or by the letters K (2 electrons), L (8), M (18),
N(32). These orbits or shells are also known as ‘energy levels’ or ‘energy shells’.
Outermost shell of an atom is called avalenceshell.Electrons in valance shell determine the
chemical reactivity of an atom and are calledvalenceelectrons.
Valance electronsare lost, gained and shared whencompounds are formed.
Valencyof an element is its ability to gain, loseor share electrons to form a compound.
Theatomic numberis the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and is denoted by
‘Z’. It determines the chemical properties of an element.
Valency
ombining the capacity of the atom of an element with the atoms of other elements is called
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valency.
Valence electrons have more energy than the inner electrons, hence they take part in a
chemical reaction.
Valency of an element is always a whole number. We can determine the valency of an element
by looking at the chemical formula of its compounds.
E.g. MgCl2 - Magnesium chloride, valency of Mg is 2 and chlorine is 1 , HCl - valency of both
items is one.
alencies of some elements:
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Sodium - 1
Potassium -1
Silver - 1
Zinc - 2
Magnesium - 2
Calcium - 2
Aluminium - 3
Hydrogen - 1
Chlorine - 1
Carbon - 4
Oxygen - 2
Iodine - 1
Writing a Chemical formula:
1. Write symbols of the elements that form the compound.
2. Write their valencies on top of their symbols as superscripts
3. If the valencies are identical, cancel the valencies. If different interchange the valencies
with respect to the symbols by making arrows and write them as subscripts.
4. Simplify the formula by dividing the valencies by a common number, if divisible.
5. The valency of 1 need not be written in the final formula.
Mg + Cl = MgCl₂
hemical Equations:
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Chemical reaction- A chemical change resulting inthe formation of one or more new
substances is called chemical reaction.
Chemical equation- representation of a chemical reactionusing symbols and formulae of the
elements or compounds involved in the reaction is called a chemical equation.
roperties of a chemical reaction:
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Change in energy-
Exothermic reaction - where heat is released.
Endothermic reaction - heat is absorbed from the surroundings
Change in colour- colour of product may differ from the reactants.
volution of gas- products formed in the gaseous state. (generally hydrogen, carbon dioxide
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and ammonia) Presence of carbon dioxide can be confirmed as it turns lime water milky, and
presence of hydrogen - burns with a pop sound when a burning splint is brought near it.
Formation of precipitate- formation of insoluble solid.
Rusting- formation of reddish-brown flaky substance on the surface of iron objects in presence
of moisture and air is calledrusting. The reddish brown deposit formed on the iron objects is
called Rust. Salt water expedites the process of rusting, which is a huge monetary loss for the
shipping industry.
Galvanization- The process of coating iron objects with a thin layer of zinc is called
galvanization.
Browning of cut fruits and vegetables-
Chemical change or reaction in which some compounds present in these fruits and vegetables
react with oxygen present in air to form a brown-coloured pigment called melanin. The process
in which the surface of cut fruits and vegetables turns brown when exposed to air is called
browning.
Reaction between vinegar (acetic acid) and baking soda- This reaction producesgas
bubbles due to the release of carbon dioxide.
Reaction between copper sulphate solution and iron fillings-
Blue color of copper sulphate solution turns green due to formation of iron sulphate. The brown
color deposit formed on the iron nail is of copper.
Iron + Copper sulphate —---------------------> Iron sulphate + Copper
(Blue) (green)
urning candle- example of both, physical (melting of wax) and chemical (burning of candle
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wick and wax vapour) changes.
rystallization:
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The process of formation of crystals is called crystalisation.
Impure salt can be purified by the crystallization process. Impure salt is dissolved in water and
boiled, this solution is then filtered and kept undisturbed. Salt aggregates to form crystals.
CIDS
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Substances that contain acids are called acidic substances. E.g lemon, curd, and tamarind have
a sour taste.
ategories-
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Organic Acids - naturally found in plants and animals (organisms)
Lactic acid | curd, milk
Oxalic acid | spinach, tomatoes
Citric acid | Oranges, lemons
Malic acid | Apples
Tartaric acid | unripe mangoes, grapes
Formic acid | Ant’s sting
Acetic acid | Vinegar
Ascorbic acid | Amla
ineral Acids- derived from an inorganic material or source
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Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
epending on the volume of water present in acids, they are categorized into concentrated and
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dilute acids.
Concentrated Acids- when there is no water addedor the volume of water added lesser than
dilute acids, it is referred to as concentrated acid.
Dilute Acids- when water added to acids, they arecalled dilute acids.
roperties:
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Sour in taste
Turns blue litmus red
Acids can corrode metals like aluminium, zinc and iron. Thats why acids are stored in glass
containers.
Most mineral acids cause burns.
Acids are soluble in water
Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2HCl —--> MgCl2 + H2
Acids react with bases to form salt and water.
NaOH + HCl —---> NaCl + H2O
Acids react with carbonates to form salt and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 + 2HCl —---> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
hen water is added to concentrated acid, a large amount of heat is generated. This will cause
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the liquid to spurt out of the container and can cause burns.
ses of Acids:
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Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) -
In steel industries to remove rust from iron
Processing of leather and to purify common salt
To remove deposits formed inside boilers, this process is called descaling.
Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) -
In manufacture of fertilizers e.g. Ammonium sulphate.
In production of nylon
Cleaning agent - removing rust from automobiles
As electrolyte in car batteries
Refining of oil and processing of wastewater.
Nitric Acid (HNO3) -
Production of explosives
Purification of gold and silver
sed as main component in liquid-fuelled rockets.
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Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) -
Used in food supplements as a raw material
Used as a solvent
ASES
B
Substances that contain bases are called basic substances. Eg. soaps, shampoos, cleaning
agents have a bitter taste and slippery to touch.
Types-
Strong bases-
Corrosive in nature and may result in skin burns. Eg. sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and
potassium hydroxide.
Weak bases-
Not corrosive in nature. E.g. magnesium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide and copper
hydroxide.
roperties of Bases:
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Bases are bitter in taste
Turns red litmus to blue.
Bases are slippery to touch
Bases soluble in water are called alkalis. Bases insoluble in water are not alkalis.
Bases are corrosive in nature, so they should not be touched with bare hands.
Bases react with acids to form salt and water
NH4OH + HCl —----> NH4Cl + H2O
Ammonium hydroxide Hydrochloric Acid Ammonium Chloride Water
Bases react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas
2NaOH + Zn —--------> Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium hydroxide Zinc Sodium zincate Hydrogen
ses of bases:
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Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) (caustic soda) -
In manufacture of soaps and detergents
Used in paper, textile and plastic industries
Cleaning material to unblock clogged drains and to clean waste discharge pipes.
Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH2) (slaked lime) -
Used as additive in cement industry
In storage of fruits and vegetables, as it can absorb extra carbon dioxide and maintain
oxygen to carbon dioxide ratio.
Used in processing of water and in soft drinks and alcoholic beverages.
Used in treatment of wastewater before it is disposed of.
Used as main component in neutralising soil, which helps in enhancing the growth of
plants,
Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH) (aqueous ammonia) -
Used in various cleaning agents
sed in manufacture of fertilizers (ammonium nitrate)
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Magnesium hydroxide (MgOH2) (milk of magnesia) -
Used as antacid to neutralize acidity in stomach
Used along with hydrochloric acid in fire extinguishers.
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) (Potash) -
Used in refining of petroleum
Manufacture of fertilizers and soft soaps
Preparation of alkaline batteries due to its electrolytic property.
EUTRAL
N
Substances that are not acidic or basic are called neutral substances.
E.g. common salt or NaCl.
cid - Base Indicators -
A
Assists in determining whether a given substance is acidic or basic in nature, with the help of a
colour change, are called acid-base indicators or indicators.
Natural Indicators -
Litmus -
extracted from lichens, in the form of litmus solution or litmus paper.
Acidic substances added to blue litmus turn red. When basic substances are added to red
litmus it turns blue.
Turmeric - (haldi)
Contains a compound called curcumin, which is vibrant yellow in color. Changes its color to
brick red whenbasicsubstances are added to it. It remains yellow in addition to acidic and
neutral substances.
China rose (Hibiscus) - petals contain a pigment, anthrocyanin.
Changes color to dark pink (magenta) if acidic substances are added to it. And to Green when
basic substances are added to it.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) - Father of Modern Chemistry.
H:
p
Substances with a pH below 7 are classified as acids, and above 7 as Bases, those of pH 7 are
neutral. Neural substances are neither acidic nor basic.
niversal Indicators - addition of universal indicator indicate acidity or basicity of a solution.
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Other Indicators -
Phenolphthalein Indicator - when added to basic, turns pink. When added to acidic, remains
colourless.
Methyl orange Indicator - added to basic, turns yellow, when added to acidic, turns red.
ALTS
S
Substances that are produced as a result of neutralization between acids and bases are called
salts.
he reactions in which acids react with bases resulting in the formation of salt and water are
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called neutralisation reactions.
Applications of Neutralization Reactions:
Treatment of Ant sting- ant sting releases Formicacid, some people are allergic to it. It is
neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) or calamine solution, which
contains zinc carbonate on the affected area.
Treatment of Indigestion- Hydrochloric acid secreted in the stomach helps in digestion of
food. However its excess secretion can lead to acidity and indigestion. Milk of Magnesia
(magnesium hydroxide) is used to neutralize the acid.
ypes of Salts:
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Acidic salts- formed when strong acids react with weak bases, these salts have pH value less
than 7.
Basic salts- formed when strong bases react with weak acids, these salts have pH value more
than 7.
Neutral salts- formed when strong acids react with strong base. Thes salts have pH value of 7.
roperties of Salt-
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Most salts are soluble in water (exception - calcium carbonate)
Solutions of salt in water act as good conductors of electricity.
Some salts are white crystals, whereas some are coloured. E.g. copper sulphate - blue &
Ferrous sulphate - green.
Salts form crystals containing water molecules inside them, called water of crystalisation. Such
salts are called hydrated salts. E.g. Blue vitriol
Sometimes salts are obtained when more than one base reacts with an acid; or more than one
acid reacts with a base. Such salts are called mixed salts. E.g. Alum
reparation of salts:
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By making an acid react with a base
By making an acid react with a metal
By making vegetable oil react with caustic soda.
ses of Salts:
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Sodium Chloride (NaCl) - Table Salt - cooking and as food preservative.
Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) - Washing Soda - used as washing agent
Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) - Baking Soda - used as baking agent, in medicines and as a
fire extinguisher.
Potassium aluminium sulphate - Alum - used in fireworks, in mfg of fertilizers.
Copper sulphate (hydrated) - Blue vitriol - used as fungicide and in the textile industry.
ays to bring changes
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Mixing -
Heating -
Dissolving -
xpansion and Contraction:
E
Expansion -
When heated molecules from substance moves rapidly, and takes more space and expands
(increase in size)
Contraction -
When a substance is cooled, movement of molecules slows down. Each particle takes lesser
space and contracts (decrease in size)
E.g. railway tracks laid with gaps, metal rims are fitted to wooden cart wheel,
Heat And Temperature
eat Energy-
H
When a hot object and cold object comes in contact with each other, a type of energy flows from
the hotter object to the colder one. This energy is called heat energy.
SI unit of heat is joule (J)
emperature
T
The degree of hotness or coldness of an object is called its temperature.
SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K)
A hot object has more heat energy than a cold object of same mass.
easurement of Temperature:
M
The instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer.
It consists of -
Bulb - touches the object whose temperature is to be measured. The buld contains either
mercury or alcohol.
Mercuryis present in liquid state over a wide range of temperatures. Its silvery grey in color so
easy to observe. It does not stick to glass in which it is enclosed.
Mercury is very toxic, any exposure to mercury is very harmful for the body.
Alcohol can measure temperature as low as -70 Deg C. Alcohol is cheaper than mercury.
Alcohol cant measure temperature more than 78 Deg C
Stem - it is a glass capillary tube through which mercury or alcohol rises or falls as the object
around the bulb warms or cools.
Scale - indicates the temperatures of the substance.
ypes of thermometers:
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Clinical thermometer:
Used to measure the temperature of the human body.
Shake thermometer before taking new reading: Capillary of thermometer has a kink or a bend
that does not allow the mercury to flow back into the bulb before temperature has been read.
Digital Thermometer:
Do not contain mercury, temperature is read on display.
Laboratory thermometer:
The range of temperature it can measure is between -10 and 110 Deg C.
emperature Scales:
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Celsius scale-
Developed by Anders Celsius. Unit -°C
Sets at Freezing point of water 0°C (lower fixedpoint) and boiling point of water 100°C. (upper
fixed point). There are 100 divisions between these two points.
Fahrenheit scale-
Developed by Gabriel Fahrenheit. Unit -°F
Sets at Freezing point of water 32°F (lower fixedpoint) and boiling point of water 212°F. (upper
fixed point).there are 180 divisions between these two points.
Kelvin Scale-
Invented by Lord Kelvin. Unit - K and is SI unit of measuring temperature.
Sets at Freezing point of water 273.16 K (lower fixed point) and boiling point of water 373.16 K.
(upper fixed point).there are 180 divisions between these two points. Approximately written as
273 and 373 K. It is called the absolute scale of temperature since its 0 K is absolute zero, that
is the lowest attainable temperature in the universe.
onversion of Scales:
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Celsius to Fahrenheit scale
°F = °C(9⁄5) + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius scale
°C =(°F − 32) × 5⁄9
Celsius to Kelvin
K =°C + 273
ransfer of Heat:
T
Heat energy always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature,
till both attain the same temperature. This phenomenon is called transfer of heat.
Heat can be transferred by three modes:
Conduction-
Transfer of heat from a hotter part to a colder part of an object due to the collision of its particles
without their actual movement from their positions.
Solids are best conductors of heat, followed by liquids however gases are bad conductors of
heat. The rate of conduction of heat is different in different solids.
Materials that conduct heat easily are calledconductors. Metals are usually conductors of
heat.
Materials that do not allow conduction of heat are calledinsulatorsorbad conductorsof heat.
Eg. wood, cotton, rubber, clay, wool, feathers, air etc.
onvection-
C
Is the transfer of heat by the movement of particles . It is the primary mode of heat transfer in
fluids (liquids and gases).
xample - When water is heated in a vessel, water at the bottom gets heated first. As hot water
E
is lighter, it rises up. The colder and heavier water moves to the bottom of the vessel, this
process continues and the entire volume of water becomes hot.
Example - sea breeze and land breeze in coastal areas.
adiation-
R
Heat energy can travel in the form of waves even if a medium is absent, it can travel even in a
vacuum. The transfer of heat in the form of rays or waves is calledradiation.
Heat can radiate through air as well as water. E.g. We feel heat due to the Sun rays.
Darker colours are good absorbers while lighter colours are poor absorbers. In colder places,
hilly areas, roofs of the houses are painted black to maximize absorption of heat from the Sun.
whereas in hotter areas roofs painted white absorb less heat.
Application - Solar heater
orking of Thermos Flask:
W
The thermos flask maintains the temperature of the substance kept in it. It keeps hot substances
hot and cold substances cold for a long time.
The outer casing of a thermos flask is made up of plastic / steel. Which is a poor conductor of
heat, acts as an insulator and prevents heat loss. Inside it is a double walled container made of
glass or stainless steel. Space between two walls is a vacuum, this prevents heat loss through
convection since there are no air particles to carry out the transfer of heat. The shiny surface of
the walls also prevents heat loss through radiation.
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