Chapter 8

Engineering Mechanics: ME1102/ME1202

Mahavir Singh

Courtesy: TMH
 Friction: Applications
• It is the resistive force which opposes the
relative motion or tendency of motion b/w two
surfaces in contact.
• Friction is both problematic (loss of energy, heat
generation) and useful in many engineering
applications, such as in tires and brakes.
• Friction allows us to walk without slipping,
enables the gripping of tires with surface/road
and helps brakes stop moving vehicles.

2
 Introduction
• In preceding chapters, it was assumed that surfaces in contact were
either frictionless (surfaces could move freely with respect to each
other) or rough (tangential forces prevent relative motion between
surfaces).

• Actually, no perfectly frictionless surface exists. For two surfaces

in contact, tangential forces, called friction forces, will develop if
one attempts to move relative to the other.

• However, the friction forces are limited in magnitude and will not
prevent motion if sufficiently large forces are applied.

• The distinction between frictionless and rough is, therefore, a matter

of degree.
• There are two types of friction: Dry or Coulomb friction and Fluid
friction. Fluid friction applies to lubricated mechanisms. The
present discussion is limited to dry friction between non-lubricated
surfaces.
3
The Laws of Dry Friction: Coefficients of
Friction
• A block of weight W is placed on a horizontal
surface. Forces acting on the block are its
weight and the reaction of the surface N.
• A small horizontal force P is applied. For the
block to remain stationary, in equilibrium, a
horizontal component F of the surface reaction
is required. F is a static-friction force.
• As P increases, the static-friction force F
increases as well until it reaches a maximum
value Fm. S is the coefficient of static friction.

Fm =  s N
If the force P is increased, the • Further increase in P causes the block to begin
friction force F also increases, to move as F drops to a smaller kinetic-friction
continuing to oppose P, until its force Fk. k is the coefficient of kinetic
magnitude reaches a certain
friction. F = N
maximum value Fm. k k
4
 The Laws of Dry Friction.
Coefficients of Friction
• Maximum static-friction force:
Fm =  s N

• Kinetic-friction force:
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 If not given, can
assume this

• Maximum static-friction force and kinetic-

friction force are:
- proportional to normal force (N)
- dependent on the type and condition of
contact surfaces
- independent of contact area (apparent
or projected area)
COF can be greater than 1, however, not encountered much in usual applications. Silicone
rubber usually has a coefficient of friction greater than 1.
5
 The Laws of Dry Friction:
Coefficients of Friction
• Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a
horizontal surface:

• No friction, • No motion, • Motion impending, • Motion,

(Px = 0) (Px < F) (Px = Fm) (Px > Fm)

6
 Angles of Friction

• It is sometimes convenient to replace the normal force N and the

friction force F by their resultant R:

• No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

If no horizontal force is F  N Fk  k N
applied to the block, tan  s = m = s tan  k = =
N N N N
the resultant R reduces tan  k =  k
tan  s =  s
to the normal force N
∅𝑠 : Limiting angle of friction/ angle of static friction
7
 Angles of Friction
• Consider a block of weight W resting on board with variable
inclination angle q.

• No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

The forces
R normal to the R deviates from Angle of inclination
acting on the
surface normal to the (𝜃)=Angle of static
block are
surface by angle friction (∅𝑠 )=Angle
unbalanced,
𝜃 with normal of repose
equilibrium is
∅𝑠 : Limiting angle of friction/ not maintained
angle of static friction
8
 Sample Problem 8.1

A 100-N force acts as shown on a 300-N

block placed on an inclined plane. The
coefficients of friction between the block
and plane are s = 0.25 and k = 0.20.
Determine whether the block is in
equilibrium and find the value of the
friction force.

9
 Sample Problem 8.1
SOLUTION:
• Determine values of friction force and normal
reaction force from plane required to maintain
equilibrium.
Assumption!
 Fx = 0 : 100 N - 53 (300 N ) − F = 0
F = −80 N or 𝐹 = 𝑃 − 180

 Fy = 0 : N − 45 (300 N ) = 0
What does the sign
N = 240 N
tell you about the
assumed direction of • Calculate maximum friction force and compare
impending motion?. with friction force required for equilibrium.
The force F required to maintain Fm =  s N = 0.25(240 N ) = 60 N
equilibrium is an 80 N force
directed up and to the right; the What does this solution imply about the block?
tendency of the block is thus to
move down the plane. The block will slide down the plane.
10
Sample Problem 8.1

Since the value of the force required to maintain

equilibrium (80 N) is larger than the maximum
value which may be obtained (60 N),
equilibrium will not be maintained and the
block will slide down the plane.

• If the maximum friction force is less than the

friction force required for equilibrium, the block
will slide. Calculate the actual kinetic-friction
force.
Factual = Fk =  k N
= 0.20(240 N )
Factual = 48 N

The sense of this force is opposite to the sense of

motion; the force is thus directed up and to the right.

11
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of
Friction- Hysteresis
On unloading/reversing, the curve
does not retrace perfectly; energy is
dissipated as heat. This loop is called
frictional hysteresis.

Hysteresis in friction is the energy

loss due to the mismatch of frictional
resistance during loading vs.
unloading, caused by surface
deformation and the difference
between static & kinetic friction.

12
 Sample Problem 8.3

The movable bracket shown may be

placed at any height on the 75-mm
diameter pipe. If the coefficient of
friction between the pipe and bracket is
0.25, determine the minimum distance x at
which the load can be supported. Neglect
the weight of the bracket.

13
Sample Problem 8.3
SOLUTION:
• When W is placed at minimum x, the bracket is about
to slip, and friction forces in the upper and lower
collars are at maximum value.
FA =  s N A = 0.25N A
FB =  s N B = 0.25N B
• Apply conditions for static equilibrium to find
the minimum x.
 Fx = 0 : N B − N A = 0 NB = N A

 Fy = 0 : FA + FB − W = 0
0.25N A + 0.25N B − W = 0
0.5 N A = W

N A = N B = 2W

14
Sample Problem 8.3

MB = 0:

N A (0.15 m ) − FA (0.075 m ) − W ( x − 0.0375 m ) = 0

0.15 N A − 0.075(0.25 N A ) − W ( x − 0.0375 ) = 0
0.15(2W ) − 0.01875 (2W ) − W ( x − 0.0375 ) = 0

x = 0.3 m = 300 mm

Note that it doesn’t matter what W is… Does this

make sense?

15
 Wedges
F3H
6°
F3
F3V

• Wedges: simple machines N3 N3V

used to raise heavy loads. • Block as free body 6°
• Force required to lift the  Fx = 0 :
N3H
block is significantly less − N1 +  s N 2 = 0
• Wedge as free body
than the block's weight.
 Fy = 0 :
• Friction prevents the − W −  s N1 + N 2 = 0  Fx = 0 :
wedge from sliding out. − sN 2 − N 3 ( s cos6+ sin6)
• Want to find the +P=0
minimum force P to raise  Fy = 0 :
the block.
−N 2 + N 3 (cos6−  s sin6) = 0

16
 Wedges

• Block as free body

• Wedge as free body
 Fx = 0 :  Fx = 0 :
− N1 +  s N 2 = 0
− sN 2 − N 3 ( s cos6+ sin6)
 Fy = 0 : +P=0
− W −  s N1 + N 2 = 0  Fy = 0 :
−N 2 + N 3 (cos6−  s sin6) = 0
𝑁1 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁2
𝑁2
𝑁3 =
𝑊 = 𝑁2 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑁1 = 𝑁2 − 𝜇𝑠 2 𝑁2 cos6° − 𝜇𝑠 sin6°

𝜇𝑠 cos6° + sin6°
𝑊 𝑃 = 𝑁2 𝜇𝑠 +
𝑁2 = cos6° − 𝜇𝑠 sin6°
1 − 𝜇𝑠 2
𝑊 𝜇𝑠 cos6° + sin6°
𝑃= 𝜇 +
1 − 𝜇𝑠 2 𝑠 cos6° − 𝜇𝑠 sin6°
17
 Wedges

• Block as free body

• Wedge as free body
 Fx = 0 :  Fx = 0 :
− N1 +  s N 2 = 0
− sN 2 − N 3 ( s cos6+ sin6)
 Fy = 0 : +P=0
− W −  s N1 + N 2 = 0  Fy = 0 :
−N 2 + N 3 (cos6−  s sin6) = 0
𝑊 2𝜇𝑠 cos6° − 𝜇𝑠2 sin6° + sin6°
𝑃=
1 − 𝜇𝑠2 cos6° − 𝜇𝑠 sin6° If 𝜇𝑠 =0.25, 𝜃 = 6°, P = 0.66W
The mechanical advantage of a wedge is

If 𝜇𝑠 =0.25, 𝜃 = 10°, P = 0.74W
determined by the angle of its taper; narrow
tapers have a larger mechanical advantage. This If 𝜇𝑠 =0.25, 𝜃 = 25°, P = 1.13W
means that a wedge with a smaller angle requires
less force to lift a body than one with a larger If 𝜇𝑠 =0.25,𝜃 = 60°, P = 4.86W
angle.
18
 Belt Friction
Belt (tight side)

Larger Pulley
(driven)

Smaller Pulley (driving)

(slack side)
Power is transmitted through frictional forces
between pulley and belt and vice versa
19
 Belt Friction
CW for belt • A flat belt passing over a fixed cylindrical drum. Relate T1
and T2 when belt is about to slide to right (T2> T1)
• Draw free-body diagram for element of belt

 Fx = 0 : (T + T ) cos q − T cos q −  s N = 0
2 2
q q
(Slack side)  Fy = 0 : N − (T + T )sin − T sin =0
2 2
(Tight side)

• Combine to eliminate N, divide through by q,

T q  T  sin (q 2)
cos − s T +  =0
q 2  2  q 2

For Capstan/Fixed drum: The tight side is simply

the side from which the belt is being pulled.
20
 Belt Friction
• Relate T1 and T2 when belt is about to slide to right.

• In the limit as q goes to zero,

dT dT
− sT = 0 = s dq
dq T
• Separate variables and integrate from q = 0 to q = 
= e s 
T T2
ln 2 =  s  or Euler–Eytelwein formula or Belt
T1 T1
Friction Equation/Capstan Equation
𝑻𝟐 = Tension on tight side (opposite to friction
force direction) Over the contact arc length (angle 𝛽),
𝑻𝟏 = Tension on slack side, 𝑻𝟐 > 𝑻𝟏 , 𝜷 in belt tension builds up/varies gradually.
radians 21
Over the contact arc length, belt tension builds up/varies gradually.

Tension variation along belt-pulley/drum contact (𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒𝜇𝑠 𝛽 ).

COF=0.2, contact angle=3.14 radian=180 ° and 𝑇1​=100 N
Exit T2

How the belt tension rises smoothly along

the contact arc from the slack side 𝑇1
(entry) to the tight side 𝑇2 (exit). 𝑇2 > 𝑇1

Entry
T1

22
 Sample Problem 8.8

SOLUTION:
• Since angle of contact is smaller,
slippage will occur on pulley B
first. Determine belt tensions based
on pulley B.
• Taking pulley, A as a free-body, sum
moments about the pulley centre to
determine the torque.
A flat belt connects pulley A to pulley B.
The coefficients of friction are s = 0.25
and k = 0.20 between both pulleys and
the belt.
Knowing that the maximum allowable
tension in the belt is 3000 N, determine
the largest torque which can be exerted
by the belt on pulley A.
23
Sample Problem 8.8
SOLUTION:
• Since the angle of contact is smaller, slippage
will occur on pulley B first. Determine belt
tensions based on pulley B.
T 2 / T1 = e  s  3000 N / T1 = e0.25(2 3) = 1.688
T1 = 3000 N / 1.688 = 1777 .3 N
• Taking pulley, A as free-body, sum moments about
pulley center to determine torque.
MA = 0 : M A + (0.2 m)(1777.3 N − 3000 N ) = 0
M A = 244.5 N  m
• Check that belt does not slip at A.  = 240o = 4/3 rad
T 3000 N
 s  = ln 2 = ln = 0.524
T1 1777.3 N
4
 s = 0.524  s = 0.125  0.25
3 24
 Sample Problem
Bollard (a vertical post)

Hawser (rope)

A hawser thrown from a ship to a pier is wrapped two full turns around a bollard. The
tension in the hawser is 7500-N; by exerting a force of 150-N on its free end, a
dockworker can just keep the hawser from slipping. (a) Determine the coefficient of
friction between the hawser and the bollard. (b) Determine the tension in the hawser
that could be resisted by the 150-N force if the hawser were wrapped three full turns
around the bollard.

25
Solution: Part A

26
Solution: Part B

27
 Problem
A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from drum B to drum A. Knowing that
the coefficient of static friction is 0.40 and that the allowable belt tension is
450 N, determine the largest couple that can be exerted on drum A.

28
Solution

29
 Problem
A support block is acted upon by two forces as shown. Knowing that
the coefficients of friction between the block and the incline are COF
static= 0.35 and COF kinetic=0.25, determine the force P required (a)
to start the block moving up the incline, (b) to keep it moving up, (c)
to prevent it from sliding down.

30
 Problem
Determine whether the block shown is in equilibrium and find the
magnitude and direction of the friction force when:
(a) 𝜃 = 25 and P = 750 N.
(b) 𝜃 = 30 and P = 150 N.

31
Solution (a)

32
Solution (b)

33
 Problem
Bucket A and block C are connected by a cable that passes over drum B.
Knowing that drum B rotates slowly counterclockwise and that the
coefficients of friction at all surfaces are 𝜇𝑠 = 0.35 and 𝜇𝑘 = 0.25, determine
the smallest combined mass m of the bucket and its contents for which block
C will (a) remain at rest, (b) start moving up the incline, (c) continue moving
up the incline at a constant speed.

34
Solution

35
36
37
38
 Suggested Problems for Practice

• 8.3, 8.4, 8.6, 8.8, 8.105, 8.113, 8.118, 8.119

rraj@[Link] 39