Solar Electric
System
Lecture No. 6 RES
Solar Cells and Solar PV
Electric Generation
Harnessing Solar Energy for a Sustainable
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Introduction
• Solar cells converts the radiation from sun into electrical energy.
• The process of conversion is called photovoltaic effect.
• It make use of semiconductors for this conversion.
• One of the commonly used RE system.
• Solar cells are connected to form solar panels and then arrays to get
higher power rating.
• Government provides incentives for solar PV generation to promote
the use of solar PV system.
• The cost was high in earlier days but due to technology
advancement the cost of panels are now affordable.
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World energy demand
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Slide Title
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India energy demand
RE contribution in Indian energy
Waste to…
25%
27%
Solar
39%
3%
6%
Wind Power Solar
Biomass/C0-generation Small hydro power
Waste to energy Large hydro power
Renewable energy ~ 172 GW
•Wind power: 42.8 GW
•Solar Power: 67.07 GW
•Biomass/Co-generation: 10.2 GW
•Small Hydro Power: 4.94 GW
•Waste To Energy: 0.55 GW
•Large Hydro: 46.85 GW
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• Most common type of materials that are commercially used as semiconductors are
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) because of their property to withstand high
temperature
• Negative temperature coefficient of resistivity
• Si and Ge are elements of IV group of Periodic table
• 4 valence electrons
• At absolute zero temperature both behave as insulator
• The energy required to break the covalent bond is about 0.72 eV in germanium, and
that is 1.1 eV in silicon at room temperature
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Photovoltaic Effect
• When light falls on the semiconductor surface, the electron from valence band
absorbs photons and gets promoted to conduction band, the hole is generated.
Hence, there is a formation of electron-hole pair on the sides of p-n junction.
• The electron‒hole pairs, generated in the depletion region due to the absorption of solar
radiation, are driven by the internal electric fields producing a photo current (IL ).
• This photocurrent flows continuously even in the absence of external applied voltage and is
known as the “short circuit current” ( ISC ).
• Absorption of more light produces more electron‒hole pairs; hence, this current depends
linearly on the light intensity. This effect is known as the photovoltaic effect.
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Basic Parameters of the Solar Cell
• Overall current (I)
• The overall current (I) flowing through a solar cell is given by the following equation:
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• Short circuit current (ISC )
• The short-circuit current is the light-induced current that occurs when the load in the circuit is zero,
i.e., both terminals (positive and negative) of the solar cell are connected together.
• A material with lower band gap will absorb more number of photons producing higher short circuit
current.
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• Open-circuit voltage (Voc)
• The open-circuit voltage is the voltage across the solar cell when there is no current flowing in the
circuit, i.e., there is infinite resistance between the terminals of the solar cell.
• The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to the
bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated current.
• This can be found from Equation and is expressed as follows:
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Photovoltaic/Solar cell
• mm
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Construction of PV/Solar cell
• Substrate: The base material, often made of crystalline silicon (Si) or other
semiconductor materials, forms the substrate of the PV cell.
• Front Contact: Thin, conductive grids or fingers made of metal (commonly silver)
are applied to the top surface of the substrate. These serve as the front contact to
collect electrons generated by the cell.
• Antireflection Coating: A thin antireflection coating is often applied to the top
surface to reduce the reflection of sunlight and improve light absorption.
• P-N Junction: In a typical crystalline silicon PV cell, a p-n junction is formed within
the substrate. This junction is created by doping a thin layer of the substrate with
trivalent (p-type) and pentavalent (n-type) elements. It facilitates the separation of
charge carriers.
• Back Contact: The back surface of the PV cell is coated with a conductive material,
usually aluminum, to serve as the back contact. This allows the efficient extraction
of electrons and the completion of the electrical circuit.
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• A solar cell is essentially a p-n semiconductor junction with a large surface
area.
• The n-type material is kept thin to allow the light to pass through and
strike the p-n junction.
• Light travels in depletion region of the p-n junction. (Depletion region is an
area around the p-n junction where electrons diffuse with holes)
• When a photon of light impeaches these atoms in the n region of silicon,
free electrons and hole pairs are created and they acquire enough energy
to cross the depletion region.
• If a wire is connected from the cathode at n-region and anode at p-region,
electrons flow through the wire causing a current flow.
• The electrons are attracted to the positive charge of p region and travels
through the external load, thereby creating a current flow.\
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Characteristics of solar cell
• Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): This is the voltage across the PV cell
when no current is flowing through it (i.e., when it's disconnected or
open-circuited). Voc represents the maximum voltage the PV cell can
produce under illumination.
• Short-Circuit Current (Isc): This is the current through the PV cell
when the voltage across it is reduced to zero (i.e., short-circuited).
Isc represents the maximum current the PV cell can produce under
illumination.
• Maximum Power Point (MPP): The VI curve has a point known as
the Maximum Power Point (MPP), where the product of voltage and
current (V x I) is maximized. This is the point of maximum power
output for the PV cell.
• Fill Factor (FF): The Fill Factor is a measure of how "square" the VI
curve is. It's calculated as the ratio of the maximum power at the
MPP to the product of the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current (Voc x Isc). A high Fill Factor indicates a more efficient PV cell.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a PV cell can be calculated as the ratio of
the maximum power output at the MPP to the incident light power.
This represents how effectively the PV cell converts sunlight into
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Arrangement of PV system
Solar Cell
• The smallest individual unit of a solar PV system.
• Converts sunlight directly into electricity through the
photovoltaic effect.
• Typically made of semiconductor materials like silicon.
Solar Module
• Also known as a solar panel or photovoltaic module.
• Comprises multiple interconnected solar cells within a single
frame.
• Designed to generate a specific amount of power (e.g., 100
watts) and is the building block of a solar panel system.
Solar Panel Array
• Consists of multiple solar panels/modules connected together.
• Increases the total power output by combining the electricity
generated by individual modules.
• Configurations can vary, such as fixed arrays or tracking
systems to follow the sun's path for increased efficiency.
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• PV solar systems generate electricity by converting
sunlight (photons) into electricity using semiconductor
materials.
• A typical PV solar system consists of solar panels
(modules), inverters, mounting structures, wiring, and
sometimes, energy storage (batteries).
• PV panels can be monocrystalline, polycrystalline, or
thin-film, with variations in efficiency, cost, and
appearance.
• Grid-tied systems are connected to the utility grid,
while off-grid systems operate independently and may
include batteries for energy storage.
• Grid-tied systems often use net metering, allowing
excess energy generated to be sent back to the grid in
exchange for credits.
• PV systems require minimal maintenance, primarily
cleaning panels and occasional inverter replacement.
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Stand alone PV system
• Off-Grid Independence:
▪ Standalone PV systems, also known as off-grid
systems, operate independently of the utility grid.
▪ They are designed to provide electricity in remote
areas or locations without access to a centralized
power grid.
• Energy Storage:
▪ These systems typically include energy storage
solutions such as batteries to store excess energy
generated during the day.
▪ Stored energy is then used during the night or when
sunlight is insufficient, ensuring a continuous power
supply.
• Customized Sizing:
▪ Standalone PV systems are sized and designed
based on the specific energy needs of the user or
application.
▪ The system size can vary from small residential
setups to larger systems for agricultural, industrial,
or remote community use.
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Grid Connected PV system
• The system is connected to the local electrical grid, allowing for two-
way energy flow.
• Excess electricity generated by the PV system can be sent back to the
grid, and homeowners often receive credits for this surplus power.
• When the PV system doesn't produce enough electricity (e.g., at night
or on cloudy days), electricity is drawn from the grid.
• Grid-connected PV systems can reduce electricity bills by offsetting
usage with solar-generated power.
• PV panels are installed on rooftops or open areas to capture sunlight.
• A device called an inverter converts DC (direct current) electricity
generated by the solar panels into AC (alternating current) electricity
usable in homes and on the grid.
• Installation may require permits, and there may be local regulations
governing grid-connected PV systems.
• Many regions offer incentives, tax credits, or subsidies to encourage
the adoption of grid-connected PV systems.
• Grid-connected PV systems are typically a long-term investment, with
a payback period of several years.
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Aspect Standalone PV System Grid-Connected PV System
Grid Connection Not connected to the electrical grid. Connected to the local electrical grid.
Typically includes batteries for storage and Often does not require batteries but may use grid
Energy Storage
backup power. as a virtual storage.
Energy Less reliable as it depends solely on solar energy More reliable as it can draw power from the grid
Reliability and battery capacity. when needed.
Excess Energy Excess energy not used is stored in batteries or Excess energy can be exported to the grid, earning
Handling wasted. credits or compensation.
Grid Not dependent on the grid, operates Partially dependent on the grid for backup and
Dependency independently. when solar production is insufficient.
Cost and Typically more expensive due to the need for Often less expensive upfront, as it doesn't require
Complexity batteries and control systems. extensive energy storage.
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Stand alone PV system Grid connected PV system
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Advantages
• Solar energy is a renewable energy source and reduces carbon emissions
• Clean: It is considered to be the cleanest form of energy as there is no carbon
dioxide emission like in the case of fossil fuels which is one of the causes of global
warming.
• Solar panels have low maintenance costs: Solar panels are easy to maintain, as
they have no moving parts that wear out over time. Just keep them clean and in
good physical condition to keep them working properly. Between their low
maintenance costs and average lifespan of 25 years, it can be easy to get your
money’s worth when investing in solar panels.
• Reliable: The energy can be stored in the batteries, so there is no unreliability.
• Free energy because it can be trapped easily.
• Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the
electricity power grid
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Disadvantages
• High Initial cost: The initial cost to buy and install solar energy equipment is high
• Intermittency and Weather-Dependency: Solar systems cannot generate power at
night and see major drops in efficiency during cloudy, rainy, or snowy days
• Requires Significant Space: To generate sufficient power, solar arrays require large
areas of open land or unshaded rooftops.
• Geographic Limits: Solar efficiency fluctuates based on latitude and regional
climates
• Solar energy storage is expensive
• Environmental Impact of Manufacturing and Disposal: Mining for materials like
silicon and manufacturing panels can be energy-intensive and produce hazardous
waste
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