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Chapter Three- AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil is a habitat for plants and other organisms that grow within it. It is made up of a number of
components. There are four main components
• Mineral particles: These are combination of rock fragments and other inorganic
substances. They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological weathering of the
parent rock.
• Organic content: Mixture of living plants, animals, microorganism and their dead
remain.
• Air: These are held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and organic
content). Air enter the soil by diffusion
• Water: Held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant growth). Water
enters the soil when there is precipitation or when the soil is irrigated
The proportion of these components depends on;
a) Types of soil b) Way it has been managed
c). Local climate conditions d) Size of the mineral particles.
Soil can be classified into groups:
Type Size Texture
SAND 2.0- 0.02mm Gritty
SILT 0.02- 0.002mm Silky and soapy
CLAY <0.002mm Sticky when wet
Hard when dried.
SOIL FOR PLANT GROWTH
Most plant requires a combination of factors to grow successfully. These include;
• The availability of important mineral nutrients to support plant growth
• Anchorage to hold the root securely in one plant
• A supply of water
• Oxygen around the root to enable the root cell to respire.
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ELEMENT SUPPLIED AS
NITROGEN Nitrate ions
PHOSPHORUS Phosphate ions
POTASSIUM Potassium ions
ORGANIC CONTENT:
• Earthworm: They break down vegetation, mix the soil, aerate the soil, spread organic
matter through the soil.
• Fungi: They feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody items, aid plants to take up
nutrients through their roots.
• Bacteria: They work on organic matter, convert waste products to simple chemicals,
some convert nitrogen to nitrate, they are also important in nitrogen cycle.
High level of organic matter (Advantages)
• Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge)
• Increase air spaces in the soil
• Increase the number of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the soil thereby,
providing additional drainage and less compaction to the soil.
• Prevent loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds onto mineral nutrients).
Soil pH:
• It depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water that flow into the area.
• It affects the uptake of nutrient by plant roots
• Affects the availability of nutrients
• Farmers can try to change the pH of the soil either to acidify (using fertilizer that have
acidic effect) or make it alkaline (adding ground limestone).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A SANDY SOIL AND A CLAY SOIL
SAND CLAY
Drains well (because of the large air spaces Poor drainage (because of the small/tight air
between particles). spaces between particles).
Low water holding capacity High water holding capacity
Quick to warm up Slow to warm up
Easy to cultivate (because the particles do Hard to cultivate (because it is sticky when
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not stick together easily). wet after heavy rain)
Poor retention of nutrients Retain nutrients well
A greater risk of erosion (because the Less risk of erosion (because the particles
particles are loose and not sticky) are tightly packed).
AGRICULTURE
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
SUBSISTENCE FARMING: Which is the cultivation and production of food to meet the need
of the farmer and their families
COMMERCIAL FARMING: Is the cultivation of products with the main focus of selling them
for cash.
ARABLE FARMING: This is the production of plant for consumption by humans.
PASTORAL FARMING: This is the farming that focuses on breeding and rearing livestock.
MIXED FARMING: farming that practices both rearing of livestock and growing crops.
EXTENTIVE PRODUCTION: Farming that is spread over a wide area and uses less resources
per metre of land.
INTENSIVE PRODUCTION: Farming that aim to maximize the yield from an area using a large
amount of resources.
INCREASING AGRICULTURAL YIELDS
There is pressure on food production due to the following reasons;
• An increasing world population needing more resources
• Climate change affecting the availability of fertile land
• Increasing settlement thereby, reducing available farmland
• Increase in the standard of living, creating a demand for more food variety.
• Large population also has an impact on the availability of water for irrigation.
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING CROP YIELD
1. CROP ROTATION: This is the principle of growing different types of plant in different
plots each year. Related group of plants are grown together during a season, then at the
start of the next season moved to a different plot of land that has just been used for a
different plant group.
Advantages of crop rotation:
▪ Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind.
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▪ Pest need to find a new site because their population is reduced.
▪ The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential nutrients.
▪ Crops are harvested at different times, leading to less potential waste, less
labour and machinery needed.
2. FERTILISER
Fertiliser contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, which are essential
for healthy plant growth. When used correctly, fertiliser increase crop yield because it adds
to the amount of mineral nutrients already present in the soil. When used incorrectly, they
cause environmental damage because they are washed into rivers and lakes by rainfall.
TYPES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
ORGANIC (Slow Acting) Uses natural resources, Unpleasant to handle,
Supply organic matter. Harder to transport,
Variable in composition.
INORGANIC (Quick Acting) Meet a particular need, Cost of manufacture,
Easier to store. Transportation cost.
QUICK ACTING Deficiency problem are dealt Easily leached out in heavy
with swiftly. rain.
SLOW ACTING No need to reapply. Little immediate impact.
Applying fertiliser safely:
Fertiliser will be wasted if there is too much rain, because it dissolves easily. It should not be
applied until heavy rain ceased. If fertiliser has to be added during a rainy season, the farmer
should choose a slow-release fertiliser, so that the roots are able to absorb small amount over a
longer period. The best practice is for the farmer to identify the crop that need fertiliser either
through visual inspection of plant or looking for sign of deficiency.
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3. IRRIGATION: Supplying water to the crops
Common water application method includes;
• Overhead sprinkler system; - This uses a special sprinkler nozzle with a small aperture
that force the water out under pressure.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easy to set up. Large droplet may cap the soil
Can cover a large area from one sprinkler. Small droplet may be blown away by wind.
No need to attach pipes to each plant. Water land on leaves and soil, which
evaporates quickly.
• Clay pot system; - This system uses porous clay pot that are buried in the soil next to
the roots of the plants. Each pot is filled with water, which gradually seep into the soil
around the roots.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Simple technology; Little can go wrong Only suitable for larger (more permanent)
plants.
Easy to check the amount of water Large labour cost (burying pots, checking
provided to the soil. pots, checking on water level topping up
manually)
Little surface evaporation because the
water is released into the soil
• Trickle drip system; - It is sometimes referred to as “Leaky pipes”. It uses a series of flat
polythene hoses laid on the surface of the soil between the row of crops. Water is
transported to these hoses through pipes and released slowly at the soil surface via tiny
holes in the hoses.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Water placed directly at the base of the Expensive to install and complex to
plant. maintain.
The system can be controlled and Small particles such as grit can block tubes.
automated via computer.
Water is used very efficiently. Inflexible; cannot be moved easily.
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• Flood Irrigation: It is a probably the most ancient method of irrigating crop. Water is
delivered to the field by a soil channel or pipe and allowing to flow freely over the
ground throughout the crop.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Inexpensive. Inefficient use of water.
Can cover large area quickly. Damage to soil structure.
Non-targeted plant (weed) also benefit.
4. CONTROLLING COMPETING ORGANISM
❖ Weed: A weed is a plant that is growing in an inappropriate place.
❖ Pest: An animal that attack or feed upon a crop plant
❖ Weed control: Weed killing chemicals are known as herbicides.
Weeds need to be controlled because they;
o They compete with crops for light, water and nutrients.
o They reduce the quality of seed or grain crop
o They make cultivation difficult
o They can be a source of pests and diseases.
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ADVANTAGES OF HERBICIDES
i). Easier to manage ii). Results are more predictable iii). Less labour needed
iv). Cheaper v). Alternatives may be less effective vi). Effect is more rapid.
Alternatives to herbicides
▪ Hand weeding and hoeing (cultural control)
▪ Weed barriers
▪ Flame guns
A crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses (pathogens). The most common disease is
fungal diseases and is controlled by fungicides. Insect controlling chemicals are called
insecticides.
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Alternatives to insecticides.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: FIND NATURAL PREDATORS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
No chemical residues. Not as instant as chemical control
No impacts of sprays. Pest may breed faster than the predator.
No need of reapplication Predator may feed on unintended plant
The predator will die naturally when pests
are controlled
5. MECHANIZATION (EFFICIENCY GAINED THROUGH MECHANIZATION)
• Larger area can be cultivated
• Reduce labour cost
• Ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy
• Additional attachment can be done to apply fertilizers and pesticides.
6. SELECTIVE BREEDING; - This is the traditional method used for improving the
performance of crops and livestock. The process of selective breeding is as follows;
• Identify which characteristics of the species are important
• Choose parents that exhibit these characteristics
• Raise the offspring from these parents
• Select the best offspring that shows the desired characteristics
• Repeat the process
• Examples: beef cattle, dairy cattle, increase in wheat and rice yield.
7. GENETIC MODIFICATION (Genetically modified organism) (GNO)
This process involves inserting a piece of DNA of the organism into the genetic code of another.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Disease and pest resistance may increase. Unknown impact of the new characteristics
on human health.
Nutritional value may increase. Products are not natural.
Crop can be grown in inhospitable areas. Genes might get into wild plants if they
interbreed with GMO
Herbicides resistance may increase Reduction in gene pool.
Crops with longer storage lives.
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8. CONTROLLING CROP ENVIRONMENT
• Greenhouse: Is a building made of glass or similar transparent material that is
used to manage the environment for plant growth. The greenhouse environment
allow farmer to control most environmental conditions and increase crop yields.
GROWTH FACTOR HOW TO INCREASE HOW TO DECREASE
TEMPERATURE Operate heating system Open roof ventilators
LIGHT Supplementary lighting Shading material in the roof
HUMIDITY Misting units Open roof ventilators
DAY LENGTH Supplementary lighting Shading material and curtains
WATER Sprinkle or irrigation Drainage material
underneath.
• Hydroponics: Growing plants without soil, with the nutrients the plant needs
dissolved in water.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
No need for soil Expensive to set up
Can be used anywhere Suitable for small production areas
Easy to harvest Technical knowledge is required
Exact nutrients needed are provided Diseases, if present, may spread rapidly
Water can be recycled Plant can die quickly if conditions are not
maintained.
IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE
1. Overuse of herbicides and insecticides: Regular use of one insecticide can cause
resistance within the pest population. This means that the toxic chemical no longer kill
the target pest individuals. It can also cause unintended environmental damage
whereby beneficial insects like bees are also affected and food web is disturbed.
o Solution: Use a range of different pesticides.
o Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may affect the next crop.
o Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into nearby lakes.
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2. Overuse of fertiliser:
This can lead to Eutrophication; which occurs when,
Nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate can enter water from excess fertiliser used
from farms. These nutrients cause rapid growth of algae called algal bloom. When the
algae die, organic matter in the water increases. This act as food for bacteria, as they
decompose the dead algae. The bacteria use up oxygen during this process of feeding,
reducing the oxygen content in the water and causing the death of fish and other
organisms.
Also,
o Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and resources if the soil
has reached its maximum level;
o Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching.
o Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the availability of
minerals.
o Too much trace element elements can be toxic to the plant.
Solution: Strict limits on where, when and how the fertiliser must be applied, can
. replace with organic fertilisers.
3. Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging.
o Damage to soil structure as the soil is compacted
o Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away with water.
o Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant roots from getting
enough oxygen.
o High levels of runoff causing soil erosion.
o Soil capping: Surface of the soil becomes hard.
o Salinisation: Salt content of the soil can increase. The process includes;
i) Irrigation water soaks into the soil to a great depth
ii) Salt dissolve in the water at a great depth
iii) Water and salts are drawn up to the surface
iv) Water evaporates from the field
v) Salt remains at the surface and kill the plant roots.
4. Overproduction and waste:
o Waste from overproduction: The unsold proportion of the crop.
o Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop, some crop needs special
conditions.
o Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need to travel longer
distances.
o Waste of quality products: low quality means less demand.
o Waste of labour: Not an efficient use of time and labour if too much is produced.
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5. Soil erosion
Overcultivation: soil that are cultivated regularly lose soil structure and are more
vulnerable to erosion as they break to smaller particles.
6. Cash crop replacing food crops:
Cash crops are crop grown for the purpose of selling them for cash and are usually
exported. And food crops are grown for consumption
Most commercial farmers prefer to grow crops that generate more cash. This causes a
decline in the staple food available.
CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF SOIL EROSION
Causes of soil erosion
• Removing of natural vegetation/ deforestation: No more roots to bind the soil
together or slow together or slow down the torrents of water, so flash flooding
and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.
• Overcultivation: Ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles.
These are more easily carried away by wind.
• Overgrazing: Livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level, sometimes
leaving no roots to hold the soil. Animal trample down the plants and their hoofs
compact the ground.
• Wind erosion: Deforestation (due to need for space, excessive grazing, increase
in development of arable crop) increase the change of soil getting eroded by
wind.
• Water erosion: Heavy rainfall carries the particles away
• Rainfall runoff
IMPACTS OF SOIL EROSION:
i. Loss of habitat
ii. Reduce the availability of the soil to store water and nutrients
iii. Lack of plant growth leading to malnutrition and famine
iv. Displacement of people
v. Desertification: the process by which fertile land become desert.
vi. Silting of river.
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MANAGING SOIL EROSION.
• Terracing: Prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep slopes.
• Contour ploughing: Ploughing across a slope, it also involves ploughing of land along
the contour in a parallel way. Ridges andfurrows run along the contour and each
furrow hold water and prevent runoff.
• Maintaining cover crop: Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been harvested
prevent soil erosion,
• Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure: Organic matter provide additional
air gap which improve soil structure. It also adds nutrients to the soil after
decomposition.
• Planting trees: row of trees act as windbreak. Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on
the organic matter. It also provides a natural habitat for animals, that feed on pests.
o Mixed cropping: This means growing more than one type of plant in the
same [Link] in the soil are used more efficiently.
o Intercropping: Rows of a different crop are grown between the row of the
main [Link] maximizes the space and other resources.
• Windbreak: A permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of wind on an area. Solid
structures like walls, can be used or permeable structures like vegetation which allow
some wind to pass through, decreasing its speed and thus, the amount of wind erosion.
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• Bunds: Artificial banks at the edge of growing spaces to hold back water. It helps to
increase water infiltration. It also prevent mineral loss and soil erosion.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Strategies for sustainable agriculture
• Crop rotation
• Manage grazing/ Rotational grazing
• Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: Reduces pesticide use.
• Use of herbicides- resistant varieties of crop: Reduces herbicide use.
• Use of drought- resistant varieties of crops: Reduces water usage for irrigation.
• Use of organic fertilizer
• Trickle drip irrigation
• Rainwater harvesting
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