Particle Data Analysis in High Energy Physics

Lecture 3
Relativistic
Kinematics

Ahmet Bingül
METU, Physics
Feb 2026

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Introduction
This chapter gives a brief overview of the basic concepts of special relativity,
with the emphasis on the definition and application of four-vectors in data
analysis. We will discuss the following

Unit Systems
Lorentz Transformation
Invariant Mass
Pseudorapidity
Four-Vector Notation
Feynman Diagrams
Problems

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SI Units
In SI unit system, the base quantities are mass, length and time.
Units for these are chosen to be on a human scale.
Quantity Dimensions Units
Mass [M] 1 kg
Length [L] 1m
Time [T] 1s

Other quantities are derived, e.g.

Quantity Dimensions Units SI units are not convenient for particle physics!
Velocity [ L/T ] 1 m /s
Mass of proton: mp = 1.67 x 10−27 kg
[Link]. [ M L2/T ] 1 kg m2 / s Radius of proton: rp = 0.8 x 10−15 m
Energy [ M L2/T2 ] 1J

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Natural Units
Particle physics relies on Special Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.
In SR, speed of light: 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s
In QM, Planck constant: ℏ = ℎ/2𝜋 = 1.055 × 10−34 J. s
In natural units and we set ℏ=𝑐=1
This simplifies algebraic expressions
* Energy-momemtum-mass relation: 𝐸 2 = 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 → 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 + 𝑚2
* Energy of photon: 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 → 𝐸 = 𝜔
* Momentum: 𝐩 = ℏ𝐤 → 𝐩=𝐤
* Charge radius of proton: 𝑟𝑝 = 0.8 × 10−15 m = 4.1 GeV −1
* Rest mass of proton: 𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg = 0.938 GeV

Note that:
ℏ𝑐 = 0.197 GeV. fm , 1 GeV = 1.602 × 10−10 J and 1 fm = 1.0 × 10−15 m
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Lorentz Transformation
Special relativity is based on the space-time transformation properties of
Physical observables as measured in two or more inertial frames moving relative
to each other.

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Galilean Transformations of Coordinates
An event is a four-dimensional coordinate in space-time.
Consider two inertial (non-accelerating) frames whose origins
are O and O’ respectively. O is at rest and O’ is moving at a
constant speed v in the direction of +x-axis.
An event may be represented by four-element vectors:
(x, y, z, t) in O
(x’, y’, z’, t’) in O’.

The connection between these two coordinates are given by Galilean Transformations when v<<c
as follows:

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Lorentz Transformations of Coordinates
LT can be extracted from Einstein’s “Theory of Special Relativity” which is based on two axioms:
Postulate 1: The laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers.
Postualte 2: Speed of light as measured by all observers is c = 3x108 m/s independent of
motion of the source.

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Transformations of Energy and Momentum (in Natural Units)
Particle momentum and energy at O: 𝐩 = 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧 , E 𝛃2 = 𝛽𝑥2 + 𝛽𝑦2 + 𝛽𝑧2
Particle momentum and energy at O’: 𝐩′ = 𝑝𝑥′ , 𝑝𝑦′ , 𝑝𝑧′ , E’ 𝛾 = 1 − 𝛃2 −1/2

Speed of coordinate O’: 𝛃 = ( 𝛽𝑥 , 𝛽𝑦 , 𝛽𝑧 )

1D Lorentz Transformation 1D Inverse Lorentz Transformations

𝑝𝑥 ′ = 𝛾(𝑝𝑥 − 𝛽𝒙 𝐸) 𝑝𝑥 = 𝛾(𝑝𝑥 ′ + 𝛽𝒙 𝐸′)
𝑝𝑦 ′ = 𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 ′
𝑝𝑧 ′ = 𝑝𝑧 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 ′
𝐸 ′ = 𝛾(𝐸 − 𝛽𝑥 𝑝𝑥 ) 𝐸 = 𝛾(𝐸 ′ + 𝛽𝒙 𝑝𝑥 ′)
3D Lorentz Transformations 3D Inverse Lorentz Transformations
𝛾 𝛾
′
𝐩 = 𝐩 + 𝛾𝛃( 𝛃∙𝐩−𝐸) 𝒑 = 𝐩′ + 𝛾𝛃( 𝛃 ∙ 𝐩′ + 𝐸′ )
𝛾+1 𝛾+1
𝐸′ = 𝛾(𝐸 − 𝛃 ∙ 𝐩) 𝐸 = 𝛾(𝐸 ′ + 𝛃 ∙ 𝐩′)

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Some Useful Equations
Now consider a particle with mass m and speed u. Then,

SI Units Natural Units _

▪ Energy when u = 0 (rest energy): 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸=𝑚
𝑚𝑢 𝑚𝑢
▪ Relativistic Momentum: 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚𝑢 = = 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚𝛽
1−𝑢2 /𝑐 2 1−𝛽2

▪ Total energy: 𝐸 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸 = 𝛾𝑚

▪ Relativistic kinetic energy: 𝑇 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝐸 − 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑇 = 𝛾−1 𝑚 =𝐸−𝑚

▪ Energy-momentum relation: 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 + 𝑚2

▪ Particle speed: 𝑢 = 𝛽𝑐 = 𝑝𝑐 2 / 𝐸 𝑢 = 𝛽 = 𝑝/𝐸

▪ For massless particles (m = 0, like photon): 𝑇 = 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 and u = c 𝑇 = 𝐸 = 𝑝 and 𝑢 = 𝛽 = 1

Define proper time 𝑡0 in coordinate O. Time t ellapsed in O’ → 𝑡 = 𝛾𝑡0 (time dilation)

Define proper length 𝐿0 in coordinate O. Length L in O’ → 𝐿 = 𝐿0 /𝛾 (length contraction)

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Invariant Mass
Invariant mass (M) has the same value in any inertial frame.

Invariant mass for single particle:

𝑠 = 𝑀2 = 𝐸 2 − 𝑝2 = 𝐸′2 − 𝑝′2

Invariant mass for n particles:

2 2

𝑀2 = ෍ 𝐸𝑖 − ෍ 𝐩𝑖
𝑖 𝑖
or
𝑀2 = (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛 )2 − (𝐩1 + 𝐩2 + ⋯ + 𝐩𝑛 )2

We can define a coordinate system where total momentum of particles is zero.

This coordinate system is known as center of mass. In this case

𝑀2 = (𝐸1′ + 𝐸2′ + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛′ )2 − (𝐩1′ + 𝐩′2 + ⋯ + 𝐩′𝑛 )2 = (𝐸1′ + 𝐸2′ + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛′ )2

So 𝑴 = 𝑬𝒄𝒎 = 𝒔 zero
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Pseudorapidity
In a collider, the "beam pipe" is the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Most of the interesting physics
happens at very small angles relative to this pipe.

Pseudorapidity, 𝜂, is a commonly used spatial coordinate

representing the angle of a particle relative to the beam
axis. It is defined as:
𝜂 = −ln[tan(𝜃/2)]

where θ is the angle between the particle

three-momentum p and the positive
direction of the beam axis.

One can also use rapidty:

1 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑧
𝑦 = ln
2 𝐸 − 𝑝𝑧

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Hadron colliders measure physical momenta in terms of transverse momentum pT, polar angle in
the transverse plane ϕ and pseudorapidity η. (See next page)

To obtain Cartesian momenta (px , py , pz) the following conversions are used:

𝑝𝑇 = 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 = 𝐩 sin𝜃

𝐩 = 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2 = 𝑝𝑇 cosh𝜂

At LHC, the number of particles produced per unit of pseudorapidity (dN/dη) is roughly constant.

By designing detectors with uniform segments in η (rather than θ), physicists ensure that each
sensor "sees" roughly the same amount of activity. So, a useful measure is the angular distance
between two patricles:
Δ𝑅 = Δ𝜂 2 + Δ𝜙 2 = 𝜂2 − 𝜂1 2 + 𝜙2 − 𝜙1 2

that defines a cone with the tip at the origin of the coordinate system
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B magentic field intensity (in Tesla)
R radius of curvature (in meter)
Transverse momentum in GeV of a charged track is: 𝑝𝑇 = 0.3𝐵𝑅

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Four-Vector Notation
Special relativity mixes up the spatial and time components specifying the coordinates of a
particle. Thus, we can define a 4-vector 𝑥 𝜇 = (𝑐𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) or in natural units:

𝑥 𝜇 = (𝑥 0 , 𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 ) = (𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

More formally, we define contavariant 4-vector: 𝑥 𝜇 = (𝑡, 𝐱) = (𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

and covariant 4-vector: 𝑥𝜇 = (𝑡, −𝐱) = (𝑡, −𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧)
and metric tensor 𝑔𝜇𝜈
𝑥𝜇 = 𝑔𝜇𝜈 𝑥 𝜈 and 𝑥 𝜇 = 𝑔𝜇𝜈 𝑥𝜈

where 𝜇 = 0,1,2,3 and 𝜈 = 0,1,2,3

Length of a 4-vector: 𝑥 𝜇 𝑥𝜇 = 𝑡 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2
This is an invariant (scalar) quantity in special relativity.
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Four-Vector Notation
Dot product of two vectors:

𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑔𝜇𝜈 𝑥 𝜇 𝑦 𝜈 = 𝑥𝜈 𝑦 𝜈 = 𝑥0 𝑦 0 + 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥3 𝑦 3 = 𝑥0 𝑦 0 − 𝐱 ∙ 𝐲

Four momentum:
𝑝𝜇 = (𝐸, 𝐩) = (𝐸, 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧 )
𝑝𝜇 = (𝐸, −𝐩) = (𝐸, −𝑝𝑥 , −𝑝𝑦 , −𝑝𝑧 )

and its length (dot product):

𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 = 𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐩 ∙ 𝐩 = 𝐸 2 − 𝑝2 = 𝑚2
= rest mass 2
= scalar

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Four-Vectors in ROOT
TLorentzVector is a general four-vector class, which can be used either for the description of
position and time (x, y, z, t) or momentum and energy (px, py, pz, E).

TLorentzVector a; // initialized by (0., 0., 0., 0.)

TLorentzVector b(1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0);
TLorentzVector c(a);
TLorentzVector d(TVector3(1.0, 2.0, 3.0),4.0);

One can use special methods:

// python // C++
from ROOT import TLorentzVector
particle = TLorentzVector() TLorentzVector particle;
[Link](1,2,3,0) [Link](1,2,3,0);
[Link](1,2,3,5) [Link](1,2,3,5);
[Link](0.75, -1.1, 0.4, 140) [Link](0.75,-1.1,0.4,140);
print(" mass = ",particle.M()); cout << " mass = " << particle.M() << endl;

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Example 3.1
Consider a neutral particle X0 decays as 𝑋 0 → 𝑝 + 𝜋 − .
The measured momentum components of the decay products in GeV are given in the table.

Write a python script or ROOT macro to determine

(a) Identity the particle X
(b) (𝑝𝑇 , 𝜂, 𝜙) values of the mother (parent) particle
(c) opening angle between decay products
(d) kinetic energy of each doughter
(e) opening angle between decay products in CM frame of the mother particle X
(f) kinetic energy of each doughter in CM frame of the mother particle X

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Two-Body Decays
Consider the decay 𝑀 → 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 .

Usually, we analyse the process in two different frames as follows:

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In any frame, 4-vector:
𝜇 𝜇
𝑝𝜇 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2
its length
𝜇 𝜇
𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 = (𝑝1 +𝑝2 ) 𝑝1𝜇 + 𝑝2𝜇
or
𝑀2 = 𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 2(𝐸! 𝐸2 − 𝐩𝟏 ∙ 𝐩𝟐 )

In CM frame, 𝑝 = |𝐩𝟏 | = 𝐩𝟐 and 𝐩𝟏 + 𝐩𝟐 = 0 , Hence angle between vectors is 180o.

Solving for 𝑝 from last eqn and putting into enegy momentum relation, we obtain energies and
magnitude of momenta of particles in CM as follows:

𝑀2 + 𝑚12 − 𝑚22 𝑝1 = 𝐸12 + 𝑚12

𝐸1 =
2𝑀

𝑀2 − 𝑚12 + 𝑚22
𝐸2 = 𝑝2 = 𝐸22 + 𝑚22
2𝑀

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Example 3.2
For the decay 𝜋 0 → 𝛾 + 𝛾, assume that pion moves at momentum 𝑝0 along z-axis.
For the given input 𝑝0 value in MeV, write a program to compute
(a) the photon energies in the CM frame and
(b) the maximum and minimum photon energies in lab frame.

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Three-Body Decays
Now consider the case of one particle decaying into three particles, 𝑀 → 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 .
The energies of the final particles are not predictable even in the rest frame of the decaying
particle. energy is shared in different ways among the particles. We can find the maximum and the
minimum possible energy that any of the three decay products might possess.
e.g. Assume the decay occurs at rest. Consider the Particle 3.

Its minimum energy must be is mass energy

(particle 3 produced at rest) namely
(𝐸3 )min = 𝑚3
and its maximum energy must be:
𝑀2 +𝑚32 − 𝑚1 +𝑚2 2
(𝐸3 )max =
2𝑀

which corresponds the case that particle 1 and 2 parallel to each other and particle 3
has its maximum momentum.

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Dalitz Plot represents kinematically allowed region in a three-body decay.
m12 is invariant mass of particle 1 and 2.

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Kinematics of Scattering
Elastic scattering the final state contains the same particles as in the initial state.
Inelastic scattering the particle contents of the initial state and the final state are not the same.

Consider the process:

𝑚1 + 𝑚2 → 𝑚′1 + 𝑚′2

We can calculate invariant mass of the system

(in any frame):

𝑀2 = (𝐸1 +𝐸2 )2 − (𝐩1 +𝐩2 )2

Energies of products in CM frame can be computed via the following equation:

𝑀2 + 𝑚′12 − 𝑚′22 𝑀2 − 𝑚′12 + 𝑚′22

𝐸′1 = 𝐸2 =
2𝑀 2𝑀

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Fixed Target vs Colliding Beam Experiments
In nuclear and particle physics, most of our knowledge have been obtained either from
the bombardment of the stable target nuclei with energetic incident beam of particles or
from the head on collision of particles. There are two cases:

• Fixed target experiments where center of mass energy is 𝐸𝑐𝑚 ∝ 𝐸

• Colliding beam experiments where center of mass energy 𝐸𝑐𝑚 ∝ 𝐸

Here the center of mass energy 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑐𝑚 is the energy can be used for generation of
new particles.

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Example 3.3
(a) Show that the center of mass energy in a Fixed Target Experiment is 𝐸𝑐𝑚 ∝ 𝐸 where the target particle is at rest
and the projectile particle has energy E. (Hint compute invariant mass in lab and cm frames).

(b) Show that the center of mass energy in a Colliding Beam experiment is 𝐸𝑐𝑚 ∝ 𝐸 where both particles (each has
energy E) are they make head on collision.

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Threshold Energy
This is the energy required to start a reaction. Consider the reaction 𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝ҧ where
one of the proton is at rest. Assume that the mass of each proton is 𝑚𝑝 and the reaction is a
typical fixed target experiment.

Invariant mass for initial protons in lab frame:

2
𝑀2 = 𝐸 + 𝑚𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝2

At the absolute minimum energy, all four resulting protons are at rest relative to each other.
Invariant mass for final protons for which all of them are at rest:
2
𝑀2 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 2 = 4𝑚𝑝

where E is the threshold energy. Solving for E, we get

𝐸 = 7𝑚𝑝 ≈ 6.566 GeV

That is the threshold kinetic energy the incident proton must be at least around 5.628 GeV.

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Feynman Diagrams
In this section, we will revise the fundamental forces by which elementary particles interact, and
discuss the Feynman diagrams at lowest level used to represent these interactions.
See also: [Link]

As far as we know, there are just four fundamental forces in nature:

GR: gravity is simply too weak to play a significant role in elementary particle physics.
QED: The quantum theory of electrodynamics was perfected in the 1940s.
Weak: Account for nuclear beta decay, decay of pions, muons and many of strange particles.
Strong: Reponsible for the interactions among quarks and and hadrons.

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A Feynman diagram is a pictorial representation of the mathematical expressions describing the
behavior and interaction of subatomic particles. Consider the scattering process:

𝑚1 + 𝑚2 → 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

It can be shown in lab and CM frames as follows:

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In discussing scattering, it is often convenient to define an invariant called t, the square of the four-momentum
transfer in a collision:
𝑓 2 𝑓 2 𝑓 2
𝑖
𝑡= 𝑝1𝜇 − 𝑝1𝜇 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸1𝑖 − 𝐩1 − 𝐩1𝑖
2 2 2
𝑓 𝑖 𝑓 𝑓
𝑡= 𝑝2𝜇 − 𝑝2𝜇 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸2𝑖 − 𝐩2 − 𝐩𝑖2
One can think of t as the square of the mass of an exchanged particle that mediates the scattering. Consequently, we
must conclude that if such an exchange process can be used to describe scattering, then the object being exchanged
cannot be physical since it has an imaginary rest mass. This means that although this “virtual” object cannot be detected,
if the picture is correct, its consequences can be calculated and observed. Diagrams of the two kinds shown below.

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𝑒− + 𝑒− → 𝑒− + 𝑒−

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JaxoDraw
In drawing Feynman Diagrams, one can use the program JaxoDraw. It has a complete graphical
user interface that allows to carry out all actions in a mouse click-and-drag fashion.

[Link]

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Problems
1. Kinetic energy of an electron is 10 MeV. Calculate
(a) total energy of the electron in MeV
(b) the momentum of the electron in MeV
(c) the speed of the electron in m/s

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2. Find the threshold energy of the antineutrino in the following reaction:

𝜈ഥ𝑒 + 𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒 +

Additionally, determine what the maximum energy of the positron will be if a solar neutrino with an energy of 2 MeV
initiates this reaction.

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3. Consider a neutrino originating from the decay 𝜋 + → 𝜇+ + 𝑣𝜇 .
(a) What is the speed of the muon if pion is at rest?
(b) What are the minimum and maximum speeds of the muon if pion has momentum of 10 GeV/c?

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4. Consider 𝜋 0 is flying in x-direction in the decay 𝜋 0 → 𝛾 + 𝛾 decay.
What is the angle between photons if photon energies are measured as E1 = 2 GeV and E2 = 6 GeV?

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5. Suppose the production of Z boson at LEP. 𝑒 − + 𝑒 + → 𝑍 where m(Z) = 91.2 GeV.
Find the required total beam energy to generate a Z boson at Ecm = 91.2 GeV

(a) in a fixed target experiment [Ans: E = 8 PeV]

(b) in a colliding beam experiment [Ans: E = 45.6 GeV]

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6. Consider a reaction where two protons undergo a head-on collision to produce a proton-antiproton pair:
𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝ҧ

Find the threshold kinetic energy of one of the incident protons required to start this reaction.

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7. Consider the reaction where m2 is at rest:
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 → 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + ⋯ + 𝑀𝑛

Find the threshold kinetic energy of particle m1.

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8. Consider the decay 𝑀 → 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 . Assume that (𝑝𝑇 , 𝜂, 𝜙) values associated to decay products are given. Show that
at ultra relativistic limit the invariant mass of the parent particle can be found from:

𝑀= 2𝑝𝑇1 𝑝𝑇2 [cosh 𝜂1 − 𝜂2 − cos 𝜙1 − 𝜙2 ]

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9. Consider the decay 𝑋 → 𝜇 + + 𝜇 − . (𝑝𝑇 , 𝜂, 𝜙, charge) values associated to 5 muons in an event are given as follows.
Determine which (𝜇+ , 𝜇− ) combination(s) may belong to a 𝐽/𝜓 → 𝜇+ + 𝜇− decay.

Muon pT (GeV) eta phi ch

1 6.09024 0.618300 0.83360 -1
2 11.57960 0.274272 -2.26349 +1
3 14.65500 0.279672 -2.02579 -1
4 10.01640 -1.027030 1.94910 +1
5 7.43239 0.943696 0.51260 +1

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10. Draw lowest order Feynman Diagrams for the following reactions or decays.

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