ELECTRONICS

12-PAGE REVIEW NOTES

Based on Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad and

Louis Nashelsky

PAGE 1 — SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

1. Semiconductor Materials

A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity is between that

of a conductor and an insulator. The most commonly used semiconductor
materials are:

Silicon (Si) – most widely used in electronic devices.

Germanium (Ge) – used in some specialized applications.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – used in high-frequency and optoelectronic

applications.

Valence and Conduction Electrons

Valence electrons are electrons involved in atomic bonding.

Conduction electrons are free to move and contribute to electrical current.

When sufficient energy is supplied, electrons can move from the valence
band to the conduction band.

2. Intrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor without intentional

impurities.

In an intrinsic semiconductor:

Electrons and holes are generated in pairs.

The number of free electrons is approximately equal to the number of holes.

Conductivity increases as temperature increases.

3. Doped Semiconductor

Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to increase

and control its conductivity.

N-Type Semiconductor
N-type material is produced by adding donor impurities.

Examples:

Phosphorus

Arsenic

Antimony

In N-type material:

Electrons = majority carriers

Holes = minority carriers

P-Type Semiconductor

P-type material is produced by adding acceptor impurities.

Examples:

Boron
Aluminum

Gallium

In P-type material:

Holes = majority carriers

Electrons = minority carriers

4. PN Junction

A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductor materials are

joined.

When the materials meet:

1. Electrons move from the N side toward the P side.

2. Holes move from the P side toward the N side.

3. Recombination occurs near the junction.

 4. A depletion region is formed.

5. An internal electric field develops.

Forward Bias

P side → positive

N side → negative

Depletion region becomes narrower.

Current can flow easily.

Reverse Bias

P side → negative

N side → positive

Depletion region becomes wider.

Only a very small current normally flows.

Important Values

For basic analysis:

Silicon diode ≈ 0.7 V

Germanium diode ≈ 0.3 V

PAGE 2 — DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS

1. Diode

A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that primarily allows current

to flow in one direction.

Terminals:

Anode (A)

Cathode (K)
The cathode is usually identified by a band on the physical diode.

2. Diode Biasing

Forward Bias

A diode is forward biased when:

Anode is more positive than cathode.

The diode conducts current.

For a silicon diode:

VD ≈ 0.7 V

Reverse Bias

A diode is reverse biased when:

Cathode is more positive than anode.

Current is very small under normal operation.

 3. Diode Models

Ideal Diode

Forward bias:

Acts like a short circuit.

Voltage across diode = 0 V.

Reverse bias:

Acts like an open circuit.

Current = 0 A.

Practical Diode Model

For a silicon diode:

VD ≈ 0.7 V

For a germanium diode:

VD ≈ 0.3 V
 4. Diode Equation

The diode current can be represented by:

ID = IS(e^(VD/nVT) – 1)

Where:

ID = diode current

IS = reverse saturation current

VD = diode voltage

N = ideality factor

VT = thermal voltage

At room temperature:

VT ≈ 25.9 mV

5. Applications of Diodes

Diodes are commonly used for:

Rectification

Switching

Clipping

Clamping

Voltage regulation

Circuit protection

Signal detection

6. Testing a Diode

Using a multimeter’s diode-test function:

Good diode

Forward direction:

Usually gives a forward-voltage reading.

Reverse direction:

Usually shows OL or very high resistance.

Possible shorted diode

Very low reading in both directions.

Possible open diode

OL or very high reading in both directions.

PAGE 3 — RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS

1. Rectification

Rectification is the process of converting an AC signal into a pulsating DC

signal.

Main types:

1. Half-wave rectifier
 2. Full-wave center-tapped rectifier

3. Bridge rectifier

2. Half-Wave Rectifier

A half-wave rectifier normally uses one diode.

During the positive half-cycle:

Diode conducts.

Output appears across the load.

During the negative half-cycle:

Diode is reverse biased.

Output is approximately zero.

Average DC Output

For an ideal half-wave rectifier:

VDC = Vm / π

Where:

Vm = peak input voltage.

Characteristics

Simple circuit

One diode

Low efficiency

Large ripple

Ripple frequency = f
 3. Full-Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier uses both halves of the AC waveform.

Average DC Output

For an ideal full-wave rectifier:

VDC = 2Vm / π

Characteristics

Uses both half-cycles.

Higher average output than half-wave.

Ripple frequency = 2f.

Easier to filter.

4. Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier uses four diodes.

During each half-cycle:

Two diodes conduct.

Two diodes are reverse biased.

Advantages:

Does not require a center-tapped transformer.

Uses both halves of the input.

Good rectification efficiency.

In a practical bridge:

VOUT ≈ Vpeak – 2VD

For silicon diodes:

VOUT ≈ Vpeak – 1.4 V

 5. Capacitor Filter

A capacitor filter reduces ripple.

The capacitor:

1. Charges near the peak voltage.

2. Supplies current to the load as the rectified voltage decreases.

3. Recharges when the next peak arrives.

Approximate ripple voltage:

Vr(pp) ≈ IL / (frC)

Where:

IL = load current

Fr = ripple frequency

C = capacitance
To Reduce Ripple

Increase capacitance.

Increase ripple frequency.

Reduce load current.

PAGE 4 — ZENER DIODES AND VOLTAGE REGULATION

1. Zener Diode

A Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse-breakdown region.

Its main application is voltage regulation.

When operating properly:

VL ≈ VZ

Where:
VL = load voltage

VZ = Zener voltage

2. Zener Voltage Regulator

A basic Zener regulator consists of:

DC source

Series resistor

Zener diode

Load resistor

The resistor limits current.

Series Current

IR = (VS – VZ) / RS

The current divides between the Zener and the load:

IR = IZ + IL
Therefore:

IZ = IR – IL

3. Zener Power

Zener power is:

PZ = VZIZ

The Zener must not exceed its maximum power rating.

4. Series Resistor Power

Power dissipated by the resistor:

PR = IR²RS

Or:

PR = IR(VS – VZ)

5. Zener Regulation Conditions

The Zener must operate within its specified current range.

If Zener current becomes too low:

Regulation may be lost.

If Zener current becomes too high:

The Zener may be damaged.

6. Other Voltage Regulators

Other types include:

Series-pass regulators

Integrated voltage regulators

Adjustable regulators

Switching regulators

Important Reminder

A Zener diode is normally used in reverse bias for voltage regulation.

PAGE 5 — BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)

1. BJT

A Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device.

Terminals:

Emitter (E)

Base (B)

Collector (C)

Types:

NPN

PNP

BJTs can be used as:

Amplifiers
Electronic switches

Oscillator components

Signal-processing devices

2. BJT Current Relationship

The transistor currents follow:

IE = IC + IB

Current gain:

Β = IC / IB

Therefore:

IC = βIB

Another relationship is:

Α = IC / IE
 3. BJT Operating Regions

Cutoff

The transistor is essentially OFF.

Very small collector current.

Used as the OFF state of a switch.

Active Region

The transistor is used for amplification.

Base-emitter junction → forward biased

Collector-base junction → reverse biased

Saturation

The transistor is strongly ON.

Both junctions are forward biased.

Used as the ON state of a switch.

4. BJT Configurations

Common-Emitter (CE)

High voltage gain.

High current gain.

Commonly used for amplification.

Output is normally 180° out of phase with input.

Common-Collector (CC)

Also called an emitter follower.

Voltage gain approximately 1.

High input impedance.

Low output impedance.

Useful as a buffer.

Common-Base (CB)

Low input impedance.

High voltage gain.

Useful for high-frequency applications.

5. Transistor Biasing

Biasing establishes the transistor’s operating point or Q-point.

A proper bias circuit helps maintain stable transistor operation.

For a typical circuit:

VCE = VCC – ICRC – IERE

PAGE 6 — BJT AMPLIFIERS

1. Amplifier

An amplifier increases the amplitude of an electrical signal using energy

supplied by a DC power source.

A properly biased transistor operates in the active region for the expected
signal range.

2. Common-Emitter Amplifier

The common-emitter amplifier is one of the most widely used BJT amplifier
configurations.

Characteristics:

High voltage gain

High current gain

Significant power gain

Output is inverted relative to input

3. Small-Signal Parameters
Transconductance:

Gm = IC / VT

At room temperature:

VT ≈ 25.9 mV

Small-signal emitter resistance:

Re ≈ 25 mV / IE

Where IE is in amperes.

4. Emitter Resistor

An emitter resistor provides negative feedback.

Advantages:

Improves bias stability.

Reduces sensitivity to transistor β.

Improves linearity.
Disadvantage:

Can reduce AC voltage gain.

5. Bypass Capacitor

A capacitor may be connected across the emitter resistor.

Its purpose is to:

Maintain DC bias stabilization.

Reduce AC feedback.

Increase AC voltage gain.

6. Frequency Response

An amplifier does not have the same gain at all frequencies.

Low Frequencies

Gain decreases because of:

Coupling capacitors
Bypass capacitors

Midband

Gain is approximately constant.

High Frequencies

Gain decreases because of:

Internal transistor capacitances

Wiring capacitance

Stray capacitance

Important frequencies:

Lower cutoff frequency = fL

Upper cutoff frequency = fH

Bandwidth:
BW = fH – fL

PAGE 7 — FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)

1. FET

A Field-Effect Transistor is a voltage-controlled device.

Main terminals:

Gate (G)

Drain (D)

Source (S)

One major characteristic is its very high input impedance.

2. JFET

JFET means Junction Field-Effect Transistor.

Types:
N-channel

P-channel

For an N-channel JFET:

Drain current flows through the channel.

Gate voltage controls the channel conductivity.

3. JFET Shockley Equation

For the appropriate operating region:

ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS/VGS(off))]²

Where:

ID = drain current

IDSS = maximum drain current at VGS = 0

VGS = gate-source voltage

VGS(off) = cutoff voltage

4. MOSFET

MOSFET means Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor.

The gate is insulated from the channel.

Therefore:

Gate current is extremely small.

Input impedance is very high.

Types include:

Enhancement MOSFET

Normally OFF at VGS = 0.

Requires appropriate gate voltage to conduct.

Depletion MOSFET
Can conduct at VGS = 0.

Gate voltage can reduce or increase channel conduction depending on

polarity.

5. BJT vs FET

BJT FET

Current-controlled Voltage-controlled

Base current required Very small gate current

Lower input impedance Very high input impedance

High transconductance Generally lower gate current

Used extensively in amplification Used extensively in switching and ICs

6. FET Applications

FETs are used in:

Amplifiers

Digital switching

Buffers
Oscillators

Power electronics

Integrated circuits

PAGE 8 — OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1. Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier or op-amp is a high-gain differential amplifier.

It has:

Inverting input (−)

Non-inverting input (+)

Output

2. Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

For an ideal op-amp:

Infinite voltage gain

Infinite input resistance

Zero input current

Zero output resistance

Infinite bandwidth in the ideal model

With negative feedback:

V+ ≈ V−

And:

I+ ≈ I− ≈ 0

3. Inverting Amplifier

The input signal is connected to the inverting terminal through an input

resistor.
Voltage gain:

Av = −Rf / Rin

The negative sign means:

Output is 180° out of phase with input.

4. Non-Inverting Amplifier

The signal is connected to the non-inverting input.

Voltage gain:

Av = 1 + Rf/R1

Characteristics:

Output is in phase with input.

High input impedance.

 5. Voltage Follower

A voltage follower has:

Av ≈ 1

It is useful as a buffer.

Advantages:

High input impedance.

Low output impedance.

Prevents loading of the previous circuit.

6. Other Op-Amp Applications

Summing Amplifier

Combines multiple input signals.

Difference Amplifier
Amplifies the difference between two signals.

Comparator

Compares two voltages.

Integrator

Produces an output related to the integral of the input.

Differentiator

Produces an output related to the rate of change of the input.

7. Practical Limitations

Real op-amps have:

Limited bandwidth

Finite slew rate

Input offset voltage

Limited output current

Supply-voltage limitations

PAGE 9 — POWER AMPLIFIERS

1. Power Amplifier

A power amplifier is designed to deliver significant power to a load.

Applications include:

Speakers

Motors

Actuators

RF transmitters

Power-control circuits

Important considerations:

Output power
Efficiency

Distortion

Heat dissipation

2. Class A

The transistor conducts for approximately:

360°

Advantages:

Good linearity

Low distortion

Disadvantages:

Low efficiency
Significant power dissipation

3. Class B

Each transistor conducts for approximately:

180°

Usually uses a push-pull arrangement.

Advantages:

Higher efficiency than Class A.

Disadvantage:

Crossover distortion can occur.

4. Class AB
Conduction is slightly greater than 180°.

Advantages:

Reduced crossover distortion.

Better efficiency than Class A.

Commonly used in audio amplifiers.

5. Class C

The device conducts for less than 180°.

Commonly used in:

RF circuits

Tuned amplifiers

6. Power Equations
Electrical power:

P = VI

For a resistor:

P = V²/R

Or:

P = I²R

Also:

P = VRMS × IRMS

7. Push-Pull Amplifier

A push-pull output stage uses two devices.

One device supplies current during one part of the waveform while the other
supplies current during the opposite part.

8. Thermal Considerations

Power transistors can generate significant heat.

Protection includes:

Heat sinks

Proper ventilation

Thermal protection

Current limiting

Proper device ratings

PAGE 10 — FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

1. Feedback

Feedback occurs when part of the output signal is returned to the input.

Two main types:

Negative feedback

Positive feedback
 2. Negative Feedback

Negative feedback opposes the input signal.

Advantages:

Improves stability.

Reduces distortion.

Improves linearity.

Can increase bandwidth.

Makes gain less sensitive to component variations.

Negative feedback is commonly used in amplifiers.

3. Positive Feedback

Positive feedback reinforces the input signal.

It is commonly associated with:

Oscillators

Regenerative circuits

Some switching circuits

4. Oscillators

An oscillator generates a periodic waveform without requiring a periodic

input signal.

It converts DC power into an AC waveform.

Common oscillator types:

RC oscillator

LC oscillator

Crystal oscillator

Relaxation oscillator
 5. Barkhausen Criterion

For sustained oscillation:

|Aβ| ≈ 1

And total phase shift should be:

0° or 360°

Where:

A = amplifier gain

Β = feedback factor

If loop gain is too small:

Oscillations die out.

If loop gain is properly maintained:

Sustained oscillations occur.

6. RC Oscillator

RC oscillators use resistors and capacitors to determine the oscillation

frequency.

Commonly used for:

Low-frequency signals

Audio-frequency applications

7. LC Oscillator

LC oscillators use inductors and capacitors.

Commonly used for:

High-frequency applications

RF circuits
 8. Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators use the mechanical resonance of a crystal.

Advantages:

High frequency stability

Accurate frequency generation

Applications:

Clocks

Microcontrollers

Communication systems

PAGE 11 — SPECIAL DIODES AND THYRISTOR DEVICES

1. LED
LED means Light-Emitting Diode.

An LED produces light when forward current passes through it.

Common applications:

Indicators

Displays

Lighting

Communication

A resistor is normally used to limit current.

LED Resistor

R = (VS – VF) / IF

Where:

VS = supply voltage

VF = LED forward voltage

IF = desired LED current

2. Photodiode

A photodiode converts light into electrical current.

Commonly operated in reverse bias.

Applications:

Light sensors

Optical communication

Automatic lighting

Measurement systems

3. Solar Cell
A solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect.

Multiple solar cells can be connected to increase:

Voltage

Current

Power

4. Varactor Diode

A varactor diode is operated in reverse bias.

It behaves as a voltage-controlled capacitor.

Applications:

Frequency tuning

RF circuits

Voltage-controlled oscillators
Communication systems

5. Schottky Diode

A Schottky diode has:

Low forward voltage

Fast switching speed

Applications:

Power supplies

High-speed switching

Digital circuits

Rectifiers
 6. SCR

SCR means Silicon Controlled Rectifier.

Terminals:

Anode

Cathode

Gate

The gate is used to trigger conduction.

Once turned ON, an SCR can remain conducting as long as the current
remains above its holding requirement.

Applications:

Motor control

Power control

Controlled rectifiers
AC/DC conversion

7. TRIAC

A TRIAC is a bidirectional thyristor device.

It can control current in both directions of an AC waveform.

Applications:

AC motor control

Lamp dimmers

Heater control

AC power regulation

8. DIAC

A DIAC is a bidirectional triggering device.

It is commonly used to trigger a TRIAC in AC control circuits.

PAGE 12 — QUICK REVIEW AND FORMULA SHEET

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

Semiconductor

A material whose conductivity lies between a conductor and an insulator.

P-Type

Majority carrier → holes

Minority carrier → electrons

N-Type

Majority carrier → electrons

Minority carrier → holes

Forward-Biased Diode

Conducts current.

Silicon approximation → 0.7 V

Reverse-Biased Diode

Normally blocks current.

Small leakage current exists.

Rectifier

Converts AC into pulsating DC.

Filter

Reduces ripple in rectifier output.

Zener Diode

Used for voltage regulation when properly reverse biased.

BJT
Three terminals:

Emitter – Base – Collector

FET

Three main terminals:

Gate – Drain – Source

Transistor Regions

Cutoff → OFF

Active → Amplification

Saturation → ON

Op-Amp

With negative feedback:

V+ ≈ V−

I+ ≈ I− ≈ 0
Negative Feedback

Improves:

Stability

Linearity

Bandwidth

Positive Feedback

Used in:

Oscillators

Regenerative circuits

IMPORTANT FORMULAS

BJT

IE = IC + IB
Β = IC / IB

IC = βIB

Α = IC / IE

BJT Voltage

VCE = VCC – ICRC – IERE

Half-Wave Rectifier

VDC ≈ Vm / π

Full-Wave Rectifier

VDC ≈ 2Vm / π
Capacitor Filter

Vr(pp) ≈ IL / (frC)

Zener Regulator

IR = (VS – VZ) / RS

IR = IZ + IL

PZ = VZIZ

Electrical Power

P = VI

P = V²/R

P = I²R

Inverting Op-Amp
Av = −Rf/Rin

Non-Inverting Op-Amp

Av = 1 + Rf/R1

BJT Transconductance

Gm ≈ IC/VT

LED Resistor

R ≈ (VS – VF)/IF

Oscillator

|Aβ| ≈ 1
Total phase shift:

0° or 360°