PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

Unit 1: Introduction to Energy Engineering

Total Duration: 4 Hours

Specific Objective: Describe the concept of energy sources and emerging technology.

1 Scope of Energy Engineering for Civil Engineers

1.1 Definition and Importance of Energy Engineering

Energy Engineering is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on energy generation, distribution,

and efficient utilization. It integrates principles from mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering
to develop sustainable energy solutions. The role of civil engineers in energy engineering includes
designing energy-efficient buildings, planning sustainable urban energy systems, and integrating
renewable energy sources into infrastructure.
 Role of Civil Engineers in Energy Systems:
Civil engineers play a critical role in designing and implementing energy-efficient infrastructure.
This includes:
 Designing energy-efficient buildings (e.g., passive solar design, insulation, and
ventilation).
 Developing infrastructure for renewable energy systems (e.g., hydropower plants, solar
farms, and wind turbines).
 Urban planning for sustainable energy use (e.g., smart cities, energy-efficient
transportation systems).

 Integration of Energy Systems in Civil Engineering Projects:

Civil engineers must consider energy systems in projects such as:
 Building construction: Incorporating renewable energy sources like solar panels.
 Transportation infrastructure: Designing roads and bridges to support electric vehicles.
 Water management: Integrating hydropower and water supply systems.
1.2 World Energy Status, Opportunities, and Challenges

Global energy demand has been rising due to industrialization and population growth. The primary
sources include fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewables.
 The world relies heavily on fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), which account for ~80%
of global energy consumption.
 Renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro) are growing but still represent a small
fraction of the total energy mix.
 Energy demand is increasing due to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization.

 Key Challenges
Climate change, resource depletion, geopolitical conflicts, and the transition to renewable energy.
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 PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

 Climate Change: Fossil fuel combustion releases greenhouse gases (GHGs), contributing
to global warming.
 Energy Poverty: Over 700 million people lack access to electricity, primarily in developing
countries.
 Resource Depletion: Fossil fuels are finite resources, and their extraction is becoming more
challenging and expensive.

 Opportunities: Technological advancements in solar, wind, and energy storage; policies

promoting clean energy adoption.

1.3 Energy Scenario in Nepal

 Nepal has significant potential for hydropower due to its mountainous terrain and abundant
water resources. Nepal heavily relies on hydropower (~90% of electricity generation) and
biomass (firewood, dung, agricultural residues) for energy needs. Traditional biomass (e.g.,
firewood, agricultural residues) is widely used for cooking and heating.

 Energy import dependency (petroleum products from India) is a major concern. Nepal
relies heavily on imported fossil fuels for transportation and industrial use.

 Increasing focus on solar, wind, and micro-hydropower for rural electrification. High solar
irradiation makes solar energy a promising option, especially in rural areas.

 Government initiatives: Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), Nepal Electricity

Authority (NEA), and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) energy targets.

 Challenges:

 Limited access to electricity in rural areas.

 High dependence on imported fossil fuels, leading to energy insecurity.
 Insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy development.

 Opportunities:

 Exploiting hydropower potential for domestic use and export.

 Expanding solar and wind energy projects.
 Promoting cross-border energy trade with neighboring countries like India and China.

1.4 Types of Energy Sources

1.4.1 Primary and Secondary Energy Sources:

Primary Energy Sources

Primary energy refers to the raw forms of energy found in nature that have not been converted
or transformed. These are the initial sources of energy that can be harnessed directly. Examples

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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

include:

1. Fossil Fuels:
o Coal: Mined and used for electricity generation and industrial processes.
o Oil: Extracted and used for transportation fuels, heating, and industrial
applications.
o Natural Gas: Drilled and used for heating, electricity generation, and as an
industrial feedstock.
2. Nuclear Energy:
o Uranium: Mined and processed for use in nuclear reactors to generate electricity
through nuclear fission.
3. Renewable Energy Sources:
o Solar Energy: Captured directly from sunlight using photovoltaic cells or solar
thermal systems.
o Wind Energy: Harnessed from wind using wind turbines.
o Hydropower: Generated from the energy of flowing water, typically through
dams.
o Geothermal Energy: Sourced from the Earth's internal heat.
o Biomass Energy: Derived from organic materials such as wood, crop waste, and
animal waste.

Secondary Energy Sources:

Secondary energy refers to the energy that has been converted or transformed from primary energy
sources to more convenient forms for use. This transformation often makes the energy easier to
transport, store, or use. Examples include:

1. Electricity: Generated from various primary energy sources like coal, natural gas, nuclear,
solar, wind, and hydropower. Electricity is a highly versatile form of energy that can be
used for lighting, heating, powering appliances, and industrial processes.

2. Refined Fuels:
o Gasoline: Refined from crude oil and used primarily as a transportation fuel.
o Diesel: Also refined from crude oil and used for transportation, especially in
trucks and heavy machinery.
o Kerosene: Refined from crude oil and used as a fuel for jet engines and heating.

3. Hydrogen: Can be produced from various primary sources such as natural gas (via steam
methane reforming) or water (via electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources).
Hydrogen is used as a fuel in fuel cells and various industrial processes.

1.4.2 Perpetual, Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

Perpetual Energy Resources

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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

These are resources that are inexhaustible and available continuously over time. They are not
depleted by human consumption. Examples include:

1. Solar Energy: Energy from the sun. Solar panels and other technologies can convert
sunlight into electricity or heat.
2. Wind Energy: Generated by converting wind currents into electricity using wind
turbines.
3. Geothermal Energy: Energy derived from the heat stored within the Earth. It can be
harnessed for electricity generation or direct heating purposes.

Renewable Energy Resources

These resources can be replenished naturally over short periods of time and are sustainable if
managed properly. They include:

1. Hydropower: Energy produced from moving water, typically from rivers or dams.
2. Biomass Energy: Energy derived from organic materials, such as plants and animal
waste. It can be used for electricity generation, heating, and as biofuels.
3. Tidal and Wave Energy: Energy harnessed from the movement of tides and ocean
waves.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

These resources are finite and can be depleted as they are consumed faster than they can be
replenished. They include:

1. Fossil Fuels: Includes coal, oil, and natural gas. These are formed from the remains of
ancient plants and animals over millions of years. They are major sources of energy but
contribute to pollution and climate change.
2. Nuclear Energy: Energy produced through nuclear reactions, typically using uranium or
plutonium. While it generates large amounts of energy, the resources are finite and pose
challenges related to radioactive waste disposal.
Each type of energy resource has its advantages and challenges, and a balanced approach to energy
management often involves a mix of these resources to ensure sustainability and energy security.

Table 1.1 : Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Features Renewable Energy Sources Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Energy sources that can be Energy sources that are finite and take
Definition replenished naturally and quickly, millions of years to form, making
often in a human lifespan. them depleted once used.
Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas),
Examples
biomass, tidal nuclear
Sustainable and environmentally Unsustainable and can lead to
Sustainability friendly, as they don't deplete environmental problems like pollution
resources. and climate change.

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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

Abundant and readily available in Limited and concentrated in specific

Availability
nature. locations.
Replenished naturally and Not replenished within a human
Replenishment
continuously. timescale.
Minimal environmental impact, Significant environmental impact,
Environmental
especially compared to non- including greenhouse gas emissions
Impact
renewable sources. and habitat destruction.

1.4.3 Conventional and non-conventional; Traditional and Commercial Energy Conventional

Energy

Conventional energy sources are those that have been traditionally used for a long time and are
well-established in the energy infrastructure. They include:

1. Coal: Widely used for electricity generation and industrial processes.

2. Oil: Used primarily for transportation fuels and various industrial applications.
3. Natural Gas: Used for heating, electricity generation, and as an industrial feedstock.
4. Hydropower: Uses the energy of flowing water to generate electricity, often through
dams.

Non-Conventional Energy
Non-conventional energy sources are newer, less traditional sources of energy that are becoming
more prominent as technology advances and the need for sustainable energy solutions grows.
They include:

1. Solar Energy: Harvested using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal systems.

2. Wind Energy: Generated by wind turbines.
3. Geothermal Energy: Derived from the Earth's internal heat.
4. Biomass Energy: Produced from organic materials such as plant and animal waste.
5. Tidal and Wave Energy: Energy from ocean tides and waves.

Traditional Energy
Traditional energy refers to methods and resources that have been used for centuries, often in
specific cultural or regional contexts. These include:

1. Biomass: Used in traditional forms such as wood, crop waste, and dung for cooking and
heating.
2. Animal Power: Using animals for tasks like plowing fields and transporting goods.
3. Human Labor: Physical work done by humans for various tasks, often in agricultural
settings.

Commercial Energy

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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

Commercial energy refers to energy that is produced and sold on a large scale, often with advanced
technology and infrastructure. This includes: Electricity: Generated from various sources (fossil
fuels, nuclear, renewables) and distributed through grids.
1. Refined Petroleum Products: Such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.
2. Natural Gas: Processed and distributed for heating, electricity, and industrial use.
3. Coal: Mined, processed, and used primarily for electricity generation and industrial
applications.

Key Differences
 Conventional vs. Non-Conventional: The main difference lies in their historical usage
and technological maturity. Conventional sources are older and more established, while
non-conventional sources are newer and often more sustainable.
 Traditional vs. Commercial: Traditional energy is more basic, often region-specific,
and typically less efficient. Commercial energy is produced on a large scale, widely
distributed, and involves advanced technology and infrastructure.

1.5 Energy Consumption Pattern (Household and Settlement/City levels)

1.5.1 Household Level

 Cooking: Traditional biomass (e.g., firewood) vs. modern energy sources (e.g., LPG,
electricity).
 Heating: Space heating using electricity, biomass, or fossil fuels.
 Lighting: Transition from kerosene lamps to LED bulbs.
 Appliances: Increasing use of energy-efficient appliances (e.g., refrigerators, air conditioners)
 Others:

1.5.2 Settlement/City Level:

 Transportation: Energy use in vehicles, public transit, and freight.

 Industrial Activities: Energy-intensive processes in manufacturing and construction.
 Urban Energy Demands: High energy consumption in cities due to population density and
economic activities.
 Others: Energy use in Transport, buildings, manufacturing, appliances, etc.
1.6 Environmental Aspects of Energy

The environmental aspects of energy production and consumption encompass various pollutants
and resource issues, including air and water pollution, land degradation, and climate change, with
fossil fuels being a major source of concern.
Environmental impacts of energy includes:

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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

1.6.1 Air Pollution:

 Fossil Fuel Combustion:

Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) releases significant amounts of air pollutants, including
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), which contribute to climate change and other
harmful pollutants like particulate matter and sulfur dioxide.
 Urban Air Quality:
The emission of air pollutants from energy production and consumption is a major cause of urban
air pollution, impacting human health and the environment.
1.6.2 Water Pollution:

 Oil Spills:
Oil spills from petroleum-handling operations can contaminate water bodies and ecosystems,
causing significant damage to aquatic life.
 Coal Mining:
Coal mining operations can pollute water sources through acid mine drainage, where changes in
groundwater flow bring unpolluted waters into contact with mineral materials that leach into the
soil.
 Thermal Pollution:
The release of heated water from power plants can disrupt aquatic ecosystems by changing water
temperatures and affecting the survival of certain species.
1.6.3 Land Degradation:

 Land Use Changes:

The extraction and processing of energy resources, such as coal, biomass, and hydropower, can
lead to major land-use changes, impacting natural habitats and ecosystems.
 Solid Waste:
Coal mining and other energy-related activities generate large quantities of solid waste, which
can contaminate soil and water resources.
1.6.4 Climate Change:

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

The burning of fossil fuels for energy production is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions,
which trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming and climate change.
 Other Impacts:
Climate change can lead to a variety of environmental problems, including rising sea levels,
extreme weather events, and shifts in ecosystems.
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PREPARED BY: VIJAN BHANDARI (MASTERS IN PLANNING AND OPERATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM)

1.6.5 Renewable Energy Sources:

 Environmental Benefits:
Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, have the potential to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts associated with fossil fuels.
 Land Use Impacts:
While renewable energy sources can be environmentally friendly, they also have land use
impacts, such as the construction of solar farms or wind turbines.
It is a role of engineers and concerned stakeholders to develop clean energy technologies and
improving energy efficiency to reduce environmental impacts. Some Energy Conservation
Strategies includes use of Smart grids, energy-efficient technologies, policy interventions from
governmental levels etc.

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2 Introduction to Sustainable Energy

2.1 Definition and Concept

Sustainable energy refers to energy systems that meet current needs without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It focuses on energy efficiency, conservation,
and renewable resource utilization. The principles of Sustainable Energy Includes:
 Environmental protection: Minimizing pollution and resource depletion.
 Economic viability: Ensuring affordability and accessibility.
 Social equity: Providing energy access to all, including marginalized communities.

Examples of Sustainable Energy Sources:

 Renewable Energy: Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass energy are key
examples.
 Energy Efficiency: Reducing energy consumption through better technologies and
practices.
 Nuclear Energy: While not strictly renewable, nuclear energy is considered a low-carbon
source of energy.

Why it's important:

 Climate Change:
Transitioning to sustainable energy is crucial to mitigate climate change and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the sustainable energy model brings undeniable
benefits for people's health in terms of improved air quality, which translates into a lower
incidence of air-related diseases. What's more, the transition to sustainable energy sources
minimizes dependence on large quantities of water, which helps conserve water resources
and prevent water scarcity.

 Resource Depletion: Sustainable energy helps conserve finite resources like fossil fuels.

 Energy Security:
Securing energy supply, and ensuring that this is done in an economically and
environmentally sustainable manner, has become a priority for all countries. This is known
as energy security. The use of sustainable energies makes it possible to diversify energy
sources and take advantage of natural resources and phenomena to produce other types of
energy. Reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels enhances energy security. The concept
of energy security implies that this supply must be capable of supplying all people and
sectors of activity, and that it must be carried out in a sustainable way. Energy efficiency
is also relevant in this regard. Technology and digital transformation are once again
fundamental here to provide tools that facilitate the transformation of the energy model and
efficient consumption.

Challenges in Energy Security:

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 Geopolitical risks (e.g., conflicts over energy resources).

 Resource scarcity and infrastructure vulnerabilities.

Role of Renewable Energy in Energy Security:

 Diversifying energy sources to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

 Enhancing energy independence and resilience.

 Economic Growth: The sustainable energy sector can create jobs and stimulate economic
growth.
 Social Well-being: Access to reliable and affordable energy is essential for improving
living standards and promoting social equity.

2.2 Renewable Energy Sources

 Solar: Photovoltaic (PV) panels, concentrated solar power (CSP).

 Wind: Onshore and offshore wind farms.
 Hydropower: Micro, Small, medium, and large-scale hydropower projects.
 Biomass: Biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol.
 Geothermal: Direct use and electricity generation.

2.3 Energy Storage

Energy storage is the process of capturing energy produced at one time for use at a later time,
addressing imbalances between energy demand and production, and can be achieved through
various methods like batteries, thermal storage, or pumped hydro.
Importance of Energy Storage:
• Closing the gap between supply and demand:
Energy storage systems contribute to the equilibrium between supply and demand, guaranteeing a
steady and dependable energy supply, particularly when working with sporadic renewable energy
sources like wind and solar.
• Increasing grid stability:
Energy storage devices help create a more stable and dependable power grid by storing excess
energy during times of low demand and releasing it during times of peak demand.
• Facilitating the integration of renewable energy:
Energy storage is essential for the grid's integration of large-scale renewable energy sources
because it enables the storage of excess energy produced during peak production times, like
midday for solar, and its release when required.
Common Energy Storage Technologies:
1. Batteries:

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These device can be charged and discharged quickly and store energy in chemical molecules.
Because of their high energy density and extended longevity, lithium-ion batteries are a
popular option for both stationary and portable applications.
Compared to conventional batteries, flow batteries have a larger capacity and maybe a longer
cycle life because they use a liquid electrolyte.

2. Thermal Energy Storage:

This involves heating or cooling a medium (like water or molten salt) and storing the energy
for later use.
Latent heat storage: Uses phase changes (e.g., melting or freezing) to store energy.
Sensible heat storage: Stores energy by changing the temperature of a substance.

3. Pumped Hydro Storage:

When demand is low, pumping water to a higher altitude and letting it run downhill through
turbines to produce power on high demand.

4. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES):

Compresses air, stores it in caverns beneath the surface, and then expands it to power
turbines and produce electricity.

5. Green Hydrogen:

Hydrogen is created by electrolyzing water and can be stored for later use or utilized as fuel.

6. Flywheel: Storing kinetic energy in rotating masses.

2.4 Prospects of Sustainable Energy in Nepal

Hydropower Development: Upper Tamakoshi, Arun III, and many large hydropower projects with
cross-border power trade agreement with India and Bangladesh.
Solar and Wind Projects: Off-grid solar, community wind projects.
Government Initiatives: Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, National Energy Crisis Reduction
Plan.

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3 Emerging Technologies
3.1 Introduction to Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Hydrogen and fuel cell technologies provide a potential path toward clean and sustainable energy,
with fuel cells turning hydrogen into electricity via an electrochemical process, generating only
water and heat as byproducts.
Hydrogen as Fuel:

 Hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that produces only water as a waste when utilized in
fuel cells.
 Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, may be created using water
electrolysis, natural gas, or renewable energy sources.
 Hydrogen is an energy carrier, capable of storing and transporting energy from other
sources.
Types of Hydrogen:
 Grey Hydrogen: Produced from fossil fuels, releasing CO2 as a byproduct.
 Blue Hydrogen: Produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage (CCS) to
reduce emissions.
 Green Hydrogen: Produced from renewable energy via electrolysis, with zero emissions.

Types of Fuel Cells:

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction, where hydrogen and oxygen
combine to produce electricity, water, and heat.

 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC): Used in vehicles, low-temperature

operation.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC): High efficiency, industrial applications.
 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC): Used in space missions.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC): Large-scale power plants.

3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Advantages:

 Zero carbon emissions when using green hydrogen.

 High energy efficiency and reliability.
 Can be stored and transported easily.

Disadvantages:

 Expensive production process.

 Storage and transportation challenges.
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 Requires infrastructure development (hydrogen refueling stations).

3.3 Green Hydrogen:

Green hydrogen is produced from electrolysis of water powered by renewable energy (e.g., solar,
wind, hydropower etc.). Nepal with huge potential of hydroelectricity can create potential
breakthrough in hydrogen technology. Thus the government is working in policy level through
Green Hydrogen Policy 2024 with an objective to reduce dependence on imported petroleum
products, achieve carbon neutrality, and promote economic growth through the development and
utilization of green hydrogen. The major application of Green Hydrogen is:

 Industrial processes (e.g., ammonia production).

 Transportation (e.g., fuel cell vehicles).
 Energy storage (e.g., storing excess renewable energy).

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