Meaning and Nature of Communication: Develop ANS.

The exchange of information or passing of information, ideas or thought

from one person to the other or from one end to the other is
communication. According to McFarland communication is, “a process
of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is
the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings are
reached among human beings.” Newman and summer defined
communication as “an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by
two or more persons.”

Communication is the process of passing information from one person

to another. The purpose of communication understands of information.
Whatever one wants to say to someone should be clearly understood by
him else the very purpose of the communication would be defeated.

In an organisation communication facilitates the flow of information and

understanding between different people and departments through
different media using all the channels and networks. This flow of
information is vital for managerial effectiveness and decision making in
general and for human resource manager in particular as he has to be in
contact with the managers of various departments, employees and
workers and trade union leaders.

Communication thus helps understand people better removing

misunderstanding and creating clarity of thoughts and expression. It also
educates people. The communication may be written or oral, formal,
informal, and upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, interdepartmental, intra-organisational.

The communication brings people together, closer to each other. The

communication is an important management function closely associated
with all other managerial functions. It bridges the gap between
individuals and groups through flow of information and understanding
between them. Information is the most vital aspect for communication.
It is the information which is transmitted, studied, analyzed and
interpreted and stored. The manager therefore has to

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spare time to collect, analyze and store the information for decision
making and routine day to day business.
Purpose of Communication:
Management is getting the things done through others. The people
working in the organisation should therefore be informed how to do the
work assigned to them in the best possible manner. The communication
is essential in any organisation.

The purpose of the communication can be summed up into the

following:
1. Flow of Information:
The relevant information must flow continuously from top to bottom
and vice versa. The staff at all levels must be kept informed about the
organisational objectives and other developments taking place in the
organisation. A care should be taken that no one should be misinformed.
The information should reach the incumbent in the
language he or she can understand better. The use of difficult words
should be avoided. The right information should reach the right person,
at right time through the right person.

2. Coordination:
It is through communication the efforts of all the staff working in the
organisation can be coordinated for the accomplishment of the
organisational goals. The coordination of all personnel’s and their
efforts is the essence of management which can be attained through
effective communication.

3. Learning Management Skills:

The communication facilitates flow of information, ideas, beliefs,
perception, advice, opinion, orders and instructions etc. both ways
which enable the managers and other supervisory staff to learn
managerial skills through experience of others. The experience of the
sender of the message gets reflected in it which the person at the
receiving end can learn by analyzing and understanding it.

4. Preparing People to Accept Change:

The proper and effective communication is an important tool in the
hands of management of any organisation to bring about overall
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change in the organisational policies, procedures and work style and
make the staff to accept and respond positively.

5. Developing Good Human Relations:

Managers and workers and other staff exchange their ideas, thoughts
and perceptions with each other through communication. This helps
them to understand each other better. They realize the difficulties faced
by their colleagues at the workplace. This leads to promotion of good
human relations in the organisation.

6. Ideas of Subordinates Encouraged:

The communication facilitates inviting and encouraging the ideas from
subordinates on certain occasions on any task. This will develop creative
thinking. Honoring subordinates’ ideas will further motivate them for
hard work and a sense of belonging to the organisation will be
developed. It will provide them with the encouragement to share
information with their superiors without hesitation. The managers must
know the ideas, thoughts, comments, reactions and attitudes of their
subordinates and subordinates should know the same from the lowest
level staff of their respective departments.

Importance of Communication:
Effective communication is vital for efficient management and to
improve industrial relations. In modern world the growth of
telecommunication, information technology and the growing
competition and complexity in production have increased importance of
communication in organisations large and small irrespective of their
type and kind. A corporate executive must be in a position to
communicate effectively with his superiors, colleagues in other
departments and subordinates. This will make him perform well and
enable him to give his hundred percent to the organisation.

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The following points can illustrate the importance of
communication in human resource management:

1. Base for Action:

Communication acts as a base for any action. Starting of any activity
begins with communication which brings information necessary to
begin with.

2. Planning Becomes Easy:

Communication facilitates planning. Planning is made easy by
communication. Any type of information regarding the human resource
requirement of each department of the organisation with their
qualifications, the type and kinds of job etc. can be collected through
communication which helps in human resource planning. Policies and
programmes for their acquisition can be prepared and implemented. In
the entire process communication plays a vital role, it also facilitates
managerial planning of the organisation.

3. Means of Coordination:
Communication is an important tool for coordinating the efforts of
various people at work in the organisation.

4. Aids in Decision-Making:
The information collected through communication aids in decision
making. Communication facilitates access to the vital information
required to take decisions.

5. Provides Effective Leadership:

A communication skill bring manager near to his subordinates and
exchange ideas and submits appropriate proposals, knows their
opinions, seeks advices and make decisions. This enables a manager to
win confidence of his subordinates through constantly communicating
with them and removing probable misunderstandings. In this way he
leads his people to accomplish the organisational goal.

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6. Boosts Morale and Motivation:
An effective communication system instills confidence among
subordinates and workers ensuring change in their attitude and
behaviour. The main cause of conflict and dissatisfaction is
misunderstanding which can be removed through communication skills.
The removal of misunderstanding makes manager and his subordinates
understand each other and create good industrial relations. This boosts
up the morale of the people and motivates them to work harder.
Principles of Communication:
Lack of effective communication renders an organisation handicapped.
So to have effective communication certain principles are to be
followed.

They are as follows:

1. Clarity:
The principle of clarity means the communicator should use such a
language which is easy to understand. The message must be understood
by the receiver. The words used should be simple and unambiguous.
The language should not create any confusion or misunderstanding.
Language is the medium of communication; hence it should be clear and
understandable.

2. Adequacy and Consistency:

The communicator must carefully take into account that the information
to be communicated should be complete and adequate in all respect.
Inadequate and incomplete message creates confusion and delays the
action to be taken. The adequate information must be consistent with the
organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures. The message
which is inconsistent may play havoc and distort the corporate interests.

3. Integration:
The principle of integration portrays that through communication the
efforts of human resources of the organisation should be integrated
towards achievement of corporate objectives. The very aim of
communication is to achieve the set target. The communication

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should aim at coordinating the activities of the people at work to attain
the corporate goals.

4. Economy:
The unnecessary use of communication system will add to cost. The
system of communication must be used efficiently, timely i.e. at the
appropriate time and when it is necessary. The economy in use of
communication system can be achieved in this way.

5. Feedback:
The purpose of communication will be defeated if feedback is not taken
from the receiver. The confirmation of the receipt of the message in its
right perspective from its receiver fulfills the object of communication.
The feedback is essential only in case of written communication and
messages sent through messengers. In case of oral type of
communication the feedback is immediately known.

6. Need for Communication Network:

The route through which the communication passes from sender or
communicator to its receiver or communicate refers to communication
network. For effective communication this network is essential. The
managerial effectiveness will also depend upon the availability of
adequate network.

7. Attention:
The message communicated must draw the attention of the receiver staff
and ensure action from him in the right perspective. The efficient,
sincere and prompt manager succeeds in drawing the attention of his
subordinates to what he is conveying.

Communication is vital to organizations—it’s how we coordinate

actions and achieve goals. It is defined in Webster’s dictionary as a
process by which information is exchanged between individuals through
a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviours. We know that 50%
to 90% of a manager’s time is spent communicating (Schnake et al.,
1990), and communication ability is related to a manager’s performance
(Penley et al., 1991). In most work
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environments, a miscommunication is an annoyance—it can interrupt
workflow by causing delays and interpersonal strife. But, in some work
arenas, like operating rooms and airplane cockpits, communication can
be a matter of life and death.
So, just how prevalent is miscommunication in the workplace? You may
not be surprised to learn that the relationship between
miscommunication and negative outcomes is very strong. Data suggest
that deficient interpersonal communication was a causal factor in
approximately 70% to 80% of all accidents over the last 20 years.
Poor communication can also lead to lawsuits. For example, you might
think that malpractice suits are filed against doctors based on the
outcome of their treatments alone. But a 1997 study of malpractice suits
found that a primary influence on whether or not a doctor is sued is the
doctor’s communication style. While the combination of a bad outcome
and patient unhappiness can quickly lead to litigation, a warm, personal
communication style leads to greater patient satisfaction. Simply put,
satisfied patients are less likely to sue.
In business, poor communication costs money and wastes time. One
study found that 14% of each work week is wasted on poor
communication (Armour, 1998). In contrast, effective communication
is an asset for organizations and individuals alike. Effective
communication skills, for example, are an asset for job seekers. A study
of recruiters at 85 business schools ranked communication and
interpersonal skills as the highest skills they were looking for, with 89%
of the recruiters saying they were important (Alsop, 2006). On the flip
side, good communication can help a company retain its star employees.
Surveys find that when employees think their organizations do a good
job of keeping them informed about matters that affect them and when
they have access to the information they need to do their jobs, they are
more satisfied with their employers. So can good communication
increase a company’s market value? The answer seems to be yes.
“When you foster ongoing communications internally, you will have
more satisfied employees

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who will be better equipped to effectively communicate with your
customers,” says Susan Meisinger, president and CEO of the Society for
Human Resource Management. Research finds that organizations that
are able to improve their communication integrity also increase their
market value by as much as 7% (Meisinger, 2003). We will explore the
definition and benefits of effective communication in our next section.

The Communication Process

Communication fulfills three main functions within an organization,

including coordination, transmission of information, and sharing
emotions and feelings. All these functions are vital to a successful
organization. The coordination of effort within an organization helps
people work toward the same goals. Transmitting information is a vital
part of this process. Sharing emotions and feelings bonds teams and
unites people in times of celebration and crisis. Effective
communication helps people grasp issues, build rapport with
coworkers, and achieve consensus. So, how can we communicate
effectively? The first step is to understand the communication process.

Figure 8.3 Process Model of Communication

We all exchange information with others countless times each day by
phone, e-mail, printed word, and of course, in person. Let us take a
moment to see how a typical communication cycle works using this as a
guide.
A sender, such as a boss, coworker, or customer, originates the
message with a thought. For example, the boss’s thought could be:
“Get more printer toner cartridges!”
The sender encodes the message, translating the idea into words.
The boss may communicate this thought by saying, “Hey you guys, let’s
order more printer toner cartridges.”
The medium of this encoded message may be spoken
words, written words, or signs. The receiver is the person
who receives the message.
The receiver decodes the message by assigning meaning to the words.
In this example, our receiver, Bill, has a to-do list a mile long. “The
boss must know how much work I already have,” the receiver thinks.

9
Bill’s mind translates his boss’s message as, “Could you order some
printer toner cartridges, in addition to everything else I asked you to
do this week…if you can find the time?”
The meaning that the receiver assigns may not be the meaning that the
sender intended, because of factors such as noise. Noise is anything
that interferes with or distorts the message being transformed. Noise
can be external in the environment (such as distractions) or it can be
within the receiver. For example, the receiver may be extremely
nervous and unable to pay attention to the message. Noise can even
occur within the sender: The sender may be unwilling to take the time
to convey an accurate message, or the words that are chosen can be
ambiguous and prone to misinterpretation.
Picture the next scene. The place: a staff meeting. The time: a few days
later. Bill’s boss believes the message about printer toner has been
received.
“Are the printer toner cartridges here yet?” Bill’s boss asks.
“You never said it was a rush job!” Bill protests.
“But!”
“But!”
Miscommunications like these happen in the workplace every day.
We’ve seen that miscommunication does occur in the workplace, but
how does a miscommunication happen? It helps to think of the
communication process. The series of arrows pointing the way from
the sender to the receiver and back again can, and often do, fall short of
their target.

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Communication Barriers

Barriers to Effective Communication

The biggest single problem in communication is the

illusion that it has taken place.
– George Bernard Shaw

Filtering

Filtering is the distortion or withholding of information to manage a

person’s reactions. Some examples of filtering include a manager
keeping a division’s negative sales figures from a superior, in this case,
the vice president. The old saying, “Don’t shoot the messenger!”
illustrates the tendency of receivers to vent their negative response to
unwanted messages to the sender. A gatekeeper (the vice president’s
assistant, perhaps) who doesn’t pass along a complete message is also
filtering. Additionally, the vice president may delete the e-mail
announcing the quarter’s sales figures before reading it, blocking the
message before it arrives.
As you can see, filtering prevents members of an organization from
getting the complete picture of a situation. To maximize your chances
of sending and receiving effective communications, it’s helpful to
deliver a message in multiple ways and to seek information from
multiple sources. In this way, the impact of any one person’s filtering
 will be diminished.
Since people tend to filter bad news more during upward
communication, it is also helpful to remember that those below you in
an organization may be wary of sharing bad news. One way to defuse
this tendency to filter is to reward employees who clearly convey
information upward, regardless of whether the news is good or bad.
Here are some of the criteria that individuals may use when deciding
whether to filter a message or pass it on:

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1. Past experience: Were previous senders rewarded for passing along
news of this kind in the past, or were they criticized?
2. Knowledge and perception of the speaker: Has the receiver’s direct
superior made it clear that “no news is good news?”
3. Emotional state, involvement with the topic, and level of attention: Does
the sender’s fear of failure or criticism prevent the message from being
conveyed? Is the topic within the sender ’s realm of expertise,
increasing confidence in the ability to decode the message, or is the
sender out of a personal comfort zone when it comes to evaluating the
message’s significance? Are personal concerns impacting the sender’s
ability to judge the message’s value?

Once again, filtering can lead to miscommunications in business.

Listeners translate messages into their own words, each creating a
unique version of what was said (Alessandra, 1993).

Selective Perception SHORT + LONG

Small things can command our attention when we’re visiting a new
place—a new city or a new company. Over time, however, we begin to
make assumptions about the environment based on our past
experiences. Selective perception refers to filtering what we see and
hear to suit our own needs. This process is often unconscious. We are
bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to
everything, so we pick and choose according to our own needs.
Selective perception is a time-saver, a necessary tool in a complex
culture. But it can also lead to mistakes.
Think back to the example conversation between the person asked to
order more toner cartridges and his boss earlier in this chapter. Since
Bill found the to-do list from his boss to be unreasonably demanding,
he assumed the request could wait. (How else could he do everything
else on the list?) The boss, assuming that Bill had heard the urgency in
her request, assumed that Bill would place the order before returning to
previously stated tasks. Both members of this organization were using
selective perception to evaluate the communication. Bill’s perception
was that the task could wait. The

12
boss’s perception was that a timeframe was clear, though unstated.
When two selective perceptions collide, a misunderstanding occurs.

Information Overload

Messages reach us in countless ways every day. Some messages are

societal—advertisements that we may hear or see in the course of our
day. Others are professional—e-mails, memos, and voice mails, as well
as conversations with our colleagues. Others are personal—
messages from and conversations with our loved ones and friends.
Add these together and it’s easy to see how we may be receiving more
information than we can take in.
This state of imbalance is known as information overload, which
occurs “when the information processing demands on an individual’s
time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the supply
or capacity of time available for such processing” (Schick, Gordon, &
Haka, 1990). Others note that information overload is “a symptom of
the high-tech age, which is too much information for one human being
to absorb in an expanding world of people and technology. It comes
from all sources including TV, newspapers, and magazines as well as
wanted and unwanted regular mail, e-mail and faxes. It has been
exacerbated enormously because of the formidable number of results
obtained from Web search engines.” Other research shows that
working in such fragmented fashion significantly impacts efficiency,
creativity, and mental acuity (Overholt, 2001).

A field study found that managers can expect, on average, to do only 3

minutes of uninterrupted work on any one task before being interrupted
by an incoming e-mail, instant message, phone call, coworker, or other
distraction (González & Gloria, 2004).
Going back to our example of Bill, let’s say he’s in his office on the
phone with a supplier. While he’s talking, he hears the chime of his e-
mail alerting him to an important message from his boss. He’s
scanning through it quickly while still on the phone when a
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coworker pokes her head into his office saying Bill’s late for a staff
meeting. The supplier on the other end of the phone line has just given
him a choice among the products and delivery dates he requested. Bill
realizes he missed hearing the first two options, but he doesn’t have
time to ask the supplier to repeat them all or to try reconnecting with
him at a later time. He chooses the third option— at least he heard that
one, he reasons, and it seemed fair. How good was Bill’s decision
amidst all the information he was processing at the same time?
GRADE POINT

Workplace Gossip

The informal gossip network known as the grapevine is a lifeline for

many employees seeking information about their company (Kurland
& Pelled, 2000). Researchers agree that the grapevine is an inevitable
part of organizational life. Research finds that 70% of all
organizational communication occurs at the grapevine level
(Crampton, 1998). Employees trust their peers as a source of
information, but the grapevine’s informal structure can be a barrier to
effective communication from the managerial point of view. Its
grassroots structure gives it greater credibility in the minds of
employees than information delivered through official channels, even
when that information is false. Some downsides of the office grapevine
are that gossip offers politically minded insiders a powerful tool for
disseminating communication (and self-promoting
miscommunications) within an organization. In addition, the grapevine
lacks a specific sender, which can create a sense of distrust among
employees: Who is at the root of the gossip network? When the news is
volatile, suspicions may arise as to the person or person behind the
message. Managers who understand the grapevine’s power can use it to
send and receive messages of their own. They can also decrease the
grapevine’s power by sending official messages quickly and
accurately, should big news arise.
 14
Gender Differences in Communication

Men and women work together every day, but their different styles of
communication can sometimes work against them. Generally speaking,
women like to ask questions before starting a project, while men tend
to “jump right in.” A male manager who’s unaware of how most
women communicate their readiness to work may misperceive a ready
employee as not being prepared.
Another difference that has been noticed is that men often speak in
sports metaphors, while many women use their home as a starting
place for analogies. Women who believe men are “only talking about
the game” may be missing out on a chance to participate in a division’s
strategy and opportunities for teamwork and “rallying the troops” for
success (Krotz).
“It is important to promote the best possible communication between
men and women in the workplace,” notes gender policy advisor Dee
Norton, who provided the above example. “As we move between the
male and female cultures, we sometimes have to change how we
behave (speak the language of the other gender) to gain the best results
from the situation. Clearly, successful organizations of the future are
going to have leaders and team members who understand, respect, and
apply the rules of gender culture appropriately” (CDR Dee Norton,
2008).
As we have seen, differences in men’s and women’s communication
styles can lead to misunderstandings in the workplace. Being aware of
these differences, however, can be the first step in learning to work
with them instead of around them. Keep in mind that men tend to focus
more on competition, data, and orders in their communications, while
women tend to focus more on cooperation, intuition, and requests.
Both styles can be effective in the right situations, but understanding
the differences is a first step in avoiding misunderstandings.

15
Poor Listening
The greatest compliment that was ever paid to me was when one asked
me what I thought, and attended to my answer.
– Henry David Thoreau
A sender may strive to deliver a message clearly. But the receiver’s
ability to listen effectively is equally vital to successful
communication. The average worker spends 55% of their workdays
listening. Managers listen up to 70% each day. Unfortunately, listening
doesn’t lead to understanding in every case.
From a number of different perspectives, listening matters. Former
Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca lamented, “I only wish I could find an
institute that teaches people how to listen. After all, a good manager
needs to listen at least as much as he needs to talk” (Iacocca & Novak,
1984). Research shows that listening skills were related to promotions
(Sypher, Bostrom, & Seibert, 1989).
Listening clearly matters. Listening takes practice, skill, and
concentration. Alan Gulick, a Starbucks Corporation spokesperson,
believes better listening can improve profits. If every Starbucks
employee misheard one $10 order each day, their errors would cost the
company a billion dollars annually. To teach its employees to listen,
Starbucks created a code that helps employees taking orders hear the
size, flavor, and use of milk or decaffeinated coffee. The person
making the drink echoes the order aloud.

How Can You Improve Your Listening Skills?

Cicero said, “Silence is one of the great arts of conversation.” How

often have we been in a conversation with someone else when we are
not really listening but itching to convey our portion? This behaviour is
known as “rehearsing.” It suggests the receiver has no intention of
considering the sender’s message and is actually preparing to respond
to an earlier point instead. Effective communication relies on another
kind of listening: active listening.

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Active listening can be defined as giving full attention to what other
people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made,
asking questions as needed, and not interrupting at inappropriate times
(O*NET Resource Center). Active listening creates a real-time
 relationship between the sender and receiver by acknowledging the
content and receipt of a message. As we’ve seen in the Starbucks
example above, repeating and confirming a message’s content offers a
way to confirm that the correct content is flowing between colleagues.
The process creates a bond between coworkers while increasing the
flow and accuracy of messaging.

Becoming a More Effective Listener SHORT

As we’ve seen above, active listening creates a more dynamic

relationship between a receiver and a sender. It strengthens personal
investment in the information being shared. It also forges healthy
working relationships among colleagues by making speakers and
listeners equally valued members of the communication process.
Many companies offer public speaking courses for their staff, but what
about “public listening”? Here are some more ways you can build your
listening skills by becoming a more effective listener and banishing
communication freezers from your discussions.

1. Start by stopping. Take a moment to inhale and exhale quietly before

you begin to listen. Your job as a listener is to receive information
openly and accurately.
2. Don’t worry about what you’ll say when the time comes. Silence can be
a beautiful thing.
3. Join the sender’s team. When the sender pauses, summarize what you
believe has been said. “What I’m hearing is that we need to focus on
marketing as well as sales. Is that correct?” Be attentive to physical as
well as verbal communications. “I hear you saying that we should focus
on marketing, but the way you’re shaking your head tells me the idea
may not really appeal to you—is that right?”
4. Don’t multitask while listening. Listening is a full-time job. It’s tempting
to multitask when you and the sender are in different places, but doing
that is counterproductive. The human mind can only focus
17
on one thing at a time. Listening with only part of your brain increases
the chances that you’ll have questions later, ultimately requiring more of
the speaker’s time. (And when the speaker is in the same room,
multitasking signals a disinterest that is considered rude.)
5. Try to empathize with the sender’s point of view. You don’t have to
agree, but can you find common ground (Barrett, 2006; Ten tips: Active
 listening, 2007)?

Communication Freezers

Communication freezers put an end to effective communication by

making the receiver feel judged or defensive. Typical communication
stoppers include criticizing, blaming, ordering, judging, or shaming the
other person. Some examples of things to avoid saying include the
following:
1. Telling the other person what to do:

• “You must…”
• “You cannot…”

2. Threatening with “or else” implied:

• “You had better…”

• “If you don’t…”

3. Making suggestions or telling the other person what they ought to do:

• “You should…”
• “It’s your responsibility to…”

4. Attempting to educate the other person:

• “Let me give you the facts.”

• “Experience tells us that…”

5. Judging the other person negatively:

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• “You’re not thinking straight.”
• “You’re wrong.”

6. Giving insincere praise:

• “You have so much potential.”

• “I know you can do better than this.”

7. Psychoanalyzing the other person:

• “You’re jealous.”
• “You have problems with authority.”

8. Making light of the other person’s problems by generalizing:

• “Things will get better.”

• “Behind every cloud is a silver lining.”

9. Asking excessive or inappropriate questions (Tramel & Reynolds,

1981; Communication stoppers).

Different Types of Communication and Channels LONG

Types of Communication

There are three types of communication, including: verbal

communication involving listening to a person to understand the
meaning of a message, written communication in which a message is
read, and nonverbal communication involving observing a person and
inferring meaning. Let’s start with verbal communication, which is the
most common form of communication.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in

person. The medium of the message is oral. Let’s return to our printer
cartridge example. This time, the message is being conveyed

19
from the sender (the manager) to the receiver (an employee named
Bill) by telephone. We’ve already seen how the manager’s request to
Bill (“Buy more printer toner cartridges!”) can go awry. Now let’s look
at how the same message can travel successfully from sender to
receiver.
Manager (speaking on the phone): “Good morning Bill!”
(By using the employee’s name, the manager is establishing a
clear, personal link to the receiver.) Manager: “Your division’s
numbers are looking great.”
(The manager’s recognition of Bill’s role in a winning team further
personalizes and emotionalizes the conversation.)
Manager: “Our next step is to order more printer toner cartridges.
Would you place an order for 1,000 printer toner cartridges with Jones
Computer Supplies? Our budget for this purchase is $30,000, and the
printer toner cartridges need to be here by Wednesday afternoon.” (The
manager breaks down the task into several steps. Each step consists of
a specific task, time frame, quantity, or goal.)
Bill: “Sure thing! I’ll call Jones Computer Supplies and order 1,000
more printer toner cartridges, not exceeding a total of $30,000, to be
here by Wednesday afternoon.”
(Bill, a model employee, repeats what he has heard. This is the
feedback portion of the communication. Feedback helps him recognize
any confusion he may have had hearing the manager’s message.
Feedback also helps the manager hear if she has communicated the
message correctly.)
Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form of verbal
communication that serves an important organizational function by
helping to construct common meanings for individuals within the
organization. Stories can help clarify key values and also help
demonstrate how certain tasks are performed within an organization.
Story frequency, strength, and tone are related to higher organizational
commitment (McCarthy, 2008). The quality of the

20
stories is related to the ability of entrepreneurs to secure capital for
their firms (Martens, Jennings, & Devereaux, 2007).
While the process may be the same, high stakes communications
require more planning, reflection, and skill than normal day-to-day
interactions at work. Examples of high stakes communication events
include asking for a raise or presenting a business plan to a venture
capitalist. In addition to these events, there are also many times in our
professional lives when we have crucial conversations, which are
defined as discussions in which not only are the stakes high, but also
the opinions vary and emotions run strong (Patterson et al., 2002). One
of the most consistent recommendations from communications experts
is to work toward using “and” instead of “but” when communicating
under these circumstances. In addition, be aware of your
communication style and practice being flexible; it is under stressful
situations that communication styles can become the most rigid.

Written Communication

In contrast to verbal communications, which are oral, written business

communications are printed messages. Examples of written
communications include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training
manuals, and operating policies. They may be printed on paper or
appear on the screen. Written communication is often asynchronous.
That is, the sender can write a message that the receiver can read at any
time, unlike a conversation that is carried on in real time. A written
communication can also be read by many people (such as all
employees in a department or all customers). It’s a “one-to-many”
communication, as opposed to a one-to-one conversation. There are
exceptions, of course: A voice mail is an oral message that is
asynchronous. Conference calls and speeches are oral one-to-many
communications, and e-mails can have only one recipient or many.
Normally, a verbal communication takes place in real time. Written
communication, by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of
time. It also can be collaborative. Multiple people can contribute

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to the content on one document before that document is sent to the
intended audience.
Verbal and written communications have different strengths and
weaknesses. In business, the decision to communicate verbally or in
written form can be a powerful one. As we’ll see below, each style of
communication has particular strengths and pitfalls. When determining
whether to communicate verbally or in writing, ask yourself: Do I want
to convey facts or feelings? Verbal communications are a better way to
convey feelings. Written communications do a better job of conveying
facts.
Picture a manager making a speech to a team of 20 employees. The
manager is speaking at a normal pace. The employees appear
interested. But how much information is being transmitted? Probably
not as much as the speaker believes. The fact is that humans listen
much faster than they speak. The average public speaker communicates
at a speed of about 125 words a minute, and that pace sounds fine to
the audience. (In fact, anything faster than that probably would sound
unusual. To put that figure in perspective, someone having an excited
conversation speaks at about 150 words a minute.) Based on these
numbers, we could assume that the audience has more than enough
time to take in each word the speaker delivers, which actually creates a
problem. The average person in the audience can hear 400 to 500
words a minute (Lee & Hatesohl). The audience has more than enough
time to hear. As a result, their minds may wander.
Oral communication is the most often used form of communication, but
it is also an inherently flawed medium for conveying specific facts.
Listeners’ minds wander. It’s nothing personal—in fact, it’s a
completely normal psychological occurrence. In business, once we
understand this fact, we can make more intelligent communication
choices based on the kind of information we want to convey.

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Nonverbal Communication

What you say is a vital part of any communication. Surprisingly, what

you don’t say can be even more important. Research shows that
nonverbal cues can also affect whether or not you get a job offer.
Judges examining videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess
the social skills of job candidates with the sound turned off. They
watched the rate of gesturing, time spent talking, and formality of dress
to determine which candidates would be the most socially successful
on the job (Gifford, Ng, & Wilkinson, 1985). Research also shows that
55% of in-person communication comes from nonverbal cues such as
facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice. According to one
study, only 7% of a receiver’s comprehension of a message is based on
the sender’s actual words, 38% is based on paralanguage (the tone,
pace, and volume of speech), and 55% is based on nonverbal cues
(body language) (Mehrabian, 1981). To be effective communicators,
our body language, appearance, and tone must align with the words
we’re trying to convey. Research shows that when individuals are
lying, they are more likely to blink more frequently, shift their weight,
and shrug (Siegman, 1985).
A different tone can change the perceived meaning of a message. For
example, imagine that you’re a customer interested in opening a new
bank account. At one bank, the bank officer is dressed neatly. She
looks you in the eye when she speaks. Her tone is friendly. Her words
are easy to understand, yet professional sounding. “Thank you for
considering Bank of the East Coast. We appreciate this opportunity and
would love to explore ways that we can work together to help your
business grow,” she says with a friendly smile. At the second bank, the
bank officer’s tie is stained. He looks over your head and down at his
desk as he speaks. He shifts in his seat and fidgets with his hands. His
words say, “Thank you for considering Bank of the West Coast. We
appreciate this opportunity and would love to explore ways that we can
work together to help your business grow,” but he mumbles his words,
and his voice conveys no enthusiasm or warmth. Which bank would
you choose? The speaker’s body language must match his or her
words. If a
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sender’s words and body language don’t match—if a sender smiles
while telling a sad tale, for example—the mismatch between verbal
and nonverbal cues can cause a receiver to actively dislike the sender.
Following are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can support or
detract from a sender’s message.

Body Language

A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth

conveys sincerity. Sincerity is vital for effective communication. In
some cultures, a firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a
great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake might convey
a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s lip conveys uncertainty. A
direct smile conveys confidence.

Eye Contact
In business, the style and duration of eye contact varies greatly across
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in the eye (for about a
second) is considered a sign of trustworthiness.

Facial Expressions

The human face can produce thousands of different expressions. These

expressions have been decoded by experts as corresponding to
hundreds of different emotional states (Ekman, Friesen, & Hager,
2008). Our faces convey basic information to the outside world.
Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed
eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. Shifty eyes and
pursed lips convey a lack of trustworthiness. The impact of facial
expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our brains may register
them as “a feeling” about someone’s character. For this reason, it is
important to consider how we appear in business as well as what we
say. The muscles of our faces convey our emotions. We can send a
silent message without saying a word. A change in facial expression
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can change our emotional state. Before an interview, for example, if
we focus on feeling confident, our face will convey that confidence to
an interviewer. Adopting a smile (even if we’re feeling stressed) can
reduce the body’s stress levels.

Posture

The position of our body relative to a chair or other person is another

powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness,
professionalism, or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid)
implies an upright character. In interview situations, experts advise
mirroring an interviewer’s tendency to lean in and settle back in a seat.
The subtle repetition of the other person’s posture conveys that we are
listening and responding.

Touch

The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders,

and cultures. In Mexico, when doing business, men may find
themselves being grasped on the arm by another man. To pull away is
seen as rude. In Indonesia, to touch anyone on the head or to touch
anything with one’s foot is considered highly offensive. In the Far East
and some parts of Asia, according to business etiquette writer Nazir
Daud, “It is considered impolite for a woman to shake a man’s hand”
(Daud, 2008). Americans, as we have noted above, place great value in
a firm handshake. But handshaking as a competitive sport (“the bone-
crusher”) can come off as needlessly aggressive both at home and
abroad.

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Communication Channels

The channel, or medium, used to communicate a message affects how

accurately the message will be received. Channels vary in their
“information-richness.” Information-rich channels convey more non
verbal information. Research shows that effective managers tend to use
more information-rich communication channels than less effective
managers (Allen & Griffeth, 1997; Yates & Orlikowski, 1992). The
figure below illustrates the information richness of different channels.
The key to effective communication is to match the communication
channel with the goal of the message (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). For
example, written media may be a better choice when the sender wants
a record of the content, has less urgency for a response, is physically
separated from the receiver, and doesn’t require a lot of feedback from
the receiver, or when the message is complicated and may take some
time to understand.
Oral communication, on the other hand, makes more sense when the
sender is conveying a sensitive or emotional message, needs feedback
immediately, and does not need a permanent record of the conversation.

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Like face-to-face and telephone conversations, videoconferencing has

high information richness, because receivers and senders can see or
hear beyond just the words that are used—they can see the sender’s
body language or hear the tone of their voice. Handheld devices, blogs,
and written letters and memos offer medium-rich channels, because
they convey words and pictures or photos. Formal written documents,
such as legal documents and budget spreadsheets, convey the least
richness, because the format is often rigid and standardized. As a
result, the tone of the message is often lost.
The growth of e-mail has been spectacular, but it has also created
challenges in managing information and increasing the speed of doing
businesses. Over 100 million adults in the United States use e mail at
least once a day (Taylor, 2002). Internet users around the world send
an estimated 60 billion e-mails each day, and a large portion of these
are spam or scam attempts (60 Billion emails sent daily world-wide,
2006). That makes e-mail the second most popular medium of
communication worldwide, second only to voice. Less than 1% of all
written human communications even reaches paper these days (Isom,
2008). To combat the overuse of e-mail, companies such as Intel have
even instituted “no e-mail Fridays.” During these times, all
communication is done via other communication channels. Learning to
be more effective in your e
mail communications is an important skill. To learn more, check out
the OB Toolbox on business e-mail do’s and don’ts.

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You might feel uncomfortable conveying an emotionally laden message
verbally, especially when the message contains unwanted news. Sending
an e-mail to your staff that there will be no bonuses this year may seem
easier than breaking the bad news face-to-face, but that doesn’t mean
that e-mail is an effective or appropriate way to break this kind of news.
When the message is emotional, the sender should use verbal
communication. Indeed, a good rule of thumb is that more emotionally
laden messages require more thought in the choice of channel and how
they are communicated.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Culture is a shared set of beliefs and experiences common to people in

a specific setting. The setting that creates a culture can be geographic,
religious, or professional. As you might guess, the same individual can
be a member of many cultures, all of which may play a part in the
interpretation of certain words.
The different and often “multicultural” identity of individuals in the
same organization can lead to some unexpected and potentially large
miscommunications. For example, during the Cold War, Soviet leader
Nikita Khruschev told the American delegation at the United Nations,
“We will bury you!” His words were interpreted as a threat of nuclear
annihilation. However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev’s words
would have been, “We will overtake you,” meaning economic
superiority. The words, as well as the fear and suspicion that the West
had of the Soviet Union at the time, led to the more alarmist and
sinister interpretation (Garner, 2007).
Miscommunications can arise between individuals of the same culture
as well. Many words in the English language mean different things to
different people. Words can be misunderstood if the sender and
receiver do not share common experiences. A sender’s words cannot
communicate the desired meaning if the receiver has not had some
experience with the objects or concepts the words describe (Effective
communication, 2004).

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It is particularly important to keep this fact in mind when you are
communicating with individuals who may not speak English as a first
language. For example, when speaking with nonnative English
speaking colleagues, avoid “isn’t it?” questions. This sentence
construction does not exist in many other languages and can be
confusing for nonnative English speakers. For example, to the
question, “You are coming, aren’t you?” they may answer, “Yes” (I am
coming) or “No” (I am coming), depending on how they interpret the
question (Lifland, 2006).
Cultures also vary in terms of the desired amount of situational context
related to interpreting situations. People in very high context cultures
put a high value on establishing relationships prior to working with
others and tend to take longer to negotiate deals. Examples of high
context cultures include China, Korea, and Japan. Conversely, people
in low context cultures “get down to business” and tend to negotiate
quickly. Examples of low context cultures include Germany,
Scandinavia, and the United States (Hall, 1976; Munter, 1993).
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