SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Fundamentals, Energy Bands, Doping, p–n Junction & Applications
Physics / Engineering Physics Study Notes
1. Introduction to Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators.
• Conductivity can be controlled by temperature, light, electric field and impurities.
• Common semiconductor materials: Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
• Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronic devices.
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2. Conductors, Insulators & Semiconductors
• Conductors: very high electrical conductivity; many free electrons.
• Insulators: very low conductivity; electrons are strongly bound.
• Semiconductors: intermediate conductivity and controllable charge carriers.
• The difference is explained using the energy-band model.
• Conduction Band
• Valence Band
• Energy Gap (Eg)
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3. Energy Band Theory
• Valence band: energy band containing bound electrons.
• Conduction band: electrons here can contribute to electrical conduction.
• Forbidden energy gap (Eg): energy range between valence and conduction bands.
• For Si, Eg is about 1.12 eV at room temperature; for Ge, about 0.66 eV.
• Conduction Band
• Valence Band
• Energy Gap (Eg)
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Band Meaning
Conduction band Electrons can participate in conduction
Valence band Bound/valence electrons
Energy gap (Eg) Forbidden energy range
4. Intrinsic Semiconductor
• An intrinsic semiconductor is a chemically pure semiconductor.
• Charge carriers are generated thermally as electron–hole pairs.
• Number of electrons equals number of holes: n = p = ni.
• Electrical conductivity increases as temperature increases.
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5. Electron–Hole Pair
• When a valence electron receives sufficient energy, it moves to the conduction band.
• The vacant state left behind behaves as a positive charge carrier called a hole.
• Thus, one electron–hole pair is created.
• Both electrons and holes contribute to current.
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6. Extrinsic Semiconductor & Doping
• An extrinsic semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount of impurity to a pure
semiconductor.
• This controlled addition is called doping.
• Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers.
• Two types: n-type and p-type semiconductors.
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7. n-Type Semiconductor
• Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb) are added to Si.
• Four impurity electrons form covalent bonds; the fifth electron is weakly bound.
• Electrons are majority carriers.
• Holes are minority carriers.
• Majority carrier → electron
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8. p-Type Semiconductor
• Trivalent impurities such as boron (B), aluminium (Al) or gallium (Ga) are added to Si.
• An incomplete covalent bond creates a hole.
• Holes are majority carriers.
• Electrons are minority carriers.
• Majority carrier → hole
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9. p–n Junction
• A p–n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductor regions.
• Electrons and holes diffuse across the junction and recombine.
• A region depleted of mobile carriers is formed: the depletion region.
• An internal electric field and potential barrier develop at equilibrium.
• P-type
• N-type
• Depletion region
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P-type Depletion region N-type
Holes majority Fixed ions + electric field Electrons majority
10. Depletion Region & Barrier Potential
• The depletion region contains mostly fixed ionized donor and acceptor ions.
• It acts as a barrier to further majority-carrier diffusion.
• Typical barrier potential at room temperature is about 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.
• Forward bias reduces the barrier; reverse bias increases it.
• P-type
• N-type
• Depletion region
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11. Forward & Reverse Bias
• Forward bias: p-side connected to positive terminal and n-side to negative terminal.
• It reduces the depletion width and allows substantial current after the threshold region.
• Reverse bias: p-side connected to negative terminal and n-side to positive terminal.
• It widens the depletion region and produces a small reverse current.
• Forward Bias
• Current → → →
• Reverse Bias
• Very small current
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12. Semiconductor Diode
• A diode is a two-terminal device based on a p–n junction.
• It conducts mainly in one direction.
• Applications: rectification, switching, protection and signal processing.
• I–V characteristic shows different behavior in forward and reverse bias.
• p–n diode
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13. Zener Diode
• A Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse-breakdown region.
• It maintains an approximately constant voltage over a useful current range.
• Main application: voltage regulation.
• Always use an appropriate current-limiting resistor in a practical circuit.
• p–n diode
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14. Transistor: Basic Idea
• A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device used for amplification and switching.
• Common types: BJT (NPN and PNP) and FET/MOSFET families.
• In a BJT, the terminals are emitter, base and collector.
• Transistors are key building blocks of amplifiers, logic circuits and processors.
• Emitter
• Base
• Collector
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15. Applications of Semiconductors
• Diodes: rectifiers, LEDs, detectors and protection circuits.
• Transistors: amplifiers, electronic switches and oscillators.
• Integrated circuits: microprocessors, memory and control electronics.
• Solar cells, sensors and power electronics also rely on semiconductor technology.
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16. Advantages of Semiconductor Devices
• Small size and low weight.
• Low operating power for many applications.
• High reliability and long service life.
• Fast switching and easy integration into integrated circuits.
• Mass production enables compact and economical electronic systems.
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17. Summary
• Semiconductor behavior is explained using energy bands and charge carriers.
• Intrinsic material contains thermally generated electron–hole pairs.
• Doping produces n-type and p-type semiconductors.
• p–n junctions form the basis of diodes and many other devices.
• Semiconductors are essential to modern electronics.
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18. Thank You
• Thank You
• Questions & Discussion
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Suggested References
• NCERT Physics / introductory semiconductor electronics chapters.
• Engineering Physics textbooks covering semiconductor physics and devices.
• Microelectronic Circuits – Sedra/Smith (for deeper device concepts).
• Presentation prepared as an academic overview; numerical device parameters may vary with
material and conditions.
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Suggested References
• NCERT Physics / introductory semiconductor electronics chapters.
• Engineering Physics textbooks covering semiconductor physics and devices.
• Microelectronic Circuits – Sedra/Smith for deeper device concepts.