Unit 1-Measurement

Unit 1: Dynamic Duo – Forces and Motion

Topic 1: Measurement in Science (Grade 10 IB Physics)

Measurement is the foundation of all science. In physics, we measure physical quantities so

we can describe motion, forces, energy, and other phenomena accurately. Without
measurement, experiments cannot be compared or verified.

1. What is Measurement?
Measurement means comparing an unknown quantity with a known standard unit.

Example:

●​ If a table is 2 meters long, it means its length is twice the standard meter unit.​

So every measurement has two parts:

1.​ Number (magnitude)​

2.​ Unit​

Example:

●​ 5 kg​

●​ 20 m​

●​ 10 s​

Without units, the number has no meaning.

Example:

●​ Saying "the distance is 20" is meaningless.​

●​ Saying "the distance is 20 meters" is correct.​

2. Physical Quantities
A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured.

Examples:

●​ Length​

●​ Mass​

●​ Time​

●​ Temperature​

●​ Speed​

●​ Force​

●​ Energy​

Physical quantities always have:

●​ magnitude (number)​

●​ unit​

Example:

●​ Speed = 10 m/s​

3. SI System of Units (International System

of Units)
Scientists around the world use the SI system to keep measurements consistent.
SI stands for Système International d'Unités.

There are 7 base units.

Base quantity → SI unit

Length → meter (m)​

Mass → kilogram (kg)​
Time → second (s)​
Temperature → kelvin (K)​
Electric current → ampere (A)

From these base units we form derived units.

4. Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are formed by combining base quantities mathematically.

Examples:

Speed = distance / time

v=d/t

Unit of speed:​
m/s

Unit of force:​
Newton (N)

Where

1 N = 1 kg·m/s²

Other derived quantities:

Area → m²​
Volume → m³​
Density → kg/m³​
Pressure → Pascal (Pa)
5. Measuring Instruments
Different quantities require different instruments.

Length:

●​ ruler​

●​ measuring tape​

●​ vernier caliper​

●​ micrometer screw gauge​

Mass:

●​ beam balance​

●​ electronic balance​

Time:

●​ stopwatch​

●​ digital clock​

Temperature:

●​ thermometer​

Force:

●​ spring balance / Newton meter​

Good experiments require precise instruments.

6. Accuracy and Precision
These two concepts are very important in experiments.

Accuracy

How close a measured value is to the true value.

Example:​
True value = 10 cm​
Measured = 9.9 cm

This is accurate.

Precision

How close repeated measurements are to each other.

Example measurements:​
10.2​
10.21​
10.19

These are precise.

Important:

●​ A measurement can be precise but not accurate.​

7. Uncertainty in Measurement
All measurements contain uncertainty.

This happens because:

●​ Instruments have limits​

●​ Human reading errors​

 ●​ Environmental factors​

Example:​
If a ruler measures up to millimeters, the uncertainty might be:

±0.5 mm

Example result:

Length = 15.2 ± 0.05 cm

This means the true value is between 15.15 and 15.25 cm.

8. Significant Figures
Significant figures show the precision of a measurement.

Example:

Measurement | Significant figures

5 | 1​
5.2 | 2​
5.20 | 3​
0.0052 | 2

Rules:

1.​ All non-zero digits are significant.​

2.​ Zeros between digits are significant.​

3.​ Leading zeros are not significant.​

4.​ Trailing zeros after decimal are significant.​

Example:

0.00450 → 3 significant figures

9. Scientific Notation
Scientists often work with very large or very small numbers.

Scientific notation expresses numbers as:

a × 10ⁿ

Where:

●​ 1 ≤ a < 10​

Examples:

Speed of light​
300000000 m/s

Scientific notation:

3 × 10⁸ m/s

Small number example:

0.000002 m

2 × 10⁻⁶ m

10. SI Prefixes
Prefixes make large and small units easier to write.

Common prefixes:

kilo (k) = 10³​

centi (c) = 10⁻²​
milli (m) = 10⁻³​
micro (μ) = 10⁻⁶​
nano (n) = 10⁻⁹

Examples:
1 kilometer = 1000 m​
1 cm = 0.01 m​
1 mm = 0.001 m

11. Scalars and Vectors (Intro)

Measurements can be classified as:

Scalar quantities

Have magnitude only

Examples:

●​ mass​

●​ time​

●​ temperature​

●​ speed​

●​ distance​

Vector quantities

Have magnitude AND direction

Examples:

●​ displacement​

●​ velocity​

●​ acceleration​

●​ force​

Vectors become very important in forces and motion.

Forces and Motion
Unit 1: Dynamic Duo – Forces and Motion
Topic: Forces and Effects of Forces & Forces and Motion
(IB Grade 10)
These two topics explain why objects move, stop, speed up, or change direction. In physics,
motion cannot happen without forces.

1. What is a Force?
A force is a push or a pull acting on an object.

Examples:

●​ pushing a door open​

●​ pulling a suitcase​

●​ gravity pulling objects toward Earth​

●​ friction slowing a moving object​

A force can:

●​ start motion​

●​ stop motion​

●​ change speed​

●​ change direction​

●​ change the shape of an object​

The SI unit of force is the Newton (N).

2. Force as a Vector Quantity
Force is a vector quantity, meaning it has:

1.​ Magnitude (how strong the force is)​

2.​ Direction (which way it acts)​

Example:

10 N to the right​
5 N upward

Direction is important because different directions change the overall motion.

3. Effects of Forces
A force can produce several effects.

1. Start motion

An object at rest can start moving.

Example:

●​ kicking a football​

Before kick → ball at rest​

After kick → ball moves

2. Stop motion

A moving object can stop.

Example:
 ●​ applying brakes on a bicycle​

The braking force stops the bicycle.

3. Change speed (acceleration)

Force can make objects speed up or slow down.

Example:

●​ pressing the accelerator in a car increases speed.​

The relationship between force, mass, and acceleration is:

Where​
F = force (N)​
m = mass (kg)​
a = acceleration (m/s²)

Meaning:

●​ more force → more acceleration​

●​ more mass → harder to accelerate​

4. Change direction
Forces can change the direction of motion.

Example:

●​ a car turning around a curve​

●​ a ball being hit by a bat​

The direction of velocity changes.

5. Change shape

Force can deform objects.

Examples:

●​ stretching a rubber band​

●​ compressing a sponge​

●​ squeezing clay​

These are deformation effects of force.

4. Types of Forces
Forces are mainly divided into two categories.

Contact Forces
These forces occur when objects touch each other.

Examples:

Friction
Force that opposes motion between surfaces.

Example:

●​ shoes gripping the ground​

●​ brakes stopping a car​

Friction acts opposite to motion.

Normal Force

The support force from a surface.

Example:

●​ a table supporting a book.​

Tension

Force transmitted through ropes, strings, or cables.

Example:

●​ pulling a bucket from a well​

Applied Force

Force applied directly by a person or object.

Example:

●​ pushing a box​
Non-Contact Forces
These forces act without physical contact.

Examples:

Gravitational Force

Force of attraction between masses.

Example:

●​ Earth pulling objects downward.​

The weight of an object is:

Where

W = weight (N)​
m = mass (kg)​
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s²)

Magnetic Force

Force between magnets or magnetic materials.

Example:

●​ magnets attracting iron.​

Electrostatic Force

Force between charged particles.

Example:

●​ rubbed balloon attracting paper pieces.​

5. Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

This concept is very important in exams.

Balanced Forces
Balanced forces occur when forces cancel each other out.

Result:

●​ no change in motion​

Example:​
A book resting on a table.

Downward force → gravity​

Upward force → normal force

Both forces are equal.

Net force = 0

So the object stays still.

Unbalanced Forces
Unbalanced forces occur when forces do not cancel out.
Result:

●​ motion changes​

Example:

●​ pushing a box across the floor.​

If push > friction → box moves.

6. Resultant Force (Net Force)

When several forces act on an object, the combined force is called the resultant force.

Example:

Push right = 10 N​
Push left = 4 N

Resultant force:

10 − 4 = 6 N to the right

This force determines the motion.

7. What is Motion?
Motion is the change in position of an object with time.

Example:

●​ a moving car​

●​ a flying airplane​

●​ a rolling ball​
To describe motion we must consider:

●​ distance​

●​ time​

●​ direction
Types Of Motion
Speed, Velocity, Acceleration, Distance,
Displacement
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

These concepts are the core of kinematics, which is the study of motion without considering
the forces causing it.

1. Distance
Definition

Distance is the total path length travelled by an object.

Example:​
If a person walks around a circular track of 400 m and completes one lap:

Distance = 400 m

Properties

●​ Scalar quantity (no direction)​

●​ Always positive​

●​ Depends on actual path taken​

D=vt

D=distance(m)

v=velocity/speed(m/s)

t-time(sec)

Unit
meter (m)

2. Displacement
Definition

Displacement is the shortest straight-line distance between the initial and final position,
including direction.

Example:​
Walk 10 m east then 10 m west.

Distance = 20 m​
Displacement = 0 m

Properties

●​ Vector quantity​

●​ Has magnitude and direction​

●​ Can be positive, negative, or zero​

Unit

meter (m)

Distance vs Displacement Example

Walk around a square park (each side 10 m).

Total distance travelled:

10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 40 m

Start and end at same point.

Displacement = 0

3. Speed
Definition

Speed tells how fast an object moves.

It measures distance covered per unit time.

v=d/t

Where​
v = speed​
d = distance​
t = time

Unit

meters per second (m/s)

Example

A car travels 120 m in 10 s

Speed = 120 / 10​

Speed = 12 m/s

Types of Speed
1. Uniform Speed

Speed remains constant.

Example:​
A train moving at 60 km/h continuously.
Distance covered in equal time intervals is equal.

2. Non-Uniform Speed

Speed changes with time.

Example:​
Cars in city traffic.

Distance covered in equal time intervals is not equal.

3. Average Speed

Average speed is used when speed changes.

Formula:

Average speed = Total distance ÷ Total time

Example:

Car travels:

100 km in 2 h​
50 km in 1 h

Total distance = 150 km​

Total time = 3 h

Average speed = 150 ÷ 3 = 50 km/h

4. Velocity
Definition

Velocity is speed in a specific direction.

Example:
Speed = 20 m/s​
Velocity = 20 m/s north

So velocity includes direction.

Formula

Velocity = displacement ÷ time

v=s/t

Where​
v = velocity​
s = displacement​
t = time

Important Point

Velocity changes if:

●​ speed changes​

●​ direction changes​

Example:​
Car moving in a circular path at constant speed.

Speed = constant​
Velocity = changing (because direction changes)

5. Acceleration
Definition

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.

Acceleration happens when:

 ●​ speed increases​

●​ speed decreases​

●​ direction changes​

Formula:

a = (v − u) / t

Where

a = acceleration​
v = final velocity​
u = initial velocity​
t = time

Unit

m/s²

Example

Car speed increases from 10 m/s to 20 m/s in 5 s

Initial velocity u = 10​

Final velocity v = 20

a = (20 − 10) / 5​
a = 2 m/s²

Types of Acceleration
1. Uniform Acceleration

Acceleration remains constant.

Example:​
Free falling objects under gravity.
2. Non-Uniform Acceleration

Acceleration changes with time.

Example:​
Car driving in traffic.

3. Negative Acceleration (Deceleration)

Acceleration that reduces speed.

Example:​
Car braking.

6. Equations of Motion
These are very important formulas for Grade 10 physics.

They are used when acceleration is constant.

First Equation of Motion

v=u+at

Meaning:

Final velocity = initial velocity + acceleration × time

Second Equation of Motion

s = ut + 1/2 at²

Used to calculate displacement.

Third Equation of Motion

v^2=u^2+2as

Used when time is not given.

Meaning of Symbols
u = initial velocity​
v = final velocity​
a = acceleration​
t = time​
s = displacement
Frictional force
Frictional Force and Its Importance in
Motion
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

1. What is Friction?
Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object when two surfaces are in contact.

In simple words:​
Friction tries to stop objects from moving or slow them down.

Example:

●​ When you push a box on the floor, the floor resists the motion.​

●​ That resisting force is friction.​

Important Point

Friction always acts opposite to the direction of motion.

Example:

Push box → right​

Friction → left

2. Why Friction Occurs

Even surfaces that look smooth have tiny bumps and irregularities.

When two surfaces touch:

 ●​ these irregularities interlock​

●​ this creates resistance to motion​

This resistance is friction.

3. Direction of Friction
Friction always acts opposite to the direction of movement or attempted movement.

Example:

Sliding book → right​

Friction → left

If you try to push a heavy box but it does not move, friction still acts opposite to the push.

4. Types of Friction
There are four main types of friction.

1. Static Friction
Static friction acts when an object is not moving.

It prevents motion from starting.

Example:

●​ pushing a heavy sofa that does not move.​

The force you apply is balanced by static friction.

Important:​
Static friction is usually the strongest type of friction.
2. Sliding Friction
Sliding friction acts when two surfaces slide over each other.

Example:

●​ sliding a book across a table.​

Sliding friction is weaker than static friction.

3. Rolling Friction
Rolling friction occurs when an object rolls over a surface.

Example:

●​ wheels of a bicycle​

●​ rolling ball​

Rolling friction is much smaller than sliding friction.

That is why wheels make movement easier.

4. Fluid Friction (Drag)

Fluid friction occurs when an object moves through liquids or gases.

Example:

●​ air resistance on a moving car​

●​ water resistance on a swimmer​

This friction is called drag.

5. Factors Affecting Friction
Friction mainly depends on two things.

1. Nature of Surfaces

Rough surfaces → more friction​

Smooth surfaces → less friction

Example:

●​ sandpaper has more friction than glass.​

2. Force Pressing Surfaces Together

The heavier an object, the greater the friction.

Example:

●​ pushing a heavy box is harder than pushing a light one.

6. Importance of Friction in Daily Life

Friction is extremely important for motion.

Without friction, many everyday activities would be impossible.

1. Walking

When we walk, our feet push backward on the ground.

Friction between our shoes and the ground pushes us forward.

Without friction:
 ●​ we would slip and fall.​

2. Driving Vehicles

Friction between tires and the road allows cars to move.

Without friction:

●​ cars would slide uncontrollably.​

3. Braking

Friction between brake pads and wheels slows vehicles down.

This friction converts kinetic energy into heat.

4. Writing

Friction between pen/pencil and paper allows writing.

Without friction:

●​ ink or graphite would not stick.​

5. Holding Objects

Friction between your hand and objects allows you to grip things.

Without friction:

●​ everything would slip out of your hand.​

7. Disadvantages of Friction
Although friction is useful, it also has disadvantages.

1. Wear and Tear

Machine parts rub against each other and wear out over time.

Example:

●​ gears​

●​ engine parts​

2. Heat Production

Friction converts energy into heat.

Example:

●​ rubbing hands together produces heat.​

This can reduce machine efficiency.

3. Energy Loss

Friction wastes energy that could otherwise be used for motion.

Example:

●​ engines must use extra fuel to overcome friction.​

8. Methods to Reduce Friction

Sometimes friction needs to be reduced.

1. Lubrication

Lubricants like oil and grease reduce friction.

They create a thin layer between surfaces.

Example:

●​ engine oil​

2. Using Ball Bearings

Ball bearings reduce sliding friction to rolling friction.

Example:

●​ bicycle wheels​

●​ machine parts​

3. Polishing Surfaces

Smooth surfaces produce less friction.

Example:

●​ polished furniture​

4. Streamlined Shapes

Used to reduce fluid friction (air resistance).

Examples:
 ●​ airplanes​

●​ racing cars​

●​ fish bodies​

9. Methods to Increase Friction

Sometimes we need more friction.

Examples:

●​ rough shoe soles​

●​ car tire treads​

●​ sand on icy roads​

These increase grip.

Air resistance
Air Resistance (Drag)
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

1. What is Air Resistance?

Air resistance is a type of frictional force that acts on objects moving through air.

It is also called drag.

Air resistance always acts in the opposite direction to the motion of the object.

Example:

A falling object

Gravity → pulls the object downward​

Air resistance → pushes upward

2. Why Air Resistance Occurs

Air is made of tiny particles (molecules).

When an object moves through air:

●​ it collides with air molecules​

●​ these collisions create a force opposing motion​

This opposing force is air resistance.

3. Direction of Air Resistance

Air resistance always acts opposite to the direction of motion.

Example:

Car moving forward →​

Air resistance acting backward ←

Falling object ↓​
Air resistance ↑

4. Factors Affecting Air Resistance

Air resistance depends on several factors.

1. Speed of the Object

The faster an object moves, the greater the air resistance.

Example:

●​ a fast car experiences more air resistance than a slow car.​

2. Surface Area
Objects with larger surface area experience more air resistance.

Example:

Flat paper vs crumpled paper

Flat paper falls slower because it has more air resistance.

3. Shape of the Object

Streamlined shapes reduce air resistance.

Example:

●​ airplanes​

●​ birds​

●​ racing cars​

These shapes allow air to flow smoothly around the object.

4. Density of Air
Denser air creates more resistance.

Example:​
Air resistance is higher at low altitude than at high altitude.

5. Air Resistance During Falling Objects

When an object falls:

1.​ At the start​

Gravity > air resistance​
Object accelerates downward.​

2.​ As speed increases​

Air resistance increases.​

3.​ Eventually​
Air resistance = gravitational force.​

At this point, the object stops accelerating.

This speed is called terminal velocity.

6. Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the constant maximum speed reached by a falling object when forces
balance.

At terminal velocity:

Upward force = air resistance​

Downward force = weight

So:

Weight = Air resistance

Net force = 0​
Acceleration = 0

Object continues falling at constant speed.

Example:​
Skydivers reach terminal velocity during free fall.

7. Examples of Air Resistance

1. Parachutes

Parachutes increase surface area, increasing air resistance.

This slows the fall of skydivers.

2. Cars

At high speed, air resistance becomes one of the largest forces acting on a car.

That is why cars are designed to be aerodynamic.

3. Sports

Air resistance affects:

●​ footballs​

●​ cricket balls​

●​ cycling​

●​ sprinting​

Athletes wear tight clothing to reduce drag.

8. Reducing Air Resistance

Engineers try to reduce air resistance to increase efficiency.

Methods include:

• streamlined shapes​
• smooth surfaces​
• aerodynamic designs

Examples:

●​ airplanes​

●​ racing cars​
 ●​ high-speed trains​

9. Increasing Air Resistance

Sometimes we want more air resistance.

Examples:

• parachutes​
• shuttlecocks in badminton​
• speed brakes on airplanes

These slow down motion.

10. Importance of Air Resistance in Motion

Air resistance plays a major role in motion because it:

• limits the speed of falling objects​

• affects fuel consumption in vehicles​
• influences sports performance​
• affects flight and aerodynamics

Without air resistance:

●​ parachutes would not work​

●​ skydivers would fall dangerously fast​

●​ aircraft design would be different

Newton’s laws
Newton’s Laws of Motion
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

Isaac Newton developed three fundamental laws that explain how forces affect motion.
These laws form the foundation of classical mechanics and are essential for understanding
movement in physics.

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of

Inertia)
Statement

An object will remain at rest or continue moving with constant velocity in a straight line
unless acted upon by an unbalanced external force.

Key Idea

Objects resist changes in their state of motion.

This resistance is called inertia.

Inertia
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion.

Objects with greater mass have greater inertia.

Example:

●​ A heavy truck is harder to push than a bicycle.​

Everyday Examples
1.​ Car braking suddenly​
Passengers move forward because their bodies continue moving due to inertia.​

2.​ Pulling a tablecloth quickly​

Dishes stay almost in place because they resist motion.​

3.​ Standing passengers in a bus​

When the bus starts moving, passengers lean backward.​

2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Statement

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.

This relationship is written as:

Where:

F = force (Newton, N)​

m = mass (kg)​
a = acceleration (m/s²)
What the Law Means
1.​ More force → more acceleration​

Example:​
Pushing a shopping cart harder makes it accelerate faster.

2.​ More mass → less acceleration​

Example:​
A truck needs more force to accelerate than a bicycle.

Example Calculation
Mass of object = 5 kg​
Acceleration = 2 m/s²

F = ma​
F = 5 × 2​
F = 10 N

So the force applied is 10 Newtons.

3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Statement

For every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force.

This means forces always occur in pairs.

Important Idea
If Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B exerts an equal force in the opposite
direction on Object A.

Examples
Walking

Foot pushes the ground backward.​

Ground pushes the foot forward.

This allows you to move.

Rocket Launch

Rocket pushes gases downward.​

Gases push the rocket upward.

This produces thrust.

Swimming

Swimmer pushes water backward.​

Water pushes swimmer forward.

4. Net Force
Objects can have multiple forces acting on them.

The net force is the total force after combining all forces.

Example:

Push right = 15 N​
Push left = 5 N

Net force = 10 N to the right.

Only net force determines acceleration.

5. Unit of Force
The SI unit of force is Newton (N).

1 Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kg mass by 1 m/s².

6. Importance of Newton’s Laws

Newton’s laws explain many real-world phenomena:

• motion of vehicles​
• flight of airplanes​
• rocket launches​
• sports movements​
• satellite motion

They are fundamental for engineering, transportation, and space science.

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

Hooke’s Law explains the relationship between the force applied to a spring and the amount
the spring stretches or compresses.

It was discovered by Robert Hooke.

1. Statement of Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law states:

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied to it, provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.

This means:

●​ If you double the force, the extension doubles.​

●​ If you triple the force, the extension triples.​

The relationship is linear.

2. Hooke’s Law Formula

Where:

●​ F = applied force (Newtons, N)​

●​ k = spring constant (N/m)​

●​ x = extension or compression (meters)​

3. What is Extension?
Extension is how much longer a spring becomes when a force is applied.

Extension = Final length − Original length

Example:

Original length = 10 cm​

Stretched length = 15 cm

Extension = 5 cm

(Always convert to meters in calculations.)

4. Spring Constant (k)

The spring constant tells us how stiff the spring is.

Large k → stiff spring​

Small k → soft spring

Example:

●​ Car suspension → large k​

●​ Slingshot band → smaller k​

Unit of k = N/m
5. Elastic Behaviour
When a force is applied, materials can deform.

Elastic deformation

Object returns to original shape after force is removed.

Example:

●​ springs​

●​ rubber bands​

Hooke’s law applies here.

Plastic deformation

Object does not return to original shape.

Example:

●​ bent metal paperclip​

Hooke’s law no longer applies.

6. Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the maximum force where the material can still return to its original shape.

Beyond this point:

●​ the object becomes permanently deformed.​

7. Force–Extension Graph
For a spring:

From origin to elastic limit → straight line

This shows:

Force ∝ Extension

After elastic limit → curve appears.

This means Hooke’s law is no longer obeyed.

Important IB exam point:

Slope of the graph = spring constant (k)

8. Example Calculation
Force applied = 20 N​
Spring constant = 200 N/m

Using Hooke’s law:

F = kx

20 = 200x

x = 20 ÷ 200

x = 0.1 m

So the spring stretches 0.1 meters (10 cm).

9. Energy Stored in a Spring

When a spring stretches, elastic potential energy is stored.

Formula:

Elastic Potential Energy = 1/2 × k × x²

Where:
 ●​ k = spring constant​

●​ x = extension​

This energy is released when the spring returns to its original shape.

Examples:

●​ bows and arrows​

●​ trampolines​

●​ car suspension systems​

10. Real-Life Applications

Hooke’s law is used in:

• spring balances (measuring force)​

• car suspension systems​
• trampolines​
• shock absorbers​
• mechanical watches​
• bungee jumping cords
Momentum and Collisions
Momentum and Collisions
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion, with Road Accident Context)

Momentum is a very important concept in physics because it explains how moving objects
behave during collisions, especially in car crashes and road accidents.

1. What is Momentum?
Momentum is the quantity of motion an object has.

It depends on:

●​ the mass of the object​

●​ the velocity of the object​

An object that is heavier or moving faster has greater momentum.

Momentum Formula

Where:
 ●​ p = momentum (kg·m/s)​

●​ m = mass (kg)​

●​ v = velocity (m/s)​

Example
Car mass = 1000 kg​
Velocity = 20 m/s

Momentum = 1000 × 20

Momentum = 20,000 kg·m/s

This shows that even moderate speeds create very large momentum in vehicles.

2. Momentum and Mass

Momentum increases when mass increases.

Example:

Truck vs bicycle

Even at the same speed, the truck has much larger momentum because its mass is larger.

That is why trucks are harder to stop.

3. Momentum and Velocity

Momentum also increases when velocity increases.

Example:

A car at 100 km/h has much greater momentum than at 50 km/h.

This is one reason high-speed crashes are extremely dangerous.

4. Law of Conservation of Momentum

This law states:

The total momentum of a system remains constant if no external forces act on it.

Before collision:

Total momentum = momentum of object A + momentum of object B

After collision:

Total momentum remains the same.

Example:

Two cars collide.

Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.

5. Types of Collisions
There are two main types.

1. Elastic Collision
In elastic collisions:

●​ momentum is conserved​

●​ kinetic energy is also conserved​

Objects bounce off each other.

Example:

●​ billiard balls​

●​ some atomic collisions​

2. Inelastic Collision
In inelastic collisions:

●​ momentum is conserved​

●​ kinetic energy is not conserved​

Energy is converted into:

●​ heat​

●​ sound​

●​ deformation​

Example:

●​ car crashes​

●​ clay hitting a wall​

3. Perfectly Inelastic Collision

Objects stick together after collision.

Example:

●​ two cars crashing and locking together.​

6. Momentum in Road Accidents
Momentum explains why road accidents cause severe damage.

High momentum = harder to stop

If a vehicle has large momentum, it requires greater force and longer time to stop.

Example:

Heavy truck + high speed​

= extremely large momentum

7. Stopping Time and Safety

In accidents, the rate of change of momentum determines the force experienced.

Large change in momentum in very short time → huge force.

This is why crashes are dangerous.

8. Safety Features in Cars

Many safety features are designed to reduce the force during collisions by increasing
stopping time.

Seatbelts
Seatbelts prevent passengers from continuing forward due to momentum.

They also increase the time over which the body stops, reducing force.
Airbags
Airbags increase the time taken for the head and chest to stop.

Longer stopping time → smaller force → fewer injuries.

Crumple Zones
Cars are designed with crumple zones that deform during collisions.

This:

●​ absorbs energy​

●​ increases collision time​

●​ reduces force on passengers​

9. Example of Momentum in a Crash

Car mass = 1200 kg​
Speed = 25 m/s

Momentum = 1200 × 25

Momentum = 30,000 kg·m/s

If the car stops suddenly in a crash, all this momentum must change to zero.

That large change produces huge forces.

10. Momentum vs Kinetic Energy in
Accidents
Both matter in crashes:

Momentum → determines impact force and motion​

Kinetic energy → determines damage and deformation

High speed increases both dramatically.

11. Real-Life Importance

Understanding momentum helps in:

• designing safer vehicles​

• analyzing car crashes​
• improving road safety laws​
• engineering protective equipment
Moments, Levers, Centre of mass.
Moments, Levers, and Centre of Mass
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

These topics explain how forces cause objects to rotate or balance. They are important in
engineering, sports, tools, and everyday activities.

1. Moment of a Force
A moment is the turning effect of a force around a pivot or axis.

Example:

●​ opening a door​

●​ using a wrench​

●​ using a seesaw​

The force causes the object to rotate about a point.

Formula for Moment

M = Fd

Where:

●​ M = moment (Newton meter, Nm)​

●​ F = force applied (N)​

●​ d = perpendicular distance from pivot to the line of action of the force (m)​
Important Idea
The further the force is from the pivot, the greater the turning effect.

Example:

Opening a door near the handle is easier than pushing near the hinge.

Because the distance from pivot is larger.

2. Direction of Moments
Moments can act in two directions:

Clockwise moment

Rotation in the direction of a clock.

Anticlockwise moment

Rotation opposite to a clock.

3. Principle of Moments
For an object to be in equilibrium (balanced):

Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment

This is called the principle of moments.

Example:

Seesaw balance.

If one person is heavier, they must sit closer to the pivot.

4. Levers
A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a pivot (fulcrum).

Levers help us multiply force or change direction of force.

Parts of a lever:

• Effort – the force applied​

• Load – the object being moved​
• Fulcrum – the pivot point

5. Classes of Levers
Levers are divided into three classes based on the position of effort, load, and fulcrum.

First Class Lever

Fulcrum between effort and load.

Example:

●​ seesaw​

●​ scissors​

●​ crowbar​

Purpose:​
Changes direction of force.

Second Class Lever

Load between fulcrum and effort.
Example:

●​ wheelbarrow​

●​ nutcracker​

●​ bottle opener​

Purpose:​
Multiplies force.

Third Class Lever

Effort between fulcrum and load.

Example:

●​ human arm​

●​ tweezers​

●​ fishing rod​

Purpose:​
Increases speed and distance of movement.

6. Mechanical Advantage of Levers

Levers make work easier.

Mechanical Advantage (MA) tells us how much a machine multiplies force.

Formula:

Mechanical Advantage = Load ÷ Effort

If MA > 1 → machine multiplies force.

7. Centre of Mass
The centre of mass is the point where the entire mass of an object can be considered to
act.

It is the balance point of the object.

If supported at this point, the object balances perfectly.

Examples
Uniform objects

For a uniform ruler or rod, the centre of mass is at the middle.

Irregular objects

The centre of mass may not be in the geometric center.

Example:

●​ a hammer​

●​ a boomerang​

8. Stability and Centre of Mass

Stability depends on the position of the centre of mass.

Low centre of mass → more stable

Example:

●​ sports cars​

●​ racing cars​

They are designed low to prevent tipping.

High centre of mass → less stable

Example:

●​ trucks​

●​ buses​

They can tip more easily when turning.

9. Base of Support
The base of support is the area between contact points with the ground.

An object is stable if the line of action of its weight stays within the base of support.

Example:

A person standing with feet wide apart is more stable.

10. Centre of Mass in Human Body

Athletes use centre of mass to improve performance.

Examples:

Gymnasts
 ●​ control body position while rotating.​

High jumpers

●​ curve their body so the centre of mass passes below the bar.​

11. Real-Life Applications

Moments, levers, and centre of mass are used in:

• construction cranes​
• tools (pliers, scissors, crowbars)​
• sports techniques​
• vehicle stability​
• balancing structures
Pressure
Pressure
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

Pressure explains how force acts on a surface. It is very important in understanding solids,
liquids, gases, hydraulics, and atmospheric science.

1. What is Pressure?
Pressure is defined as:

The force acting per unit area.

This means pressure depends on:

●​ how much force is applied​

●​ how large the area is over which the force acts​

Pressure Formula
P=F/A

2. Unit of Pressure
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).

1 Pascal = 1 Newton per square meter

1 Pa = 1 N/m²
3. Relationship Between Force, Area, and
Pressure
Increasing Force → Pressure increases

Example:​
Pressing harder on a surface increases pressure.

Increasing Area → Pressure decreases

Example:​
If the same force spreads over a larger area, pressure becomes smaller.

4. Everyday Examples of Pressure

Sharp Knife

A knife has a very small surface area, so the pressure becomes large.

This makes cutting easier.

High Heels vs Flat Shoes

High heels have very small contact area, so they produce large pressure on the ground.

Flat shoes distribute weight over larger area → less pressure.

Snowshoes

Snowshoes increase the area under your feet, reducing pressure so you don't sink into snow.
5. Pressure in Liquids
Liquids also exert pressure.

Liquid pressure depends on:

●​ depth​

●​ density of liquid​

●​ gravity​

Pressure increases as depth increases.

Liquid Pressure Formula

P = rho × g × h

or

Pressure = density × gravity × depth

Where:

P = pressure (Pa)​
rho (ρ) = density of the liquid (kg/m³)​
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s²)​
h = depth of the liquid (m)

6. Pressure in Gases (Atmospheric

Pressure)
Air also exerts pressure.

This is called atmospheric pressure.

It is caused by the weight of air above us.

At sea level:
Atmospheric pressure ≈ 101,325 Pa

Effects of Atmospheric Pressure

Examples:

• drinking with a straw​

• suction cups sticking to walls​
• barometers measuring air pressure​
• weather systems

7. Pressure and Altitude

As altitude increases:

Atmospheric pressure decreases.

Example:​
At high mountains, air pressure is lower.

This is why:

●​ breathing becomes harder​

●​ water boils at lower temperature​

8. Hydraulic Systems (Pascal’s Principle)

Hydraulic machines work based on pressure transmission in liquids.

Pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted equally in all directions.

Examples:

• hydraulic brakes​
• hydraulic lifts​
• car jacks​
• heavy machinery

These systems can multiply force.

9. Pressure in Engineering and Safety

Pressure plays a role in:

• dams​
• submarines​
• aircraft cabins​
• hydraulic machinery​
• vehicle braking systems

Engineers must carefully calculate pressure to prevent failures.

Work, power, Efficiency;
Work, Power, and Efficiency
(IB Grade 10 Physics – Forces and Motion)

These concepts explain how energy is transferred when forces cause motion, how fast
work is done, and how effective machines are.

1. Work
In physics, work is done when a force moves an object through a distance in the direction
of the force.

Important idea:

If there is no movement, then no work is done, even if a force is applied.

Example:

●​ Pushing a wall that does not move → no work done​

●​ Lifting a box → work is done​

Work Formula
W = Fd

Where:

W = work done (Joules, J)​

F = force applied (N)​
d = distance moved in direction of force (m)

Unit of Work
The SI unit of work is Joule (J).

1 Joule = 1 Newton × 1 meter.

Example
Force = 20 N​
Distance moved = 5 m

Work = 20 × 5

Work = 100 J

2. When Work is NOT Done

Work is zero when:

• object does not move​

• force is perpendicular to motion

Examples:

Holding a heavy bag while standing still → no work done.

Walking while holding a bag → technically no work done on the bag because force is vertical
but motion is horizontal.

3. Power
Power measures how quickly work is done.

Two people may do the same work, but the one who finishes faster has greater power.

Example:

Climbing stairs quickly vs slowly.

Power Formula
P=W/t

Where:

P = power (Watts, W)​

W = work done (J)​
t = time taken (s)

Unit of Power
The SI unit of power is Watt (W).

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second

Example
Work done = 200 J​
Time = 10 s

Power = 200 / 10

Power = 20 W

4. Mechanical Power (Force and Velocity)

Power can also be calculated when a force causes motion.

Power = Force × velocity

Example:​
Engines producing power to move cars.
5. Efficiency
Efficiency tells us how much useful work or energy a machine produces compared to the
energy supplied.

In real machines, some energy is always lost as:

• heat​
• sound​
• friction

So efficiency is always less than 100%.

Efficiency Formula
Efficiency = (useful output energy / input energy) × 100%

or

Efficiency = (useful output work / input work) × 100%

Example
Machine input energy = 500 J​
Useful output energy = 350 J

Efficiency = (350 / 500) × 100

Efficiency = 70%

6. Why Machines Are Not 100% Efficient

Energy losses occur due to:
• friction between moving parts​
• heat generation​
• sound production​
• air resistance

Example:

Car engines lose energy as heat and sound.

7. Improving Efficiency
Efficiency can be improved by:

• lubrication to reduce friction​

• smoother surfaces​
• better machine design​
• reducing air resistance

8. Real-Life Applications
Work, power, and efficiency are important in:

• engines​
• electric motors​
• factories and machines​
• power plants​
• human activities (running, lifting)

Example:

A powerful engine can do more work in less time.

Unit 2-: Future Fuels