Basic Electronics Course

Hand on Practice Manual

For Grade 9-12 STEM students

Prepared by: (1) Dr. Getachew Alemu

(2) Mr. Samuel Gizachew

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

March 2025
Learning Objectives

The main focus of the training is to study the working principle of basic electronics. Throughout
the training, each discussed concepts are supported with a set of experiments in the laboratory.
The major learning objective of the subject is to make students acquire the necessary technical
skills in the field of electronics. After completing this training, students will develop and enhance
their creativity and innovative thinking skills towards problem solving.

The specific aim of this training is:

 To study properties of basic electronic components

 Use the different types of devices used for measuring various electrical parameters and
values
 Learn the basic rules and laws that apply to electronic circuits
 Be able to construct circuits to produce a useful task
 Table of Content

Chapters Contents
Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines for Basic Electronics
Electronics and Electricity symbols
1. Introduction to Electricity and Electronics
1.1. How Electricity Works (Voltage, Current, Resistance)
Experiment 1: Voltage measurement of devices
Experiment 2: Use digital test equipment
1 Experiment 3: Using Ohm’s Law
1.2. Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)
Experiment 4: Taking a DC voltage reading
Experiment 5: Taking an AC voltage reading
Experiment 6: Taking an AC voltage reading using Multimeter
2. Basic Electronic Circuit Components (R, C, L)
2.1. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Resistors (R)
2.1.1. Color coding and standard resistor values
Experiment 7: Working with resistor color codes and measurements
2.1.2. Circuit Connections in Resistors (Series and Parallel)
2
Experiment 8: Resistors in a series circuit
Experiment 9: Resistors in a parallel circuit
2.2. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Capacitors (C)
2.2.1. Circuit Connections in Capacitors (Series and Parallel)
Experiment 10: Capacitors in Series and Parallel
2.3. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Inductors (L)
2.3.1. Circuit Connections in Inductors (Series and Parallel)
Experiment 11: Measuring Current
Experiment 12: Voltage Division Using Fixed Value Resistors
Experiment 13: Voltage Division Using a Variable Resistors
3. Transformers
3
3.1. Step-up & Step-down
 4. Diode and their applications
4.1. Function of a Diode
4 4.2. How Diodes Work
4.3. Biasing of a Diode
4.4. Purpose of a Diode
4.5. Types of Semiconductor Diodes
Experiment 14: Forward Diode Behavior
Experiment 15: Reverse Diode Behavior
Experiment 16: Diode Clippers
5. Transistors and their applications
5.1. Constructional of a Transistor
5
5.2. Transistor Biasing
5.3. Transistors Configurations
5.4. Types of Transistors
Experiment 17: Using a Transistor to Amplify Current

Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines for Basic Electronics

1. No student is permitted in the laboratory without an instructor.

2. Students may not start an experiment until given permission by the instructor.

3. Students may not block the aisle in the laboratory with their bags, jackets, notebooks and
other articles. Laboratory aisles must be kept uncluttered.

4. Bare feet and sandals are not acceptable.

5. No student may invite individuals who are not enrolled in the Electronics laboratory courses
to come in the Electronics laboratory class.

6. No student is permitted to change the configuration of any computer he/she is working on

and will only use the computer as instructed to work on physics or astronomy laboratory
experiments.

7. Absolutely no eating or drinking in the laboratory during anytime.

8. Every student will clean up his/her work area before leaving. This includes any gum
wrapper, paper confetti or eraser crumbs which accumulates during the lab session.

9. No student will write on or deface any lab desks, computers, or any equipment provided to
them during the experiment. They will use all equipment only for the purpose intended.

10. I have read and understood these rules. I understand that any violation of these rules could
lead to dismissal for the lab session and any other appropriate action by the instructor.

Electronics and Electricity symbols

 Components Symbol Usage

Light bulb glows when charge move through it

Cell or Provide energy for charge to move

Dc source

Provide alternative current for charge to move

AC source

Switch allows the circuit to be open or closed

Ground to make circuit current complete

Capacitor Used to store charge

Resistor Resist the flow of charge

Inductor glows when charge move through it

Voltmeter V
Measure the potential difference

Ammeter A
Measure current in the circuit

speaker It gives out sound when it gets current

Connecting lead Connect the circuit element together

 Chapter 1: Introduction to Electricity and Electronics

1.1. How Electricity Works

Electromotive Force or Voltage:

How does the flow get started? Electromotive force is the push that gets the electrons jumping
from one atom to another, sending a current of electrical flow along the way.

Electromotive force can originate from many sources, including the following:
• Chemical reactions, as in a battery
• Electromagnetic generators
• Photovoltaic cells (solar)
• Generators that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy friction
• Thermoelectrical sources, which use differences in temperature to create electricity

Titans of Electronics

The first practical electrical generator was designed by Michael Faraday in 1831. He discovered
that if you rotate a conductive metal wire in a magnetic field, a process called induction, you can
generate a current.

A generator uses mechanical energy to turn the wire, converting mechanical energy into electric
energy that can cause current to flow through a circuit.

Voltage (V)

Named after Italian scientist Alessandro Volta is the measurement of emf. It is the measure of the
force required to move electricity between two points on a circuit, known as the potential
difference (p.d.) between those two points.

Current (I)

Because current (I) is all electrons moving through a circuit, we measure it as it moves through a
single point. An ampere (pronounced AM-peer and abbreviated as amp or simply A) is defined
as a coulomb of current that moves through a point in one second.
Titans of Electronics:

French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb is the name’s sake of the coulomb. The ampere is
named after French scientist André-Marie Ampère.

Resistance (Ω)

Resistance is the oppositional force to emf. It might help to think of resistance as the equivalent
of friction slowing down a moving object. As current is pushed through a circuit by voltage, it
encounters resistance, which reduces the voltage.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R).

As an equation, it is written I = V/R. If you have any two of the variables, you can solve for the
other.

Power (P)

In a direct current circuit, power is voltage multiplied by current. The unit of measurement for
power is the watt (W), named after the Scottish scientist James Watt.

One volt pushing one amp of current equals one watt.

Joule’s Law

Joule’s law is used to calculate the amount of power provided by a circuit. Joule’s First Law
gives us the following equation:

Power = Voltage × Current or P = V x I

 Experiment 1: Voltage measurement of devices
Materials
1. 9V Battery
2. Digital Multimeter
3. DC Power Supply
Procedure
1. Measure volts of a battery using a multimeter.

2. Measure volts of a power supply using a multimeter.

 Experiment 2: Use digital test equipment

Objective: Using Digital Multimeter

Brief Theory: -
1. Using digital Voltmeters
2. Using digital Ammeters
3. Using digital Ohmmeters
4. Using digital Multimeters

Material Required: Digital Multimeter, Test Leads

I. Procedure using Digital voltmeter

1. Identify the measurable quantity (i.e., voltage) weather AC or DC.

2. If the measurable quantity is AC select the knob on AC position and the range depend on the
measured value as shown in the figure below.

Fig. AC digital voltmeter for measuring voltage across the AC supply.

Where: -
1. Selection knob what variables to be measured
2. Range selection
3. Probes (leads)
4. The quantity to be measured (I.e., AC power supply)
5. LCD (display unit)
3. If the measurable quantity is DC select the knob on DC position and the range depend on the
measured value as shown in the figure below.
The leads are connected:
 Red leads connect on the positive terminal to the circuit.
 COM (Black) leads connect to the negative terminal to the circuit. As shown in
the figure below.

Fig. DC digital voltmeter for measuring voltage across the battery

4. If the polarity error not connected properly, it indicates a negative sign (-) on the display
screen, you should change the position of the leads.
5. To measure the voltage across the resistance, we must connect the voltmeter parallel to the
resistance as shown below.

Fig. Voltage measured across the resistance.

6. Record the value what you read from the voltmeter.

CAUTIONS
To avoid unnecessary damage, you must careful the following listed pointes.
  Disconnect circuit power and discharge all high-voltage capacitors (if there is a capacitor
in the circuit) before testing resistance, continuity, diodes, or capacitance.
 Use the proper terminals, function, and range for your measurements.
 Before measuring current, check the meter's fuses and turn power off to the circuit before
connecting the meter to the circuit.
 Before rotating the range switch to change functions, disconnect test leads from the
circuit under test.
 When you measure the voltage always you must connect the voltmeter across the
component to be measured.

II. Procedure using Digital Ammeter

1. Identify the measurable quantity (i.e., current) weather AC or DC.

2. If the measurable quantity is DC select the knob on DC position and the range depend on the
measured value as shown in the figure below.

Fig. Connection to measure current flow through the resistance.

3. If the measurable quantity is DC select the knob on DC position and the range depend on the
measured value as shown in the figure below.
The leads are connected:
 Red leads connect on the positive terminal to the circuit.
 COM (Black) leads connect to the negative terminal to the circuit.
4. If the polarity error not connected properly, it indicates a negative sign (-) on the display
screen, you should change the position of the leads.
5. To measure the current through the resistance, we must connect the ammeter series the
resistances as shown below.
 Experiment 3: Using Ohm’s Law
In this lab you will build a simple circuit with a red LED (light emitting diode) as a load. You
want to provide a voltage of approximately 2V and 20mA (0.01A) of current to power the red
LED, and you need to calculate the value of resistor you need.

Using Ohm’s law: V = R x I

R=V/I
= 2 V/0.01A
= 200 Ω. The standard value is 220 Ω.

Materials
1. Breadboard
2. 9V battery
3. Red LED
4. 200 Ω resistor
5. Jumper wires

Procedure

1. Place the components on the breadboard. Note the placement of the red LED.
2. Attach the jumper wires to the battery. The lead attached to the side of the battery MUST
be attached to the flat side of the LED.
 1.2. Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)
A) Direct Current (DC) is current that travels in one direction only. Batteries of all sorts
provide DC power. In a DC circuit, the current flows from the negative terminal of the
battery through the circuit to the positive terminal of the battery. Polarity is a positive or
negative electrical charge.
B) Alternating Current (AC) has electron flow in both directions, alternating between
forward and backward. It also has changes in polarity. Most households receive AC current
from their power company. AC is easier to transmit at large voltages across greater
distances to neighborhood substations. Transformers are used at these substations to lower
the voltages for levels appropriate for household use.

Experiment 4: Taking a DC voltage reading

Materials
1. AA battery 1.5V
2. Digital Multimeter

Instructions:
1. On your meter, put the black probe lead in the jack labeled “COM.”
2. Put the red probe lead in the jack labeled “V.”
3. Move the settings dial to Vdc.
4. Touch the black lead to the - or negative side of the battery and touch the red lead to the +
or positive side of the battery.
 Experiment 5: Taking an AC voltage reading

Materials
1. Access to a live wall outlet
2. Digital Multimeter
Instructions:
1. On your meter, put the black probe lead in the jack labeled “COM.”
2. Put the red probe lead in the jack labeled “V.”
3. Move the settings dial to Vdc.
Note: Make sure that your lines are not crossed or touching each other in any way!
4. Place a probe in one slot of a wall outlet and then place the other probe in the other slot.
Again, make sure the probes are not touching each other.
5. Check the reading.

Experiment 6: Taking an AC voltage reading using Multimeter

Materials
1. Digital Multimeter
2. Resistor
Instructions:
1. Put the red lead in the V Ω jack.
2. Put the black lead in the COM jack.
3. Move the settings dial to Ω.
4. Use a resistor with a color code of BROWN RED BLUE and touch the probes one to
each side.
 Chapter 2: Basic Electronic Circuit Components (R, C, L)

2.1. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Resistors (R)

Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the property of opposing the flow of
electrons, in a conductor or a semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has
the property of resistance.

 Symbol and Units

The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below.

The units of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω (omega).

The formula for resistance is:

𝑹 = 𝑽𝑰

Where V is Voltage and I is Current. It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with
each and every value. Hence, few values are chosen and the resistors of such values are only
manufactured. These are called as “Preferred Values”. In practice, the resistors with near values
are chosen to match the required applications. This is how a practical resistor looks like:

2.1.1. Color coding and standard resistor values

A process called color coding is used to determine the value of resistance for a resistor, just as
shown in the above figure. A resistor is coated with four color bands where each color
determines a particular value. The below table shows a list of values which each color indicates.
 Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100 = 1
Brown 1 101 = 10 1
Red 2 102 = 100 2
Orange 3 103 = 1000
Yellow 4 104 = 10000
Green 5 105 = 100000 0.5
Blue 6 106 = 1000000 0.25
Violet 7 107 = 10000000 0.1
Gray 8 108 = 100000000
White 9 109 = 1000000000
Gold 10-1 = 0.1 5
Silver 10-2 = 0.01 10
(none) 20

The first two colored bands indicate the first and second digit of the value and the third color
band represents the multiplier (number of zeroes added). The fourth color band indicates the
tolerance value.

Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand without getting destroyed.
This is an important factor. The following figure shows how the value of a resistor is determined
by color code.
The five color band resistors are manufactured with tolerance of 2% and 1% and also for other
high accuracy resistors. In these five band resistors, the first three bands represent digits, fourth
one indicates multiplier and the fifth represents tolerance.

Let us look at an example to understand the color-coding process.

Example 1: Determine the value of a resistor with a color code yellow, blue, orange and silver.

Solution: The value of yellow is 4, blue is 6, orange is 3 which represents multiplier. Silver is
±10 which is the tolerance value.

Hence the value of the resistor is 46x103 = 46kΩ

The maximum resistance value for this resistor is

46kΩ or 46000Ω+10% = 46000+4600 = 50600Ω = 50.6kΩ

The minimum resistance value for this resistor is

46kΩ or 46000Ω-10% = 46000-4600 = 41400Ω = 41.4kΩ

After having gone through different details regarding resistors, we have some terms to learn.
Also, we have to deal with different behaviors of a resistor for few types of connections.
 Experiment 7: Working with resistor color codes and measurements

Objective: - Measuring resistance of resistor using color coding method.

Brief theory: -

The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very
commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others.

Resistance slowdowns the flow of charges in the circuit. We use the symbol R to show the
resistance and it is measured in unit is called ohms with the symbol Ω.

Required materials

1. Resistors R1=100 Ω, R2=10k Ω, and R3=100k Ω.

2. Digital Multimeter.
3. Connecting wires
 Procedure

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

1) band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)

2) band B is the second significant figure

3) band C is the decimal multiplier

4) band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow
in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that
the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.

All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.

Data collections

Resistor Calculate using Color Measured value Difference

method Using
Ohmmeter
R1
R2
R3
R4

Questions

1) What is the cause of difference between calculated and measured value of resistance of
resistors.

2) Just mention different types of Resistors?

 2.1.2. Circuit Connections in Resistors

A Resistor when connected in a circuit, that connection can be either series or parallel. Let us
now know what will happen to the total current, voltage and resistance values if they are
connected in series as well, when connected in parallel.

A. Resistors in Series
Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Series. Let us consider three
resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.

Resistance
The total resistance of a circuit having series resistors is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances. That means, in the above figure there are three resistors having the values 1KΩ, 5KΩ
and 9KΩ respectively.

Total resistance value of the resistor network is

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Which means 1+5+9 = 15KΩ is the total resistance.

Where R1 is the resistance of 1st resistor, R2 is the resistance of 2nd resistor and R3 is the resistance
of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a series resistors network is the addition of voltage drops at
each individual resistance. In the above figure we have three different resistors which have three
different values of voltage drops at each stage. Total voltage that appears across the circuit
 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Which means 1v + 5v + 9v = 15v is the total voltage.

Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2nd resistor and V3 is the
voltage drop of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of resistors connected in series is the same
at all the points throughout the resistor network. Hence the current is same 5A when measured at
the input or at any point between the resistors or even at the output. Current through the network

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
Which means that current at all points is 5A
Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I2 is the current through the 2nd resistor and I3 is
the current through the 3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

B. Resistors in Parallel
Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider three
resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.

Resistance
The total resistance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated differently from the series
resistor network method. Here, the reciprocal (1/R) value of individual resistances are added
with the inverse of algebraic sum to get the total resistance value. Total resistance value of the
resistor network is
Where R1 is the resistance of 1st resistor, R 2 is the resistance of 2nd resistor and R 3 is the
resistance of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

For example, if the resistance values of previous example are considered, which means R 1 =
1KΩ, R2 = 5KΩ and R3 = 9KΩ. The total resistance of parallel resistor network will be

From the method we have for calculating parallel resistance, we can derive a simple equation for
two-resistor parallel network. It is

Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a Parallel resistors network is same as the voltage drops at
each individual resistance.

The Voltage that appears across the circuit

𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2nd resistor and V3 is the
voltage drop of 3rd resistor in the above resistor network. Hence the voltage is same at all the
points of a parallel resistor network.

Current
The total amount of current entering a Parallel resistive network is the sum of all individual
currents flowing in all the Parallel branches. The resistance value of each branch determines the
value of current that flows through it. The total current through the network is

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I 2 is the current through the 2nd resistor and I 3 is
the current through the 3rd resistor in the above resistor network. Hence the sum of individual
currents in different branches obtain the total current in a parallel resistive network.

A Resistor is particularly used as a load in the output of many circuits. If at all the resistive load
is not used, a resistor is placed before a load. Resistor is usually a basic component in any circuit.

Experiment 8: Resistors in a series circuit

Materials
1. Three 10K Ohm resistors
2. Digital multimeter
3. Breadboard
4. Jumper wires
Procedure
1. Place the resistors in a series on the breadboard
2. Place the jumper wire on the breadboard.
3. Put the black lead in the COM jack of your meter.
4. Put the red lead in the jack labeled V Ω.
5. Move the selector dial to the Ω position on the meter.
6. Touch the two probes one to each jumper wire coming off the breadboard. The value
you get will vary depending on the tolerance of your resistors.
 Experiment 9: Resistors in a parallel circuit

Materials

1. Four 10K Ohm resistors

2. Digital multimeter
3. Breadboard
4. Jumper wires

Procedure

1. Place the resistors in parallel on the breadboard.

2. Place the jumper wire on the breadboard.
3. Put the black lead in the COM jack of your meter.
4. Put the red lead in the jack labeled VΩ.
5. Move the selector dial to the Ω position on the meter.
6. Touch the two probes one to each jumper wire coming off the breadboard. The value you
get will vary depending on the tolerance of your resistors.
 2.2. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Capacitors (C)

Capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to store the energy in the form of potential
difference between its plates. It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the
form of potential difference between two plates, which form to be positive and negative
depending upon the direction of charge storage.

A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is called as dielectric. This
dielectric can be vacuum, air, mica, paper, ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor is
given by the dielectric used.

 Symbol and Units

The standard units for capacitance is Farads. Generally, the values of capacitors available will be
in the order of micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads. The symbol of a capacitor is as shown
below.

The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance between the plates and is inversely
proportional to the area of the plates. Also, the higher the permittivity of a material, the higher
will be the capacitance. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric flux is being
generated per unit charge in that medium. The following image shows some practical capacitors.
When two plates having same area A, and equal width are placed parallel to each other with a
separation of distance d, and if some energy is applied to the plates, then the capacitance of that
parallel plate capacitor can be termed as--

Where, C = Capacitance of a capacitor, ϵ0 = permittivity of free space, ϵr = permittivity of

dielectric medium, d = distance between the plates, A = area of the two conducting plates

With some voltage applied, the charge deposits on the two parallel plates of the capacitor. This
charge deposition occurs slowly and when the voltage across the capacitor equals the voltage
applied, the charging stops, as the voltage entering equals the voltage leaving.

The rate of charging depends upon the value of capacitance. The greater the value of capacitance,
the slower the rate of change of voltage in the plates.

 Working of a Capacitor
A Capacitor can be understood as a two-terminal passive component which stores electrical
energy. This electrical energy is stored in electrostatic field.

Initially, the negative and positive charges on two plates of the capacitor are in equilibrium.
There is no tendency for a capacitor to get charged or discharged. The negative charge is formed
by the accumulation of electrons, while the positive charge is formed by the depletion of
electrons. As this happens without any external charge given, this state is electrostatic condition.
The figure below shows the capacitor with static charges.

The accumulation and depletion of electrons according to the varying positive and negative
cycles of the AC supply, can be understood as “current flow”. This is called as Displacement
Current. The direction of this current flow keeps on changing as this is AC.

 Charging of a Capacitor

When an external voltage is given, the electric charge gets converted into electrostatic charge.
This happens while the capacitor is charging. The positive potential of the supply, attracts the
electrons from the positive plate of the capacitor, making it more positive. While the negative
potential of the supply, forces the electrons to the negative plate of the capacitor, making it more
negative. The figure below explains this.
During this process of charging, the electrons move through the DC supply but not through the
dielectric which is an insulator. This displacement is large, when the capacitor starts to charge
but reduces as it charges. The capacitor stops charging when the voltage across capacitor equals
the supply voltage.

Let us see what happens to the dielectric when the capacitor begins to charge.

2.2.1. Circuit Connections in Capacitors

In a circuit, a Capacitor can be connected in series or in parallel fashion. If a set of capacitors

were connected in a circuit, the type of capacitor connection deals with the voltage and current
values in that network.

A. Capacitors in Series

Let us observe what happens, when few Capacitors are connected in Series. Let us consider three
capacitors with different values, as shown in the figure below.
Capacitance

When the capacitance of a network whose capacitors are in series is considered, the reciprocal of
the capacitances of all capacitors, is added to get the reciprocal of the total capacitance. To get
this more clearly,

Following the same formula, if simply two capacitors are connected in series, then

Where C1 is the capacitance across the 1st capacitor, C 2 is the capacitance across the 2nd
capacitor and C3 is the capacitance across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Voltage

The voltage across each capacitor depends upon the value of individual capacitances. Which
means

The total voltage across the series capacitors circuit

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶1 + 𝑉𝐶2 + 𝑉𝐶3

Where VC1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, VC2 is the voltage across the 2nd capacitor and
VC3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of Capacitors connected in series is the
same at all the points. Therefore, the capacitors will store the same amount of charge regardless
of their capacitance value.

Current through the network,

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through the 2nd capacitor and I3
is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

As the current is same, the storage of charge is same because any plate of a capacitor gets its
charge from the adjacent capacitor and hence capacitors in series will have the same charge.

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

B. Capacitors in Parallel

Let us observe what happens, when few capacitors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider
three capacitors with different values, as shown in the figure below.

Capacitance

The total Capacitance of the circuit is the equivalent to the sum of the individual capacitances of
the capacitors in the network.
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
Where C1 is the capacitance across the 1st capacitor, C 2 is the capacitance across the 2nd
capacitor and C3 is the capacitance across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Voltage

The voltage measured at the end of the circuit is same as the voltage across all the capacitors that
are connected in a parallel circuit.
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

Where VC1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, VC2 is the voltage across the 2nd capacitor and
VC3 is the voltage across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Current

The total current flowing is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each capacitor
connected in the parallel network.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st capacitor, I2 is the current through the 2nd capacitor and I3
is the current through the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Experiment 10: Capacitors in Series and Parallel

1 1 1 1
Combined capacitance = + + +…
C C1 C2 C3
(C) of capacitors
connected in series:

Combined capacitance (C) of capacitors C = C1 + C2 + C3 + …

connected in Parallel:

1. Find the capacitance between point B and C of the circuit diagram.

2. Find the capacitance between point A and C.
3. The charge on 10µF capacitor.
4. The potential difference across point A and B.
5. What is total Energy stored in the circuit.
2.3. Basic Electronics Circuit Component – Inductors (L)

According to the Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, When the current flowing through
an inductor change, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
According to lens law, the direction of induced EMF opposes the change in current that created
it. Hence, induced EMF is opposite to the voltage applied across the coil. This is the property of
an inductor.

The following figure shows how an inductor looks like.

An inductor blocks any AC component present in a DC signal. The inductor is sometimes
wrapped upon a core, for example a ferrite core. It then looks as in the figure below.

The following figure shows an inductor with various parts labelled.

 Symbols

The symbols of various types of inductors are as given below.

 Storage of Energy

One of the Basic properties of electromagnetism is that the current when flows through an
inductor, a magnetic field gets created perpendicular to the current flow. This keeps on building
up. It gets stabilized at some point, which means that the inductance won’t build up after that.
When the current stops flowing, the magnetic field gets decreased.

This magnetic energy gets turned into electrical energy. Hence energy gets stored in this
temporarily in the form of magnetic field.

 Working of an Inductor

According to the theory of Electromagnetic Induction, any varying electric current, flowing in a
conductor, produces a magnetic field around that, which is perpendicular to the current. Also,
any varying magnetic field, produces current in the conductor present in that field, whereas the
current is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Now, if we consider an inductor which is made up of a conducting coil and when some current
passes through the inductor, a magnetic field is created perpendicular to it. The following figure
indicates an inductor with magnetic field around it.

Now, here we have a varying magnetic field, which creates some current through the conductor.
But this current is produced such that it opposes the main current, which has produced the
magnetic field.

If this current is named as Im which means the current produced due to the magnetic field and the
magnetic field is indicated by β, the following figure indicates it.

This opposing current gains strength with the varying magnetic field, which gains energy by the
input supply frequency. Hence as the input current becomes more and more AC with high
frequency, the resulting opposing current also gains its strength in opposite direction to the very
cause producing it. Now, this opposing current, tries to stop the high frequency AC to pass
through the inductor, which means “blocking of AC”.

The property of an inductor to get the voltage induced by the change of current flow, is defined
as Inductance. Inductance is the ratio of voltage to the rate of change of current.

The rate of change of current produces changes in the magnetic field, which induces an EMF in
opposite direction to the voltage source. This property of induction of EMF is called as the
Inductance.

The formula for inductance is

Units:

• The unit of Inductance is Henry. It is indicated by L.

• The inductors are mostly available in mH (milli Henry) and µH (micro-Henry).

A coil is said to have an inductance of one Henry when an EMF of one volt is self-induced in
the coil where the current flowing changed at a rate of one ampere per second.

 Self-Inductance

If a coil is considered in which some current flows, it has some magnetic field, perpendicular to
the current flow. When this current keeps on varying, the magnetic field also changes and this
changing magnetic field, induces an EMF, opposite to the source voltage. This opposing EMF
produced is the self-induced voltage and this method is called as self- inductance.
The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current.
The flux represents the magnetic flux created around the coil. With the application of voltage,
the current is flows and flux gets created. When the current is varies, the flux gets varied
producing iind.

This induced EMF across the coil is proportional to the rate of change in current. The higher the
rate of change in current the higher the value of EMF induced.

We can write the above equation as

Where,

• E is the EMF produced

• dI/dt indicates the rate of change of current

• L indicates the co-efficient of inductance.

Self-inductance or Co-efficient of Self-inductance can be termed as

The actual equation is written as

The minus in the above equation indicates that the EMF is induced in opposite direction to the
voltage source according to Lenz’s law.

 Mutual Inductance

As the current carrying coil produces some magnetic field around it, if another coil is brought
near this coil, such that it is in the magnetic flux region of the primary, then the varying magnetic
flux induces an EMF in the second coil. If this first coil is called as Primary coil, the second one
can be called as a Secondary coil.

When the EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the varying magnetic field of the primary
coil, then such phenomenon is called as the Mutual Inductance.

The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current.
The flux represents the magnetic flux created around the coil. This spreads to the secondary coil
also.

With the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When the current is
varies, the flux gets varied producing iind in the secondary coil, due to the Mutual inductance
property.

The change took place like this.

𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑝 → 𝐵 → 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑠

Where,
 • 𝑽𝒑, 𝒊𝒑 Indicate the Voltage and current in Primary coil respectively

• B Indicates Magnetic flux

• 𝑽𝒔, 𝒊𝒔 Indicate the Voltage and current in Secondary coil respectively

Mutual inductance M of the two circuits describes the amount of the voltage in the secondary
induced by the changes in the current of the primary.

Where ∆I/∆t the rate of change of current with time and M is the co-efficient of Mutual
inductance. The minus sign indicates the direction of current being opposite to the source.

Units:

The units of Mutual inductance is

(From the above equation)

= 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary and the secondary coils, the magnetic flux
linkage and the amount of induced EMF varies. The number of turns in primary is denoted by N1
and secondary by N2. The co-efficient of coupling is the term that specifies the mutual
inductance of the two coils.

 Factors affecting Inductance

There are a few factors that affect the performance of an inductor. The major ones are discussed
below.

1. Length of the coil: The length of the inductor coil is inversely proportional to the
inductance of the coil. If the length of the coil is more, the inductance offered by that
inductor gets less and vice versa.
 2. Cross sectional area of the coil: The cross-sectional area of the coil is directly proportional
to the inductance of the coil. The higher the area of the coil, the higher the inductance will
be.
3. Number of turns: With the number of turns, the coil affects the inductance directly. The
value of inductance gets square to the number of turns the coil has. Hence the higher the
number of turns, square of it will be the value of inductance of the coil.
4. Permeability of the core: The permeability (µ) of the core material of inductor indicates
the support the core provides for the formation of a magnetic field within itself. The higher
the permeability of the core material, the higher will be the inductance.

 Applications of Inductors

There are many applications of Inductors, such as:

• Inductors are used in filter circuits to sense high-frequency components and suppress
noise signals
• To isolate the circuit from unwanted HF signals.
• Inductors are used in electrical circuits to form a transformer and isolate the circuits
from spikes.
• Inductors are also used in motors.

2.3.1. Circuit Connections in Inductors

A. Inductors in Series
Let us observe what happens, when few inductors are connected in Series. Let us consider three
resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.

Inductance
The total inductance of a circuit having series inductors is equal to the sum of the individual
inductances. Total inductance value of the network given above is

𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st resistor, L 2 is the inductance of 2nd resistor and L 3 is the
inductance of 3rd resistor in the above network.

Voltage

The total voltage that appears across a series inductors network is the addition of voltage drops at
each individual inductance.

Total voltage that appears across the circuit

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V 2 is the voltage drop across 2nd inductor and
V3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the above network.

Current

The total amount of Current that flows through a set of inductors connected in series is the same
at all the points throughout the network.

The Current through the network

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through the 2nd inductor and I3
is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above network.

B. Inductors in Parallel

Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider three
resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.
Inductance

The total inductance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated differently from the series
inductor network method. Here, the reciprocal (1/R) value of individual inductances are added
with the inverse of algebraic sum to get the total inductance value.

Total inductance value of the network is

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st inductor, L2 is the inductance of 2nd inductor and L 3 is the
inductance of 3rd inductor in the above network.

From the method we have for calculating parallel inductance, we can derive a simple equation
for two-inductor parallel network. It is

Voltage

The total voltage that appears across a Parallel inductors network is same as the voltage drops at
each individual inductance.

The Voltage that appears across the circuit

𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
Where 𝑉1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, 𝑉2 is the voltage drop across 2nd inductor and
𝑉3 is the voltage drop across 3rd inductor in the above network. Hence the voltage is same at all
the points of a parallel inductor network.

Current

The total amount of current entering a Parallel inductive network is the sum of all individual
currents flowing in all the Parallel branches. The inductance value of each branch determines the
value of current that flows through it.

The total Current through the network is

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

Where 𝐼1 is the current through the 1st inductor, 𝐼2 is the current through the 2nd inductor and 𝐼3
is the current through the 3rd inductor in the above network.

Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtain the total current in a parallel
network.
 Experiment 11: Measuring Current

Materials

1. 9V battery
2. Lamp (Bulb)
3. Two short pieces of wire
4. Digital Multimeter
5. Masking tape

Procedure

1. Tape one end of a piece of wire to the side of the lamp and the other end to the + terminal
of the battery.
2. Tape one end of the other piece of wire to the bottom of the lamp, then tape the other end
to the red probe.
3. Put the red lead in the 10A jack.
4. Put the black lead in the COM jack.
5. Move the settings dial to 10A.
6. Press the MODE button so the display shows DC.
7. Touch the black probe to the - side of the battery.
 Experiment 12: Voltage Division Using Fixed Value Resistors

Materials
1. Digital multimeter
2. Breadboard
3. 9V battery
4. Jumper wires
5. 470 Ohm resistor
6. 100 Ohm resistor

Procedure

1. Use the formula Vout = Vin (R2/R1 + R2) to calculate the resistors required to produce
an output voltage
2. Connect the resistors in series
3. Using jumper wires, connect the Digital Multimeter probes to the bottom and top leads of
the bottom resistor, labeled R2
4. Set the Digital Multimeter to measure DC voltage
5. Connect the 9V battery’s + and - terminals using jumper wire to the breadboard.
6. Using jumper wire connect the two sides of the breadboard to the series resistors.
7. Your Digital Multimeter should show a value for this outputted voltage Vout.
 Experiment 13: Voltage Division Using a Variable Resistors

Materials

1. Digital multimeter
2. Breadboard
3. 9V battery
4. Jumper wires
5. 470 Ohm resistor
6. 100 Ohm resistor

Procedure
1. Place the components on the breadboard.
Note: the resistor does not have polarity so it can be connected to the breadboard in either
direction. The LED needs to be connected to the resistor on its positive lead.
(Note: The flat side of the LED is the side.)
2. Connect the capacitor at its positive lead. (Note: the cap has + and - marked, and the
longer lead is +.)
3. Connect the jumper wires to the battery. The LED lights up for about one second, then
slowly dims. This is the capacitor charging. To repeat the lab, first disconnect the battery,
then discharge the capacitor by touching a jumper wire between the two leads of the
capacitor. Then start again.
 Chapter 3: Transformer

A transformer has a primary coil to which input is given and a secondary coil from which the
output is collected. Both of these coils are wound on a core material. Usually, an insulator forms
the Core of the transformer.

The following figure shows a practical transformer.

From the above figure, it is evident that few notations are common. Let us try to have a note of
them. They are:
• Np = Number of turns in the primary winding
• Ns = Number of turns in the secondary winding
• Ip = Current flowing in the primary of the transformer
• Is = Current flowing in the secondary of the transformer
• Vp = Voltage across the primary of the transformer
• Vs = Voltage across the secondary of the transformer
• Φ = Magnetic flux present around the core of the transformer.
 Transformer in a Circuit

The following figure shows how a transformer is represented in a circuit. The primary winding,
the secondary winding and the core of the transformer are also represented in the following
figure.

Hence, when a transformer is connected in a circuit, the input supply is given to the primary coil
so that it produces varying magnetic flux with this power supply and that flux is induced into the
secondary coil of the transformer, which produces the varying EMF of the varying flux. As the
flux should be varying, for the transfer of EMF from primary to secondary, a transformer always
works on alternating current AC.

3.1. Step-up & Step-down

Depending upon the number of turns in the secondary winding, the transformer can be called as a
Step-up or a Step-down transformer.

The main point to be noted here is that, there will not be any difference in the primary and
secondary power of the transformer. Accordingly, if the voltage is high at secondary, then low
current is drawn to make the power stable. As well, if the voltage in the secondary is low, then
high current is drawn so as the power must be same as the primary side.
 A) Step Up transformer

When the secondary winding has a greater number of turns than the primary winding, then the
transformer is said to be a Step-up transformer. Here the induced EMF is greater than the input
signal.

B) Step Down transformer

When the secondary winding has lesser number of turns than the primary winding, then the
transformer is said to be a Step-down transformer. Here the induced EMF is lesser than the input
signal.

 Turns Ratio
As the number of turns of primary and secondary windings affect the voltage ratings, it is
important to maintain a ratio between the turns so as to have an idea regarding the voltages
induced.

The ratio of number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil is
called as the “turns ratio” or “the ratio of transformation”. The turns ratio is usually denoted
by N.

The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio
of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. Hence this can be written as

The turns ratio also states whether the transformer is a step-up or a step-down transformer. For
example, a turns ratio of 1:3 states that the transformer is a step-up and the ratio 3:1 states that it
is a step-down transformer.
 Chapter 4: Diode and their applications

Diodes
Diodes are components that permit electricity to flow in a single direction and act against its flow
in the opposite direction. They have two terminals: a positive terminal, also called an anode, and
a negative terminal, or cathode.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode,
which is the negative terminal is represented with K. To know the anode and cathode of a
practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while the other end
represents anode.

4.1. Function of a Diode

Some functions of diodes are:

 Diodes are the technology that made early radio transmission and reception possible.
  They are essential in converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
 They prevent damage to electronics from high voltages.
 The use of diodes to create logic gates makes possible the computations that are the
backbone of computers.
 Your digital camera’s flash depends on diodes.
4.2. How Diodes Work
Most diodes are constructed by stacking a P - type semiconductor, which is positively charged; a
boundary (or depletion) region called a P-N junction, that is neutrally charged; and an N-type
semiconductor, that is negatively charged. This creates a valve like components that conducts
current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side (called the
cathode), but not in the opposite direction.

A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as the
majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side, whereas
few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and
negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown in the figure.
The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation of a
narrow-charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from movable
charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of space
between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier
junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the
regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the junction
called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons through the
junction.

4.3. Biasing of a Diode

When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased
condition. Let us know them in detail.

i. Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode to
the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased
condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased and helps in
more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.

ii. Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode to
the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse biased
condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased and helps in
minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse biased condition.

4.4 Purpose of a Diode

A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction and to
block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.

For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the
rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus, the output will be DC removing the AC components.
The circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes, which can be
studied in Electronic Circuits tutorials.

A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should occur in
a quick rate.

4.5. Types of Semiconductor Diodes

The following sections describe some common semiconductor diodes you might encounter in
various electronic devices.

a) Rectifier Diode

These diodes are the normal PN junction diodes, which allow current to flow through them in
only one direction and stop in the other direction. These diodes are used in rectifier circuits to
convert alternating current into direct current.
In the above figure, we can see the same rectifier diodes with a metal projection. This is added to
the diode to minimize the heat distribution which might affect the diode sometimes. Such a metal
projection is called as Heat sink. These help in the improvement of the diode performance and
the diodes will be able to withstand high powers, without getting affected.

There are circuits such as Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier circuits which use these
diodes. These rectifier circuits are used in Power supply sections of many circuits where
alternating input current has to be converted into direct current for that circuit applications.

b) Zener Diodes

This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow not only in forward direction, but also
in reverse direction. A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets damaged if the reverse
current above a certain value is passed through it. This “certain value” is called as the
Breakdown voltage.

The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse current
to pass through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That breakdown voltage is called
as Zener Voltage. Hence there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode
when a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.
A Zener diode depends on a precise PIV to act as a type of voltage-dependent switch. These are
sometimes called constant voltage diodes. When the PIV is reached, current can travel in the
reverse direction. It is a type of avalanche diode, which is any kind of diode that depends on a
surge in voltage for reverse current flow.

Zener diodes are used in surge protectors to protect against spikes. They are usually used with a
resistor to limit the current so the maximum current parameters are not exceeded.

Titans of Electronics

Clarence Zener (1905–1993), the American physicist for whom the Zener diode was named, was
an innovator in many areas of applied physics beyond his work with electronics.

Applications of Zener diode

This diode has many applications such as --

• It is mostly used as a Voltage Regulator.
• Provides fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
• For peak clipping or limiting in wave shaping circuits.
• As a Surge protector in many circuits.
• For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.

c) Switching Diode

This is a normal single PN junction diode which is especially designed for switching purposes.
This diode can exhibit two states of high and low resistance clearly which can be used
alternatively.
Applications of switching diode

These have many applications such as –

• Used in high-speed rectifying circuits
• Used in ring modulators
• Used in radio frequency receivers
• Used as reverse polarity protectors
• Used for both General purpose and high-speed switching applications

d) Photo Diode

Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on light. The intensity of light
affects the level of conduction in this diode. The photo diode has a P type material and an N-type
material with an intrinsic material or a depletion region in between.

This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition. The light when focused on the
depletion region, electron-hole pairs are formed and flow of electron occurs. This conduction of
electrons depends upon the intensity of light focused. The figure below shows a practical Photo
diode.

The figure below indicates the symbol for a photodiode.

When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation current flows due to
thermally generated electron hole pairs. As the current in reverse bias flows due to minority
carriers, the output voltage depends upon this reverse current. As the light intensity focused on
the junction increases, the current flow due to minority carriers increase. The following figure
shows the basic biasing arrangement of a photo diode.

Applications of Photo diode

There are many applications for photo diode such as

• Character detection
• Objects can be detected (visible or invisible).
• Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.
• Used in Demodulation
• Used in switching circuits
• Used in Encoders
• Used in optical communication equipment

e) Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

This is also a normal PN junction diode except that instead of silicon and germanium, the
materials like gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide phosphide are used in its construction. The
figure below shows the symbol of a Light emitting diode.

Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the diode
conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the conduction band
combine with the holes in the valence band. This process of recombination emits light. This
process is called as Electroluminescence. The color of the light emitted depends upon the gap
between the energy bands.

The following figure shows a how the practical LEDs of different colors looks like.
LED in the above figure has a flat side and curved side, the lead at the flat side is made shorter
than the other one, so as to indicate that the shorter one is Cathode or negative terminal and the
other one is Anode or the Positive terminal.

 Applications of LED

There are many applications for LED such as—

In Displays • Power indicators

• Especially used for seven segment
Commercial Use
displays
• Infrared readable machines
• Digital clocks
• Barcode readers
• Microwave ovens
• Solid state video displays
• Traffic signaling
• Display boards in railways and Optical Communications

public places • In Optical switching applications

• Toys • For Optical coupling where manual

help is unavailable
In Electronic Appliances
• Information transfer through FOC
• Stereo tuners
• Image sensing circuits
• Calculators
• Burglar alarms
• DC power supplies
• In Railway signaling techniques
• On/Off indicators in amplifiers
 • Door and other security control
systems

Experiment 14: Forward Diode Behavior

Materials

1. DC regulated power supply

2. Digital Multimeter
3. Breadboard
4. BY127 Diode
5. 1 K Ohm resistor
6. Jumper Wire

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown below (PN Junction diode with milliammeter in series with
the diode).
2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage in steps of 0.1 V. Once the current
starts increasing vary Vs in steps of 0.02V and note down the corresponding readings V f
and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
 4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels.
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values (cut-in voltage and resistances).

Circuit Diagram:

Experiment 15: Reverse Diode Behavior

Materials
1. DC regulated power supply
2. Digital Multimeter
3. Breadboard
4. BY127 Diode
5. 1 K Ohm resistor
6. Jumper Wire
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above.
2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V and
note down the corresponding readings Vr and Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels.
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values.
 Experiment 16: Diode Clippers
Materials
1. Diode (BY127)
2. Resistors
3. Breadboard
4. DC regulated power supply
5. Oscilloscope
6. Function Generator
Note: Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input
signal is “clipped “off.

Series Clippers:
Shunt Clippers:

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown above.
2. Apply input 1KHz sinewave of peak-to-peak value of 12V.
3. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
4. Observe the transfer characteristics by pressing the X-Y key of CRO.
5. Plot the wave forms and the transfer characteristics.
6. Repeat the same procedure for the remaining 3 circuits shown above.
7. For circuit with DC supply, choose appropriate value.
Chapter 5: Transistors and their application

After discussing diode, which is a single PN junction, let us try to connect two PN junctions
which make a new component called Transistor. A Transistor is a three terminal
semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for
signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal will
obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this signal is
read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence, we need to amplify the signal. Amplification
means increasing the signal strength.

This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased.
This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available
options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

5.1. Constructional of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid-state device which is formed by connecting two diodes
back-to-back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three
semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors.
They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two P-types and the other is a
P-type material between two N-types respectively.

The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals.
They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter
• The left-hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
• This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e., either electrons or holes
• As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
• This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base
• The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
• This is thin and lightly doped.
• Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
• This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector
• The right-side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
• Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 • This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
• This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a
transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of
emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept in
mind while using a transistor.

In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification. The PNP
and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure shows how
different practical transistors look like.

5.2. Transistor Biasing

As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As one
junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and likewise,
the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The
figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

• The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive
supply to make the circuit Forward bias.

• The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative
supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.

By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has
to be applied at the collector junction.

The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation PNP Transistor

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type
material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very
low percent of holes recombines with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current
which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to
constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.

As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the
space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows through
the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by
moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.

Hence, we can understand that

• The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
• The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased,
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-
type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There
a very low percent of electrons recombines with free holes of P-region. This provides very low
current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.

As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This
flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.

Hence, we can understand that

• The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
• The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages

There are many advantages of a transistor such as

• High voltage gain.
• Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
• Most suitable for low power applications.
• Smaller and lighter in weight.
• Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
• No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 • Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

5.3. Transistors Configurations

A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3 terminals the
transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both input and output in 3
different possible configurations.

The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.

A) Common Base (CB) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to contribute
collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.

In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.

B) Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the
base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.

C) Common Collector (CC) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.

5.4. Types of Transistors

There are two main types of transistors:

 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and
 Field Effect Transistors (FETs).
A) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor is made by placing a p-type
material between two n-type materials. The PNP transistor is made by placing an n-type material
between two p-type materials.
BJTs are basically two diodes put end to end. But if a transistor is two diodes put end to end, you
would think that each diode would block current in the opposite direction, allowing neither to
pass. That is not the case.

So why doesn’t a transistor act as an insulator in both directions? As with diodes, resistors have
leads connecting to the collector (C) (which is analogous to the anode on a diode) and the emitter
(E) (which is analogous to the cathode in a diode). Unlike diodes, transistors have a third lead,
called the base lead, which connects to the base (B). This base lead provides a voltage, which
changes everything.

The difference between PNP and NPN BJTs is the bias, which is the direction of current that is
allowed to pass.

• In a PNP BJT, there are two positively charged regions—the collector and the emitter—each
with excess holes. The depletion region in between the two is negatively charged in that it
has excess electrons.
• In an NPN BJT, there are two negatively charged regions—the collector and the emitter—
each with excess electrons. The depletion region is positively charged in that it has excess
holes.

B) Field Effect Transistors (FETs).

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is a voltage-controlled device

unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input
impedance, which is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power
consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices. The following image
shows how a practical FET looks like.
The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-type or n-type material
as main substrate. Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either electrons or holes.

FET Terminals

Though FET is a three-terminal device, they are not the same as BJT terminals. The three
terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain. The Source terminal in FET is analogous to the
Emitter in BJT, while Gate is analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.

The symbols of a FET for both NPN and PNP types are as shown below

Features of FET

The following are the varied features of a Field Effect Transistor.

• Unipolar ─ It is unipolar as either holes or electrons are responsible for conduction.

• High input impedance ─ The input current in a FET flows due to the reverse bias.
Hence it has high input impedance.
• Voltage controlled device ─ As the output voltage of a FET is controlled by the gate
input voltage, FET is called as the voltage-controlled device.
• Noise is low ─ There are no junctions present in the conduction path. Hence noise is
lower than in BJTs.
 • Gain is characterized as transconductance. Transconductance is the ratio of change in
output current to the change in input voltage.

MOSFET: FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input impedance
and slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the MOSFET which is an advanced
FET is invented.
MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor. This is also called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistor. The FET is operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of operation. The
following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like.

Experiment 17: Using a Transistor to Amplify Current

Materials
1. 9V battery
2. Breadboard
3. 2N2222 NPN transistor
4. red LED
 5. 1Ω resistor (green blue, brown)
6. Jumper wire

Procedure
1. Connect the components as shown below.
2. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current provided by the circuit without the use of a
transistor. The resistance of the human body when dry is around 100,000Ω. The LED has a
voltage drop of 2V.
So, I = (9-2)/100,000 + 390 (I = V / R). I = .00007A (.7mA).
3. The LED requires 20mA of current to light, so without an amplification of current we would
not be able to light the LED.
4. Touch the two leads, each in one hand.
5. Even with the addition of your body’s resistance to the circuit, the lamp will light due to the
transistor amplifying the current to the required 20mA.