Metal Forming and Machining

(BMEE304L)
(3-0-0-3)
Module 2 –Bulk Forming of Metals
Bulk Deformation Processes
➢These processes involve large amount of plastic deformation.
➢The cross‐section of workpiece changes without volume change.
➢The ratio cross‐section area/volume is small.
➢For most operations, hot or warm working conditions are preferred although
some operations are carried out at room temperature.

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 Recrystallization Temperature
➢ “The minimum temperature at which the completed recrystallization of a cold worked metal occurs within a
specified period of approximately one hour”.
➢ Rx temp. decreases strength and increases ductility.
➢ If working above Rx temp., hot‐working process whereas working below are cold‐working process.
➢ It involves replacement of cold‐worked structure by a new set of strain‐free, approximately equi‐axed grains
to replace all the deformed crystals.
➢ Rx temp. depends on the amount of cold work a material has already received. The higher the cold work, the
lower would be the Rx temp.
➢ Rx temp. varies between 1/3 to 1/2 melting paint.
➢ For Pure metal Rx temp. = 0.3 x Melting temp.(Kelvin).
➢ For Alloy Rx temp. = 0.5 x Melting temp. (Kelvin).
➢ Rx temp. of lead and Tin is below room temp.
➢ Rx temp. of Cadmium and Zinc is room temp.
➢ Rx temp. of Iron is 450oC and for steels around 1000°C.
➢ Finer is the initial grain size; lower will be the Rx temp.

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 Cold Working

➢Working below recrystallization temperature.

Advantages of Cold Working Disadvantages of Cold Working

➢ Better accuracy, closer tolerances. ➢ Equipment of higher forces and
➢ Better surface finish. power required.
➢ Strain hardening increases strength ➢ Surfaces of starting work piece must
and hardness. be free of scale and dirt.
➢ Grain flow during deformation can ➢ Ductility and strain hardening limit
cause desirable directional the amount of forming that can be
properties in product. done.
➢ No heating of work required (less ➢ In some operations, metal must be
total energy). annealed to allow further
deformation.
➢ Some metals are simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked.
22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 4
 Hot Working
➢ Working above recrystallization temperature.

Advantages of Hot Working Disadvantages of Hot Working

➢ The porosity of the metal is largely ➢ It requires expensive tools.
eliminated. ➢ It produces poor surface finish, due to
➢ The grain structure of the metal is the rapid oxidation and scale formation
refined. on the metal surface.
➢ The impurities like slag are ➢ Due to the poor surface finish, close
squeezed into fibers and distributed tolerance cannot be maintained.
throughout the metal.
➢ The mechanical properties such as
toughness, percentage elongation,
percentage reduction in area, and
resistance to shock and vibration are
improved due to the refinement of
grains.
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 Warm Forming

➢ Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold forming is known as

warm forming.
➢ Compared to cold forming, it reduces loads, increase material ductility.
➢ Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and decarburization, better dimensional
precision and smoother surfaces.
➢ Warm forming is a precision forging operation carried out at a temperature range between
550–950°C. It is useful for forging of details with intricate shapes, with desirable grain flow,
good surface finish and tighter dimensional tolerances.

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 Isothermal Forming

➢ During hot forming, cooler surfaces surround a hotter interior, and the variations in
strength can result in non-uniform deformation and cracking of the surface.
➢ For temperature sensitive materials deformation is performed under isothermal
conditions.
➢ The dies or tooling must be heated to the workpiece temperature, sacrificing die life for
product quality.
➢ Close tolerances, low residual stresses and uniform metal flow.

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Advantages of Using True Strain
1- If the true strain Ɛ is used, strain equivalence is obtained for both extension
(positive linear strain) and compression (negative linear strain).
Example:- Uniform cylinder is extended to twice its original length
2- The total true strain Ɛ is equal to the sum of the incremental true strains while this is
not the same rule as in conventional strain e.
Example:- Rod 2 unit long is elongated in three increments with conventional strain
e =0.1
3- The volume of a solid remains constant during plastic deformation as an
engineering consideration.
Example:- The density changes measured on metals after large plastic strain are less
than 0.1 %.
4- During determine Δ for the larger plastic strains, it is not permissible to neglect
products of strain compared to the strain itself as it was for small elastic strains.

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 Contd…
➢ We determined the volume strain by considering a cube of initial volume dx dy dz which when
deformed had a volume dx (1+ ex) dy (1+ ey) dz (1+ ez).
ΔV 1 + 𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑦 1 + 𝑒𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Δ= =
𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Δ = 1 + 𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑦 1 + 𝑒𝑧 − 1
➢ Since the volume change is zero for plastic deformation,
Δ + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 + 𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑦 1 + 𝑒𝑧
ln 1 = 0 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑒𝑦 + 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑒𝑧
➢ By using

Ɛ𝑥 + Ɛ𝑦 + Ɛ𝑧 = Ɛ1 + Ɛ2 + Ɛ3 = 0

➢ This equation represents the first invariant of the strain tensor when strain is expressed as true strain
which is very useful in plasticity problem

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 Contd…
➢ If we add up these equations for Hooke's law,

1 − 2𝑣
𝛥 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 + 𝑒𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
➢As we discuss in plastic deformation Δ =0 so from the equation the Poisson’s ratio for a
plastic material is v =1/2.

➢Also because of constancy of volume A0L0=AL, true strain equation can be written in
terms of either length or area.
𝐿 𝐴0
Ɛ = ln = ln
𝐿0 𝐴

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 Bulk Deformation Metal Forming Process

(a) Rolling (b) Forging

(c) Extrusion (d) Wire and bar drawing

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 Sheet Metal Working Process

(a) Bending operation (b) Deep and Cup drawing

(1) Punch first contacting sheet (2) After cutting

(c) Shearing processes
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 Material Properties In Metal Forming

➢Desirable material properties:

• Low yield strength
• High ductility
➢These properties are affected by temperature:
• Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
➢Other factors:
• Strain rate
• friction

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 Forging

Forging is a process in which the work piece is shaped by compressive

force applied through various dies and tools
Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce continuous plates,
sheets, strip or various structural cross-sections, forging operation
produces discrete parts
Typical forge products are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts for
turbines, gears, hand tools and structural components for machinery,
aircraft, railroads and variety of other transportation equipment

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 OUTLINE OF FORGING AND RELATED OPERATIONS
Forgeability

Heading, Coining,
Fullering, Hubbing,
Furnaces Gathering, Piercing,
Cogging, Roll forging,
Skew rolling
Trimming
Billet Hot Machining
Slug Warm Heat treating
Preform Isothermal Finishing
Cleaning
Shearing Open die,
Sawing Heated dies Impression die,
Cutting off Closed die,
Precision, Orbital, Inspection
Machining
Swaging

Hammers, Presses, Forging machines, Die

design and manufacturing, Lubrication
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 Forging contd.

Forging can be done at room temperature (cold forging) and at

elevated temperature (warm or hot forging)
Cold forging
− Higher material strength - requires greater force to forge it
− Work piece material must have sufficient ductility at room
temperature
− Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy can be obtained
 Hot forging
− Smaller force
− Dimensional accuracy and surface finish are not so good

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 Advantages of Forging over other Processes

Forging has the following advantages in comparison to casting and

machining
Greater strength and toughness
Reduction in weight of the finished part
Saving in the material
Elimination of internal defects such as cracks, porosity,
blowholes, etc.
Ability to withstand unpredictable loads during service
Minimum of machine finish to be carried out on the component
especially when it is forged in dies

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 OPEN DIE FORGING
A solid work piece is placed between two flat dies and
reduced in height by compressing it
This process is called as upsetting or flat – die forging
The die surface may have simple cavities, to produce
relatively simple forgings

Die
(Movable)

Work piece

Die (Fixed)

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 OPEN DIE FORGING (CONTD..)
In actual operation, the part develops a barrel
shape, this deformation also known as
pancaking
Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces
at the die – work piece interface that opposes
the outward flow of material
Die
(Movable)
Friction
Work piece force

Barreling
Die (Fixed)

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 OPEN DIE FORGING (CONTD..)
 Barreling can also occur in upsetting hot work
pieces between cold dies eg: upsetting of engine
valves
Top die
(Movable)

Portion to
be Upset

Bottom die
(Fixed)

[[Link]; [Link]

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 OPEN DIE FORGING (CONTD..)
Central portion of the work
piece expand laterally to a
greater extent than do its
ends
 Barreling from thermal effects can
be reduced or eliminated by using
− Heated dies

− Thermal barriers such

as glass cloth at the
die – work piece
interfaces are also
used
[[Link], [Link]]
22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 21
 OPEN DIE FORGING (CONTD..)
 Cogging is also called as drawing out – thickness of the job
is reduced by successive forging steps at specific intervals
 Contact area per stroke is small – a long section of bar can
be reduce in thickness without requiring large forces
 Eg: iron fences of various design are often made by this
process 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 =Yf A Kf = 𝒀𝒇 𝝅𝒓𝟐 (𝟏 +
𝟎.𝟒𝝁𝑫
)
𝒉

Yf – Flow stress, Pa (Yf = Kn)

Kf – Forging shape factor
Work  - Co-efficient of friction
piece D - workpart diameter or other
dimension representing contact
length with die surface, mm
h – height of work piece, mm
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 IMPRESSION DIE FORGING
 In impression die forging the work piece acquires the shape of die cavity
(impressions) while being forged between two shaped dies

Flash

 Significant role of flash

 Cools rapidly and develop high pressure on the material
 Encouraging the filling of die cavity
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 IMPRESSION DIE FORGING (CONTD..)
(FORGING A CONNECTING ROD)
Fullering
Blank (bar stock)
Die

Edging Work piece

Die

Blocking
Edging

Finishing

Trimming
22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 24
 SAMPLE PROBLEM – OPEN DIE FORGING

A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The starting

piece is 75mm in height and 50mm in diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a
height of 36mm. The work material has a flow curve defined by K=350 MPa and
n=0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the force as the process
begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.
Assume initial strain as 0.002.

𝟎.𝟒𝝁𝑫
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 =Yf A Kf = 𝒀𝒇 𝝅𝒓𝟐 (𝟏 + )
𝒉

22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 25

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (SOLUTION)

502
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 75 × 𝜋 × 4
= 147,262 mm3

At the moment contact is made by the upper die ,h=75 mm and the force F=0. At the start of yielding, h is
slightly less than 75 mm, and we assume that strain as 0.002, at which the flow stress is
Yf = Kn = 350 (0.002)0.17 = 121.7 Mpa
The diameter is still approximately D=50 mm and area A = (502/4) = 1963.5 mm2. For these conditions, the
adjustment factor Kf is computed as

0.4(0.1)(50)
𝐾𝑓 = 1 + = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟕
75
The forging force
F = 1.027(121.7)(1963.5) = 245410 N

22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 26

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (SOLUTION)
At h = 62 mm

75
∈= ln = 0.1904
62
0.17
𝑌𝑓 = 350 0.1904 = 264 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Assuming constant volume, and neglecting barreling,
A = 147262/62 = 2375.2 mm2

4 × 2375.2
𝐷= = 55.00 𝑚𝑚
𝜋

0.4 × 0.1 × 55
𝐾𝑓 = 1 + = 1.035
62
F = 1.035(264)(2375.2) = 649303 N
Similarly, at h = 49 mm, F = 955642 N; and at h = 36 mm, F = 1467422 N.

22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 27

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (SOLUTION)

Upsetting force as a function of

height h and height reduction (ho-
h). This plot is sometimes called the
load stroke curve.

22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 28

 CLOSED DIE FORGING
Closed die forging or flash less forging, flash
does not form and the work piece completely
fills the die cavity
Accurate control of the volume of material and
proper die design are essential to obtain a
closed-die forging of the desired dimension and
Upper
tolerance. punch

Upper die

Billet Die Die

Flash

Lower
Lower die punch
 PRECISION FORGING/FLASHLESS FORGING

Operation in which parts formed is close to the

final dimensions of the desired component are
known as near-net-shape or net-shape forging
Precision forging - special dies produce parts
having greater accuracies than those from
impression die forging – requires much less
machining
Greater force required to obtain fine details on
the part Aluminium, Magnesium alloy, steel
and titanium can be precision forged
 PRECISION FORGING (CONTD..)
Applications
Advantages
Parts are close to final desired shape
Less material is wasted
Less subsequent machining is required

Limitations
Requires special and more complex dies
Precise control of billet’s volume and shape
Accurate positioning of billet in die cavity
ORBITAL FORGING

Orbital 1 2 5
path

Blank

Forged
work
Upper die piece
3 4

Orbital Spiral Ejector

Planetary Straight line Application

Bevel gear
 ROLL FORGING

A cross-section of
bar is reduced or
shaped by passing it

BMEE304L_Module II_ [Link]

through a pair of
rolls with shaped
grooves

Application
 Tapered shafts and leaf
springs, table knives, 33

hand tools
 SKEW ROLLING

Blank

Die

BMEE304L_Module II_ [Link]

Ejector

Stock
Finished
piece

Production of steel balls by

the skew rolling process
34 by
Production of steel balls
upsetting a cylindrical blank
 ISOTHERMAL FORGING

Isothermal forging also known as

hot-die forging, the dies are
heated to same temperature as
that of the work piece
Low strength and high ductility of
material is maintained during
forging
Forging load is low, material flow
within the cavity is improved
Economical for intricate forging
of Titanium Alloys, Iron-base
Alloys, super alloys used in
turbine wheel, impellers, disk,
shaft, spool.
ADVANTAGES OF FORGING

Forged parts possess high ductility and offers

great resistance to impact and fatigue loads
Forging refines the structure of the metal.
It results in considerable saving in time, labour
and material as compared to the production of
similar item by cutting from a solid stock and
then shaping it
Forging distorts the previously created
unidirectional fiber as created by rolling and
increases the strength by setting the direction
of grains
 ADVANTAGES OF FORGING (CONTD..)

Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have good

reliability
The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained in forging
operation.
The forged parts can be easily welded
 DISADVANTAGES OF FORGING

Few dis-advantages of forging are

Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature
results in scaling which wears the dies
The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain
Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts
having undercuts etc.
Some materials are not readily worked by forging
 DISADVANTAGES OF FORGING (CONTD..)

The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is
high.
The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a specified
temperature limit.
The maintenance cost of forging dies is also very high.
Forging applications - Aerospace
industry (fuselage)

Al 7010 T754 Ti 6-4 Al 7050 T7452

Fuselage frames

Passenger window Rear Cruciform vertical Door step fitting Ti

frame [Al 7175 T74] [Al 7010 T7452] TL64.61
[[Link]]
 FORGING APPLICATIONS - AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
(ENGINE COMPONENTS)
HP disc Drive cone LPT disc

Ti 6-2-4-2 Ni-Inconel 718 Ni-Inconel 718

Fan disc Rear seal Drive arm

Ti 6-4 Ti 6-4 Ti 6-4

[[Link]]
 FORGING APPLICATIONS - AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
(WINGS)

Flap track Trunnion

Ti 6-4 Al 7050 T74

Slat track Pylon

Ti 6-4 fitting
Ti 6-4

[[Link]]
FORGING APPLICATIONS - AEROSPACE INDUSTRY (LANDING
GEAR)

Main fitting - Al 717501 Wheel half - Al 2214 T6

Wheel half - Al 2214 T6 Spoiler manifold - Al7175 T7454

 FORGING APPLICATIONS - AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
(ROTOR SYSTEMS)

Swash plate Rotor head

Al 7475 T73 Ti 10-2-3

Gear box
Manchon housing
Ti 10-2-3 Mg ZK60

[[Link]]
FORGING DEFECTS
FORGING DEFECTS
Incomplete forging penetration - Dendritic ingot structure at the
interior of forging is not broken. Actual forging takes place only at the
surface.
 Cause: Use of light rapid hammer blows
 Remedy: To use forging press for full penetration.

Surface cracking
 Cause: Excessive working on the surface and too low temperature. High
sulfur in furnace leading to hot shortness
 Remedy: To increase the work temperature
FORGING DEFECTS
Cracking at the flash - This crack penetrates into the interior after flash is
trimmed off.
Cause: Very thin flash

Remedy:-Increasing flash thickness, relocating the

flash to a less critical region of the forging, hot
trimming and stress relieving.
Cold shut - Two surfaces of metal fold against each other without welding
completely
Cause: Sharp corner (less fillet), excessive chilling,
high friction

Remedy: increase fillet radius on the die

 FORGING DEFECTS

Scale pockets and underfills - They are loose scale/ lubricant residue which accumulate in deep
recesses of the die.
Cause: Incomplete descaling of the work

Remedy: Proper descaling of work prior to forging

Internal cracks
Cause: Secondary tensile stresses developed during forging

Remedy: Proper die design

Rolling

• Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by compressive

forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

The Rolls

• Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

✓ Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between workpart and
rolls

✓ Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section

 Rolling Processes
Working Principle
 Rolling Processes
The process of plastically deforming metal
by passing it between rolls is known as
Rolling.
In deforming metal between rolls, the work is
subjected to high compressive stress from the
squeezing action of the rolls and to surface shear
stresses as a result of the friction between rolls and
metals.
The frictional forces are also responsible for
drawing the metal into the rolls
Types of Rolling

• Based on workpiece geometry :

– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section
– Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape such as an
I-beam
• Based on work temperature :
– Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of deformation
required
– Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
 INGOT
TERMINOLOGY

BLOOM [ 150 x150 mm] or [ 250x300 mm]

Bloom, Width is equal to thickness & Cross section is more than 230 cm2
Billet &
Slab are BILLET : Minimum Cross Section is 40x40
[ 50 x 50] or [ 125 x 125 ]
Semi
finished SLAB : Cross sectional area is more than 100 cm2
products Width is twice of thickness

PLATE [ t > 6.35 mm ]

SHEET [ t < 6.35]

STRIP [ t = 6.35 & b = 600 mm ]

FOIL [ t < 1.5 mm & b= 300mm ]

Rolling Processes
Rolling Processes
 Rolling Mills
A rolling mill consist of basically of rolls, bearings, a housing for
containing these parts and a drive for applying power to the rolls and
controlling their speed.

The force involved during rolling are in MN range.

Very rigid construction is needed and very large motors are required to
provide necessary powers.
Rolling Parameters
 _
• Rolling Force F = Y f wL

• Where w= width of workpiece

• L = length of contact

• Torque T = 0.5 FL

• Power P = 2πNFL

• N – rotational speed of roll (rev/min)

ROLLING ANALYSIS

Assumptions:
➢ The rolls are straight and cylinders.
➢ The width of strip is much larger than its thickness and no significant widening
takes place, i.e., the problem is of the plane strain type.

➢ The coefficient of friction μ is low and constant over the entire roll job interface.
➢ The yield stress of the material remains constant for the entire operation, its
value being the average of the values at the start and at the end of rolling

70
Contd…

71
Contd…

72
Contd…

73
Contd…

74
Contd…

For rolling Angle of bite(α) is very small, So, ϕ is also small

Remark:
➢ There are 4 variables σx , h, p, φ . For
making it two variables, various
assumptions & approximation are needed.
➢ Assume p & σx are principle stresses, using
Von-Mises criteria.

75
Contd…

76
Contd…

• Due to cold rolling, Y’flow ↑ and as h ↓, so (Y’flow *h ) is approx

constant.
• Therefore differentiate of (Y’flow *h)=0

77
Contd…

78
Contd…

79
Contd…

80
Contd…

81
Contd…

82
Contd…

83
Contd…

84
Contd…

85
Contd…

86
Contd…

87
Rolling Defects

(a) wavy edges; (b) zipper cracks in the center of the strip;
(c) edge cracks; and (d) alligatoring.
Shape Rolling

✓ Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired
shape
• Products include:
– Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels
– Rails for railroad tracks
– Round and square bars and rods

[Link]
Shape-Rolling Operations
Ring Rolling

• Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled

into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter
✓ As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing
diameter of ring to be enlarged
✓ Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for smaller
rings

✓ Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels,
and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
Ring Rolling

Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a
ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process

[Link]
Thread Rolling

• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on

cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
•
✓ Important commercial process for mass producing bolts
and screws
✓ Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

✓ Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

– Higher production rates
– Better material utilization
– Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to
work hardening
Thread Rolling

Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.

[Link]
Production of Seamless Tubing and Pipe

[Link]

[Link]
Production of Seamless Tubing
Example

• A 20 mm thick plate is to be rolled into a 4 mm thick sheet in a four stand

continuous rolling mill. All rolls have equal diameters. Assume equal
reduction in each stand by adjusting the gap between rollers, and coefficient
of friction is 0.14.
– Find the diameter of rolls.
– Assume no change in the width of sheet, determine the velocity of final rolled
sheet if the feed velocity of 20 mm thick plate is 5 m/min.
Solution

Intial thickness = 20, Final thickness = 4, No. of Stands = 4, μ = 0.14

•Reduction in thickness at each stand = (20-4)/4 = 4mm
•Thickness (t1) after stand 1= 20 - 4 = 16
•Thickness (t2) after stand 2= 16 – 4 =12, so t3 = 8 and t4 = 4 mm
• Max. Draft = μ^2R
• R = 4/ (0.14)2 = 204.081, Diameter = 408.163 mm
• AiVi = A1V1= A2V2= A3V3= A4V4
• V4 = (AiVI)/A4 = (20 X 5)/4 = 25 m/min
• A 42.0 mm thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0 mm
in one pass in a rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate
widens by 4%. The yield strength of the steel plate is 174 MPa and the
tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance speed of the plate is 15.0 m/min.
The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine
(a) the minimum required coefficient of friction that would make this rolling
operation possible, (b) exit velocity of the plate.
Extrusion Process

 Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow

through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
 In the process, the metal assumes the opening provided in the die and comes
out as a long strip with the same cross-section as the die-opening.

 Incidentally, the metal strip

produced will have a
longitudinal grain flow.
103
[[Link]]
Extrusion Process

 Extrusion may be done hot or cold.

 The pressure required for extrusion depends upon the strength of the material
and the extrusion temperature.
 Lesser pressure needed, if the material is hot.
 It will also depend upon the reduction in cross-section required and the speed
of extrusion.

Types of
extrusion
sections

104
[[Link]]
Extrusion Process

 There is a limit to the extrusion speed. If the extrusion is done at a high speed,
the metal may crack.
 The reduction of cross-sectional area required is also called the “extrusion
ratio”. There is a limit to this also.
 For steel extruded hot, this ratio should not exceed 40: 1, but for aluminum
extruded hot it can be as high as 400: 1.

105
[[Link]]
Extrusion in food industry

Zhang et al
(2019)

Converting Peanut Protein Biomass Waste into “Double Green” Meat Substitutes
Using a High-Moisture Extrusion Process: A Multiscale Method to Explore a Process
106
for Forming a Meat-Like Fibrous Structure
Advantages of extrusion over other processes
 The complexity and range of parts that can be produced

by the extrusion process are very large. Dies are relatively

simple and easy to make.

 The extrusion process is complete in one pass only.

 This is not so in the case of rolling, the amount of

reduction in extrusion is very large indeed.

 The extrusion process can be easily automated.

 Large diameter, hollow products, thin-walled tubes etc.

are easily produced by the extrusion process.

107
[[Link]]
Advantages of extrusion over other processes

 Good surface finish and excellent dimensional and geometrical accuracy is the

hallmark of extruded products.

 This Extrusion process advantages cannot be matched by rolling.

However, a limitation is that the cross section of the extruded part must be

uniform throughout its length.

108
[[Link]]
Classification of extrusion process
reduction of ram force, increased ram
speed, and reduction of grain flow
Hot Extrusion Processes
characteristics in the final product
 Forward or Direct extrusion

 Backward or Indirect extrusion

Cold extrusion process

increased strength due to strain
 Hooker extrusion
hardening, close tolerances, improved
 Hydrostatic extrusion surface finish, absence of oxide layers,
 Impact extrusion and high production rates

 Cold extrusion forging

109
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 In this process, the material to be extruded is in the form of a block. It is heated

to the requisite temperature and then it is transferred inside a chamber as

shown in the below figure.

110
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 In the front portion of the chamber, a die with an opening in the shape of the

cross-section of the extruded product is fitted.

 The block of material is pressed from behind by means of a ram and a follower

pad.

 Since the chamber is closed on all sides, the heated material is forced to

squeeze through the die opening in the form of a long strip of the required

cross-section.

111
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 The process looks simple but the friction between the material

and the chamber walls must be overcome by suitable

lubrication.

 When extruding steel products, the high temperature at which

the steel has to be heated makes it difficult to find a suitable

lubricant.

 The problem is solved by using molten glass as a lubricant. In

addition to reducing friction, it also provides effective thermal

insulation between the billet and the extrusion container.

112
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 When lower temperatures are used, a mixture of oil and graphite is used as a

lubricant.

 At the end of the extrusion process, a small piece of metal is left behind in the

chamber which cannot be extruded.

 This piece is called butt end scrap and is thrown away.

 In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the presence of an oxide

layer on the surface of the billet. This oxide layer can cause defects in the

extruded product.
113
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 To address these problems, a dummy block is often used between the ram and

the work billet.

 The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so

that a narrow ring of work metal (mostly the oxide layer) is left in the

container, leaving the final product free of oxides.

114
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct

extrusion by the process setup given below

(a) Direct extrusion to

produce a hollow or
semi-hollow cross
section;
(b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross
sections.

115
Hot extrusion – Forward Extrusion

 The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis. This allows

passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy block.

 As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through the clearance

between the mandrel and the die opening.

 The resulting cross section is tubular. Semi-hollow cross-sectional shapes

are usually extruded in the same way.

116
Hot extrusion – indirect Extrusion

 In indirect extrusion, also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion as

shown in below Figure

 The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container.

117
Hot extrusion – indirect Extrusion

 As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through the clearance

in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.

 Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no friction at the

container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower than in direct extrusion.

 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of the hollow ram

and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die.

118
Hot extrusion – indirect Extrusion

 Indirect extrusion can produce hollow(tubular) cross sections,

as in Figure

 In this method, the ram is pressed into the billet, forcing the

material to flow around the ram and take a cup shape.

119
Hot extrusion – indirect Extrusion

 There are practical limitations on the length of the extruded part that can be made by

this method.

 Support of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases.

120
Forward or direct extrusion Backward or indirect extrusion

Simple, but the material must slide In this case, the material does not
along the chamber wall. move but the die moves.

High friction forces must be overcome. Low friction forces are generated as
the mass of
material does not move.

High extrusion forces are required but 25-30% less extruding force is required
mechanically simple and as compared to direct extrusion. But
uncomplicated. hollow ram required limited
application.

High scrap or material waste 18-20% Low scrap or material waste is only 5-
on an average. 6% of billet weight.

Aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc, Low carbon steels and stainless steel
tin, and their alloys

121
Hydrostatic extrusion

 One of the problems in

direct extrusion is

friction along the billet–

container interface.

 This problem can be addressed by surrounding the billet with

fluid inside the container and pressurizing the fluid by the

forward motion of the ram, as in Figure

122
Hydrostatic extrusion

 This way, there is no friction inside the container, and friction at

the die opening is reduced.

 Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct

extrusion.

 The fluid pressure acting on all surfaces of the billet gives the

process its name. It can be carried out at room temperature or

at elevated temperatures.

123
Hydrostatic extrusion

 Special fluids and procedures must be used at elevated temperatures. Hydrostatic

extrusion is an adaptation of direct extrusion

 Accordingly, this process can be used on metals that would be too brittle for

conventional extrusion operations.

 Ductile metals can also be hydrostatically extruded, and high reduction ratios are

possible on these materials.

124
Hydrostatic extrusion

 One of the disadvantages of the process is the required preparation of the starting

work billet.

 The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into the die entry angle.

 This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from squirting out the die hole when the

container is initially pressurized.

125
Comparison of Direct vs indirect extrusion processes

126
Analysis on extrusion process
A0-cross-sectional area of the starting
𝐴0
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜(𝑟𝑥 ) = billet,mm2 (in2); and Af - final cross-sectional
𝐴𝑓
area of the extruded section,mm2 (in2)

The ratio applies for both direct and indirect extrusion

𝐴0
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ( ) = 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑓

127
Analysis on extrusion process

Various methods have been suggested to calculate the actual true strain
and associated ram pressure in extrusion. The following
empirical equation proposed by Johnson for estimating extrusion strain has
gained considerable recognition

∈𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ln 𝑟𝑥

a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5. Values of a and b tend to increase with

increasing die angle.

The pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet through

the die opening depicted in our figure can be computed as
follows:

128
Analysis on extrusion process
𝑅𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑌෡𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟𝑥

𝐾 ∈𝑛
𝑌෡𝑓 =
1+𝑛
2𝐿
𝑅𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡) = 𝑌෡𝑓 ∈𝑥 +
𝐷0
2𝐿
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷0
𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
With good lubrication, ram pressures would be lower than values calculated
by this equation.

𝑅𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴0

F = ram force in extrusion, N (lb), A0 – billet area

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑣 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′𝑣 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
129
Sample problem

A billet 75mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be extruded in a direct extrusion

operation with extrusion ratio 4.0. The extrudate has a round cross section. The
die angle (half angle) 90°. The work metal has a strength coefficient 415 MPa, and
strain-hardening exponent 0.18. Use the Johnson formula with a = 0.8 and b = 1.5
to estimate extrusion strain. Determine the pressure applied to the end of the
billet as the ram moves forward.

130
Extrusion – Sample problem solution
 = 1.3863
x = 2.8795
𝑌ഥ𝑓 = 373 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Let us examine the ram pressure at billet lengths of L=75mm(starting value), L =
50 mm, L=25 mm, and L=0.

75
𝑙 = 75 𝑚𝑚 𝑝 = 373 2.8795 + 2 = 3312 𝑀𝑃𝑎
25

50
𝑙 = 50 𝑚𝑚 𝑝 = 373 2.8795 + 2 = 2566 𝑀𝑃𝑎
25

25
𝑙 = 25 𝑚𝑚 𝑝 = 373 2.8795 + 2 = 1820 𝑀𝑃𝑎
25
0
𝑙 = 0 𝑚𝑚 𝑝 = 373 2.8795 + 2 = 1074 𝑀𝑃𝑎
25 131
Extrusion – Sample problem solution

 Zero length is a hypothetical value in direct extrusion. In reality, it is impossible to

squeeze all of the metal through the die opening.

 Instead, a portion of the billet (the ‘‘butt’’) remains un extruded and the pressure

begins to increase rapidly as L approaches zero.

 This increase in pressure at the end of the stroke is seen in the plot of ram pressure

versus ram stroke

132
Defects in extrusion

Some common defects in extrusion: (a) center burst, (b) piping, and (c) surface
cracking

133
Defects in extrusion – Center burst

 This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses along the

centerline of the work part during extrusion

 The significant material movement in these outer regions stretches the material

along the center of the work. If stresses are great enough, bursting occurs.

 Tend to occur under conditions that cause large deformation in the regions of the

work away from the central axis.

134
Defects in extrusion – Center burst

 Conditions that promote center burst are high die angles, low extrusion ratios, and

impurities in the work metal that serve as starting points for crack defects.

 The difficult aspect of center burst is its detection. It is an internal defect that is usually

not noticeable by visual observation.

 Other names sometimes used for this defect include arrowhead fracture, center

cracking, and chevron cracking.

135
Defects in extrusion – Piping

 Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion.

 It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.

 The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the billet

helps to avoid piping.

 Other names given to this defect include tailpipe and fishtailing.

136
Defects in extrusion – Surface cracking

 This defect results from high work part temperatures that cause cracks to develop

at the surface.

 They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high strain rates and

associated heat generation.

 Other factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and surface chilling

of high temperature billets in hot extrusion

137
Drawing Process
 Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod,

or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening

 The general features of the process are similar to those of

extrusion.

 The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in

drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in extrusion.

138
Drawing Process
 Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod,

or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening

 The general features of the process are similar to those of

extrusion.

 The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in

drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in extrusion.

139
Wire and Bar Drawing – Difference
 Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft

operation - the stock is pulled through one die opening.

 Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in the

form of a straight cylindrical piece rather than coiled.

 This limits the length of the work that can be drawn,

necessitating a batch type operation.

 By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several

hundred (or even several thousand) feet of wire and is passed

through a series of draw dies.

140
Wire and Bar Drawing - Difference
 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock

size that is processed.

 Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod

stock, while wire drawing applies to small diameter stock.

 Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in) are possible in wire

drawing. Diameter of wire used in micro-WEDM process?

 Although the mechanics of the process are the same for the two

cases, the methods, equipment, and even the terminology are

somewhat different.
141
Wire and Bar Drawing – Difference
 Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft

operation - the stock is pulled through one die opening.

 Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in the

form of a straight cylindrical piece rather than coiled.

 This limits the length of the work that can be drawn,

necessitating a batch type operation.

 By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several

hundred (or even several thousand) feet of wire and is passed

through a series of draw dies.

142
Wire and Bar Drawing – Difference
 The number of dies varies typically between 4 and 12.

 The term continuous drawing is used to describe this type of

operation because of the long production runs that are achieved

with the wire coils, which can be butt-welded each to the next

to make the operation truly continuous.

 In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually

given by the area reduction, defined as follows:

where r-area reduction in drawing; Ao-original area
𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓 of work,mm2 (in2); and Af-final area, mm2 (in2). Area
𝑟=
𝐴0 reduction is often expressed as a percentage.
143
 Wire and Bar Drawing – Difference

 In bar drawing, rod drawing, and in drawing of large diameter wire for upsetting and

heading operations, the term draft is used to denote the before and after difference in

size of the processed work.

 The draft is simply the difference between original and final stock diameters:

where d - draft, mm (in); Do - original

diameter of work, mm (in); and Df -
𝒅 = 𝑫𝟎 − 𝑫𝒇 final work diameter, mm (in).
144
Wire and Bar Drawing – Application
 Drawing is usually performed as a cold working operation. It

is most frequently used to produce round cross sections, but

squares and other shapes are also drawn.

 Wire drawing is an important industrial process, providing

commercial products such as electrical wire and cable; wire

stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts; and rod stock

to produce nails, screws, rivets, springs, and other hardware

items.
145
Wire and Bar Drawing – Application
 Bar drawing is used to produce metal bars for machining,

forging, and other processes.

146
Advantages of Drawing

 Close dimensional control, good surface finish, improved mechanical properties such as

strength and hardness, and adaptability to economical batch or mass production.

 Drawing speeds are as high as 50 m/s (10,000 ft/min) for very fine wire. In the case of

bar drawing to provide stock for machining, the operation improves the

machinability of the bar

147
Drawing Equipment

 Bar drawing is accomplished on a machine called a draw

bench, consisting of an entry table, die stand (which contains

the draw die), carriage, and exit rack.

148
Wire Drawing Equipment
 Wire drawing is done on continuous drawing machines that

consist of multiple draw dies, separated by accumulating drums

between the dies, as in Figure.

 Each drum, called a capstan, is motor driven to provide proper

pull force to draw the wire stock through the upstream die.

149
Wire drawing equipment
 It also maintains a modest tension on the wire as it proceeds to the

next draw die in the series.

 Each die provides a certain amount of reduction in the wire, so that

the desired total reduction is achieved by the series.

 Depending on the metal to be processed and the total reduction,

annealing of the wire is sometimes required between groups of dies

in the series.

150
Draw Dies
 Below Figure shows the features of a typical draw die.

 Four regions of the die can be distinguished: (1) entry, (2) approach

angle, (3) bearing surface (land), and (4) back relief. The entry

region is usually a bell-shaped mouth that does not contact

the work.

151
Draw Dies
 Its purpose is to funnel the lubricant into the die and prevent

scoring of work and die surfaces.

 The approach is where the drawing process occurs.

 It is cone-shaped with an angle (half-angle) normally ranging

from about 6 to 20.

 The proper angle varies according to work material.

 The bearing surface, or land, determines the size of the final

drawn stock.
152
Draw Dies
 Finally, the back relief is the exit zone. It is provided with a back

relief angle (half-angle) of about 30.

 Draw dies are made of tool steels or cemented carbides. Dies for

high-speed wire drawing operations frequently use inserts made of

diamond (both synthetic and natural) for the wear surfaces.

 Prior to drawing, the beginning stock must be properly prepared.

This involves three steps: (1) annealing, (2) cleaning, and (3)

pointing.

153
Preparation of work – Annealing and Cleaning
 The purpose of annealing is to increase the ductility of the

stock to accept deformation during drawing.

 As previously mentioned, annealing is sometimes needed between

steps in continuous drawing.

 Cleaning of the stock is required to prevent damage of the work

surface and draw die. It involves removal of surface contaminants

(e.g., scale and rust) by means of chemical pickling or shot blasting.

 In some cases, pre-lubrication of the work surface is accomplished

subsequent to cleaning.
154
Preparation of work – Pointing

 Pointing involves the reduction in diameter of the starting end of the stock so that it can be

inserted through the draw die to start the process.

 This is usually accomplished by swaging, rolling, or turning.

 The pointed end of the stock is then gripped by the carriage jaws or other device to initiate

the drawing process.

155
Tube drawing
 Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness of

seamless tubes and pipes, after the initial tubing has been produced

by some other process such as extrusion.

 Tube drawing can be carried out either with or without a mandrel.

 The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for diameter

reduction, as in Figure. The term tube sinking is sometimes

applied to this operation.

156
Tube Drawing
 The problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used, as

shown in above figure (refer previous slide), is that it lacks control

over the inside diameter and wall thickness of the tube.

 This is why mandrels of various types are used, two of which are

illustrated in Figure

157
Tube drawing
 The first, Figure (a) , uses a fixed mandrel attached to a long

support bar to establish inside diameter and wall thickness during

the operation.

 Practical limitations on the length of the support bar in this method

restrict the length of the tube that can be drawn.

 The second type, shown in (b), uses a floating plug whose shape is

designed so that it finds a ‘‘natural’’ position in the reduction zone

of the die. This method removes the limitations on work length

present with the fixed mandrel.

158
Mechanics of drawing
If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing, true strain could be
determined as follows
𝐴0 1
∈= 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑓 1−𝑟

Stress that results from this ideal deformation is given by

𝐾𝜖 𝑛 𝐴0
ഥ
𝜎 = 𝑌𝑓 𝜖 = 𝑙𝑛
1 + 𝑛 𝐴𝑓

Because friction is present in drawing and the work metal experiences

inhomogeneous deformation, the actual stress is larger than provided by
above equation.

In addition to the ratio Ao/Af, other variables that influence draw stress are
die angle and coefficient of friction at the work–die interface.
159
Mechanics of drawing
A number of methods have been proposed for predicting draw stress based
on values of these parameters. The modified equation suggested by Schey is
taken in this study

𝜇 𝐴0
𝜎 = 𝑌ഥ𝑓 1 + ∅ 𝑙𝑛
tan 𝛼 𝐴𝑓
 is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous deformation which is determined
as follows for a round cross section

𝐷
∅ = 0.88 ± 0.12
𝐿𝑐

Where D is average diameter of work during drawing, mm(in); and Lc is

contact length of the work with the draw die

𝐷0 − 𝐷𝑓 Corresponding drawing force

𝐷0 + 𝐷𝑓
𝐷= 𝐿𝑐 =
2 2 sin ∝ 𝑭 = 𝑨𝒇 𝝈𝒅
160
Drawing – Sample Problem

Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle 15. Starting diameter is
2.5mm and final diameter 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction at the work–die
interface 0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K is 205 MPa and a strain-
hardening exponent n is 0.20. Determine the draw stress and draw force in this
operation.
Solution
D = 2.25 mm, Lc = 0.966 mm,  = 1.16,
d = 94.1 Mpa, F = 295.5 N 𝑌ഥ𝑓 = 145.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

161
•Tube drawing
[Link]
Wire drawing
[Link]

162
references

• Serope Kalpakjian; Steven R. Schmid (2020),

Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Prentice Hall,
ISBN 0-13-312874
• M P Groover (2020) Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing Materials, Processes and Systems
• [Link]; [Link]

163
 Thank you.

22-09-2025 School of Mechanical Engineering 164