Chapter One

Chapter One- ROCK AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION

TYPES OF ROCK
IGNEOUS ROCK: These are rock formed from the crystallization (cooling down) of molten
magma. When molten rock from the crust and upper mantle cools, Igneous rocks are formed.
Molten rock below the Earth surface is called Magma, and when it reaches the surface is called
Lava. There are two types of Igneous rock;

• Extrusive Igneous Rock: These are type of igneous rock formed when the lava cools
down above the earth crust. The rock cools quickly, forming small crystals. Example;
Basalt.
• Intrusive Igneous Rock: These are type of igneous rock formed when the magma cools
down below the earth crust. The rock cool down slowing forming a large crystal.
Example; Granite.
SEDIMENTARY ROCK: These are rock formed by weathering and erosion of existing rock at the
earth surface or accumulation of dead plants and animals forming sediments. When these
sediments compact (lithified or cemented), they form sedimentary rock. Examples; Limestone,
Sandstone, shale.
Characteristics: They contain fossils, they are in layers.
Limestone is formed by the accumulation of shell materials which form sediment, these
sediments undergo compaction/ weight of underlying sediments, over a long period of time to
form limestone.
METAMORPHIC ROCK: These are rocks formed from existing rock that undergo high(elevated)
temperature and pressure, this causes changes in the rock crystals without melting the rock
itself forming metamorphic rock. Examples; marble, slate.

1
Chapter One

ROCK CYCLE
This is a representation of the changes between the three types of rocks and the process
causing them.

2
 Chapter One

EXTRACTION OF ROCKS MINERALS FROM THE EARTH

Exploring/Searching for mineral

Prospecting: A process of searching for mineral by examining the surface of the rock.

• Remote sensing: A process in which information is gathered about the earth’s surface
from above. Photographs of the area are taken from air; the images are carefully
analyzed for mineral present. Aerial photography can cover more ground than person
on the surface.
• Radiation detection: Mineral deposits are weathered at the earth’s surface, forming
mineral oxides. Mineral can also be detected by their unique radiation pattern
(recorded by a satellite and downloaded to a computer for analysis).
• Satellite signals: Some satellites send signal to the Earth’s surface and collect the
reflected signal, indicating the presence of minerals.
• Satellite images: Computers are used to process the data from a region of interest to
check for mineral presence. Geologist confirm the presence of mineral by visiting the
location.
• Geochemical analysis: Analyzing the chemical properties of rock (by taking samples)
• Geophysics: Method to identify mineral ores present in rock using their physical
properties. Examples; the shock wave of the mineral present in the rock layers can be
recorded using different pattern.
METHODS OF EXTRACTION
There are two basic types of extraction;
1) Surface Mining: which include; open-cast (open pit, open cut), strip and quarry.
2) Sub-surface mining: which include; deep mining and shaft mining.

3
Chapter One

Surface Mining/ Open pit mining

STAGES INVOLVE IN EXTRACTION OF SURFACE MINING (OPEN PIT, OPEN CAST, OPEN CUT)

i) Clear the vegetation

ii) Remove the top soil (overburden)
iii) Break and loosen the rock using explosives
iv) Use diggers to remove the loose rock
v) The rock and mineral are tipped into trucks or railway wagons.
Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed from open pit called quarries.
Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral example coal.

• Sub-surface/ Shaft mining

STAGES INVOLVE IN EXTRACTION OF SUB-SURFACE MINING (DEEP AND SHAFT MINING)
i) Sink a vertical shaft down to the layer containing minerals
ii) Make a horizontal tunnel following the mineral layer
iii) Extract the minerals by diggers done by miners or machines
4
Chapter One

iv) The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste heap on the surface.
v) The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or trains.
DANGERS IN DEEP MINING

• Shaft can collapse and miners are trapped

• Accidents difficult to deal with due to confined space
• Can lead to flood from rainfall at the surface through the shaft
• Can cause fire explosion from gases down the tunnel
• Air pollution and breathing difficulty due to poor ventilation
DANGERS IN SURFACE MINING

• More habitat loss due to clearing of vegetation and overburden remover

• Noise pollution from explosives used
• Air pollution from dust and smokes from machines used
• Visual pollution from the landscaped damaged and scenery destroyed
• Water pollution from chemical and waste from minerals used during mining
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DECISION TO EXTRACT ROCK AND MINERALS

• The cost of exploration and extraction: Probable cost of extracting minerals is

calculated and the type of mining is also considered. Shaft mining is costlier to set up
and maintain compared to open-pit mining. Therefore, only deposit of higher value can
be mined using deep mining method.
• Geology: High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical element than low-grade
ores. Therefore, small deposit of high-grade ores is worth mining, while small deposit of
low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves.
• Accessibility: Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plant can be difficult and
expensive. Therefore, the cost of building road, rail links to processing plant or to the
nearest port for export has to be considered. Carrying out some processing at the mine
reduces transport costs. The mining company must be given a license before extracting
a deposit.
• Environmental impact assessment: For license application to be approved, the
company must have a plan to keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by the
restoration of land proceeding the completion of mining. The choice of site for mine
waste should also be considered.
• Supply and Demand: The relation between how much of a commodity is available
(supply) and how much is needed or wanted by the consumer(demand) need to be
considered. The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
If the demand is too high, mines that are not profitable before become worth mining

5
Chapter One

and if the demand falls, working mine may get into a loss due to the transport and
extraction expenses.

IMPACT OF ROCK AND MINERAL EXTRACTION

Environmental Impact (negative impact)
Ecological impact:

• Loss of Habitat; As the vegetation is cleared, plants do not have a place to grow, so the
animal depending on them for food and shelter are affected. More open pit mining lead
to more Habitat loss and also loss of bio diversity.
• POLLUTION
▪ Noise pollution: Noise from machinery and explosives disturbs the behavior of
animal species and causes hearing problem for people.

Water pollution: Water supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe for people to drink.
The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metals ions and this combination kill many
aquatic organism
o Bioaccumulation: Building up of toxic chemical in the body of an organism.
This occurs when organisms absorb toxic ions and retain them in their
body, reaching concentration higher than that in water.
o Biomagnification: this is when the concentration of toxic substances
increases higher up in the food chain and cause the death of top consumer.
▪ Land pollution: Toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even year
after themining is stopped.
▪ Air pollution: Dust particles settle on the vegetation, not allowing sunlight to reach the
leaves and thus, reducing the rate of photosynthesis. Breathing in dust that remain in
the lung can cause serious lung diseases.
▪ Visual pollution: landscape and scenery are damaged due to build up of waste and top
soil remover.

ECONOMIC IMPACTS (POSITIVE IMPACT):

• Provides employment for the people and taxes for the government.
▪ Jobs are created directly to extract the mineral
▪ Further jobs created to supply transport and mining equipment
▪ More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products
▪ Earn foreign exchange
• Boost national Economy
• Improvement in facilities and infrastructure.

6
Chapter One

MANAGING THE IMPACT OF ROCK AND MINERAL EXTRACTION

1. Safe disposal of mining waste: Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse. The
waste must be monitored in order to detect any movement or further pollution.
2. Land restoration and reclamation: The following steps are taken in order to restore or
reclaim a land to have the land was before it was lost due to mining activities. This
involve returning back the landscape and vegetation through the following process;
i) Land smoothed off ii) Hole refilled iii) Top soil replaced
iv) Fertilizer added v) Tree planted.
Land made to look like it was before the mining work began.
3. Bioremediation: This is a process in which living things are used to remove toxic
chemical (pollutants) from a natural site. Example; Microorganism, like bacterial, can
absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less harmful substances.
4. Use as Land filled site; A process in which the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to
time until it is levelled off and compacted
5. Making lakes and nature reserves: After mining activity, several trees and herb species
can be introduced and as the population grow, they create habitat for many species.

SUSTAINABLE USE OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

• Sustainable resource: This is a resource that can be continuously replenish. Examples;
Agriculture, forestry, etc.
• Sustainable development: This is a development that meets the needs of the present,
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own need. #

STRETEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

1. Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals: Mine waste must be
processed for the second time. This allow the valuable minerals to be recovered and
reduce the risk of pollution due to mine waste. Also, improvement in the performance of
the machine used in mining and processing.
2. Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals
3. Recycling of rocks and mineral: Recycling uses less energy than processing ores and also
produces less waste and thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
4. Legislation: The government pass laws that require manufacturers to become responsible
for recycling and reuse. Examples, giving quota for mining.