Developmental Psychology | Simple Book Production

MODULE 1

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Rationale This course traces the development of the human person from prenatal period to old
age, utilizing a number of theories to describe the different aspects of human development. It primarily
describes the physical, cognitive, psychosocial and moral development of the human being throughout
the life span.

Focus Description and understanding of the different developmental theories hand in hand with the
developmental tasks at each stage of life leading to a deeper insights on how people grow and why they
change over the course of a lifetime.

Module Learning Outcomes By the end of this module you should be able to:

• Discuss the factors affecting human growth and development

• Describe the three domains of human development; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

• Identify the stages of human development

• Identify and explain the developmental tasks/ milestones at each period of development.

Content

1. Introduction

People go through many changes over the course of their lives.

Development describes the growth of humans throughout their lifespan, from
conception to death. Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why
people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and
expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra
assistance to manage.
What aspects of ourselves change and develop as we journey through life?
We move through significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes
throughout our lives—do these changes happen in a systematic way, and to
everyone? How much is due to genetics and how much is due to environmental
influences and experiences (both within our personal control and beyond)? Is
there just one course of development or are there many different courses of
development? In this module, we’ll examine these questions and learn about the
major stages of development and what kind of developmental tasks and
transitions we might expect along the way.

2. Concept and nature of human development

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans
throughout the lifespan. What types of development are involved in each of these three domains, or
areas, of life? Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses,
motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory,
language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality,
and social relationships.
Physical Domain
Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians
consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative
ranges of physical development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s
fine and gross motor skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in
terms of playing sports. But we may not realize that physical development also
involves brain development, which not only enables childhood motor
coordination but also greater coordination between emotions and planning in
adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in infancy or childhood. Physical
development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes
in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition
and exercise are also important at every age and stage across the lifespan.
Cognitive Domain
If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how they
learn so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language development. Then
as we compare young children to those in middle childhood, there appear to be
huge differences in their ability to think logically about the concrete world around
them. Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and
understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents develop the ability
to think logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters with
adults as they exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops
further, as does practical intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over
time. Memory abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with
age. Brain development and the brain’s ability to change and compensate for
losses is significant to cognitive functions across the lifespan, too.
Psychosocial Domain
Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and
socially. Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and
attachment are significant. As the social world expands and the child grows
psychologically, different types of play and interactions with other children and
teachers become important. Psychosocial development involves emotions,
personality, self-esteem, and relationships. Peers become more important for
adolescents, who are exploring new roles and forming their own identities.
Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a
career are all parts of the transition into adulthood. Psychosocial development
continues across adulthood with similar (and some different) developmental
issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage, blended
families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents,
retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DEVELOPMENT
1. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?
Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually
improving on existing skills as shown in figure 1. With this type of development,
there is a gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding
inches to their height year by year. In contrast, theorists who view development
as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages and that
it occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is
more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to demonstrate awareness of object
permanence (which is a cognitive skill that develops toward the end of infancy,
according to Piaget’s cognitive theory—more on that theory in the next module).
 Figure 1. The concept of continuous vs discontinuous development.
([Link]
lifespan-development-2012)

2. How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?

Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we
who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding
question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to
understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic
makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment,
including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance, why do biological children
sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics or because of early
childhood environment and what the child has learned from their parents? What
about children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or
more like their adoptive families? And how can siblings from the same family be
so different?
 We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such
as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype,
however, there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment.
Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular
traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact
with our environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal
interaction between nature and nurture as they both shape who we become, but
the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.
SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT
To understand the pattern of development, certain fundamental and
predictable facts must be taken into consideration.
1. Early foundations are critical. Attitudes, habits and patterns of behaviour
established during the early years determine to a large extent how successfully
individuals will adjust to life as they grow older. Early patterns of behaviour tend
to persist, but they are not unchangeable. There are three conditions under which
change is likely to occur. First, change may come about when the individual
receives help and guidance in making the change. For example, some parents may
succeed in training a child to use the right hand in preference to the left. Second,
change is likely to occur when significant people treat individuals in new and
different ways. A third condition that can lead to change exists when there is a
strong motivation on the part of the individuals themselves to make the change.
2. Roles of maturation and learning in development. This is the second
significant fact about development. Maturation is the unfolding of the individual’s
inherent traits. In phylogenetic functions- functions which are common to the
human race such as creeping, sitting and walking – development comes from
maturation. Maturation provides the raw material for learning and determines
the more general patterns and sequences of behaviour. Learning, is the
development that comes from exercise and effort on the individual’s part. In
ontogenetic functions – those that are specific to the individual, such as writing,
driving a car or swimming – learning in the form of training is essential. Without
it, development would not take place.
Principles of development
1. The child develops as a whole. All domains or areas of development are
considered as we look at how the child grows and learns.
2. Development follows a predictable pattern.
Children acquire/learn skills and achieve milestones in a predictable sequence. A
child's development is sequential and cumulative. In other words, a child must
learn to hop and run before they can skip.

3. Rates of development vary

A child's age in years and months (chronological age) and the child's stage of
development are only approximately related. The direction and sequence of
development are similar for every child, BUT each child develops AT HIS OR HER
OWN Rate.

4. Development is influenced by maturation and experience.

Maturation is the unfolding of genetically determined potential that occurs as the
child grows older. Experience is made up of a person’s interactions with the
environment, with people, and with things.

5. Development Proceeds from top down and from center outward

Physical development proceeds from the top downward, (cephalocaudal) as is
evident in the early stages of fetal development, the head is half of total body
length but at birth the head is one quarter the body length. It is the same in
motor development as well, a baby has to learn to control their heads before
sitting and walking. Growth and motor control occurs from the center of the body
and move out. (the proximodistal pattern) Large muscles at the center of the
body grow and develop coordinated functions before small muscles of the hands
and fingers.

Cephalocaudal is proceeding from the top downward/head to toes.

Proximodistal is proceeding from the center of the body outward/from torso to
finger-tips.

6. Culture Affects Development

Children's development is influenced by the culture in which they live and grow.
Values and beliefs of each culture determine many of the experiences and
opportunities that are provided for children.
Difference between growth and development
Growth is the process of physical maturation resulting an increase in size of the
body and various organs. It is quantitative changes of the body. Development is
the process of functional and physiological maturation of the individual. It is a
progressive increase in skill and capacity to function. It is related to maturation
and myelination of the nervous system. It includes psychological, emotional and
social changes. It is qualitative aspects (Hurlock ,2001).
Stages of Human Development
The eight stages of human development are as follows. These stages will be
discussed at length in the succeeding modules.
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Babyhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood/old age

Havighurst developmental tasks during the lifespan

Developmental tasks fundamental achievements that must be accomplished at each stage of lif
earising at or near critical stages in the maturation of an individual; successful attainment leads to a
Healthy self-image and success with later tasks. Failure to achieve developmental tasks at one stage
Leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval of society, and difficulty in accomplishing later
Developmental tasks.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood:

1. Learning to walk.
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.
7. Getting ready to read

Middle Childhood:
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence:

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life; preparing for an economic career
6. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology
7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1. Selecting a mate
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner
4. Starting a family
5. Rearing children
6. Managing a home
7. Getting started in an occupation
8. Taking on civic responsibility
9. Finding a congenial social group

Developmental Tasks of Middle Age

1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
5. Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parents.

Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
5. Meeting social and civil obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement
Exercise 1 (ONLINE)

Give 3 examples from the text of development for each domain.

Domain Example
Physical

Cognitive

Psychosocial

Exercise 2 (ONLINE)
Answer briefly the following questions:
1. What is human development?
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2. What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative changes of the body.
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3. How do psychologists view the two sides of the nature-nurture debate?

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4. What is the continuity-discontinuity debate all about?

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5. What is the role of maturation and learning in development?

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Exercise 3 (ONLINE)
Think about your own development. Which period or stage of development are you in right now? Are
dealing with similar issues and experiencing comparable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
development as described above? If not, why not? Are important aspects of development missing if so,
are they common for most of your cohort or unique to you?
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Additional material:

Take time to view the link below as supplementary lecture to Havighurst’s developmental tasks.
HTTPS://[Link]/TEACHINGANDMORE882/ROBERT-J-8202628