SCIENCE REVISION

Energy:

Metals and Non Metals

Metals can be categorized as electrical conductors or electrical insulators

Conductors and Insulators

A electrical conductor is a material that easily allows electricity to pass through it.
An electrical insulator is a material that does not let electricity pass through it.

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
The amount of kinetic energy an object has depends on the mass of the object and the velocity
of the object

Gravitational Potential energy

● Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object has by virtue of its position above the
surface of the Earth
● The amount of energy in the gravitational potential energy store depends on the height of the
object.
Energy Stores
There are different forms of energy stores, including:
● kinetic energy
● internal energy
● elastic potential energy
● gravitational potential energy
● electrical energy
● magnetic energy

Kinetic Energy
This is the energy of [Link] moving things have kinetic energy, even very large things like
planets, and very small ones like atoms. The amount of kinetic energy an object has depends
upon:
● the mass of the object
● the speed of the object

Internal / Chemical Energy

All objects have internal energy. It is stored energy. This includes:
● energy caused by the movement of particles in the object, sometimes called thermal energy
● energy due to the bonds between particles, sometimes called chemical energy

Elastic Potential Energy

● Some objects can change shape reversibly.
● Rubber balls, springs and elastic bands are like this.
● When a rubber ball is stretched or squashed, it can regain its
shape again.
● Elastic potential energy is stored in stretched or squashed
materials.

Gravitational Potential Energy

When an object is moved higher, it gains gravitational potential energy. The amount of
gravitational potential energy it gains depends upon:
● the mass of the object
● the extra height it gains
● the gravitational field strength

Electrical Energy
● Some objects carry electrical charges and create electric fields.
● These charged objects can exert forces on each other.
● You get an electric current when charged particles move
through a wire.

Magnetic Energy
● Some objects can be magnetised and create magnetic fields.
● They can exert forces on other magnetised objects, or on
magnetic materials.

Chemical stores of energy

● To lead an active life, you need a store of energy that is supplied by your food.
● We use other energy supplies, for example, when we cook, or heat our homes, or travel by car
or bus.
● Fuels have to be burnt to release their store of energy.

Energy stored in chemicals

● Foods, fuels and batteries are all stores of energy and are all made up of chemical substances.
● We say that they are chemical stores of energy.
● To get the energy out of a fuel such as petrol or gas, it must be
burnt. Burning is a chemical reaction.
● To get the energy out of your food, there must be a chemical
reaction inside you.
● Inside a battery there are chemical substances. They react
together to produce electricity.

Batteries store energy

● Batteries have a store of chemical energy. They can be used to power things or light them up.
● Once the store of energy has been used the battery is flat or dead.
● Some batteries are rechargeable. This means that, when they have run down, they can be
recharged so that they can supply energy again

Energy Transfers
Energy can transfer or move from one store to another in different ways. Devices such as lamps
and heaters may be involved, or processes such as combustion. For example, energy can be
transferred:
● by heating
● mechanically
● electrically
● by radiation

Heating
● Some objects are hotter than others.
● Energy is transferred from the hotter object to the cooler one,
and the difference in temperature between them decreases.

Mechanical Transfer
● Energy can be transferred mechanically through the movement of the parts in machines, and
when the motion or position of an object changes.
● Sound waves and seismic waves (formed during earthquakes) are mechanical waves that
transfer energy through materials and from place to place.

Electrical Transfer
.Energy is transferred when an electrical circuit is complete.
.simple circuit may consist of a battery, lamp and wires.
.Internal energy stored in the battery is transferred to moving charged particles in the wire
 Transfer by Radiation
● Visible light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves are forms of radiation.
● They are carried by waves (although unlike sound, these are not mechanical waves and can
travel through empty space).
● Electric lamps and burning fuels transfer visible and infrared light to the surroundings

Other Common Transfers

● When an object falls the gravitational potential energy it possessed is converted to kinetic
energy. When it has fallen half of the way down, half of the energy will have been transferred and
so on.
● Food contains internal energy stored in the bonds between particles. This is sometimes called
chemical energy. This is converted into the energy all living organisms need during respiration.
This conversion is similar to burning, for example wood. Here internal energy in the wood is
converted into heat and light given out by the flame

Energy Transfer Diagrams

What are they?
Energy transfer diagrams may be used to show the locations of energy stores and energy
transfers.
● The battery is a store of internal energy (shown as chemical energy).
● The energy is transferred through the wires to the lamp, which then transfers the energy
to the surroundings as light.
● These are the useful energy transfers - we use electric lamps to light up our rooms.

.But there are also energy transfers that are not useful to us. the example above, the lamp
also transfers energy to
surroundings by radiation as infrared light, which increases the temperature of the
surroundings.
.If we include this energy transfer (shown as thermal energy in the diagram), the diagram
looks like this:

Energy at home
● Energy is stored in many systems in our homes.
● Energy can be transferred between energy stores.
● Some appliances are more powerful than others so energy
can transfer faster.

Energy Transfers at home

In the home, energy can be transferred by:
● mechanical work – when a force is applied to move an object over a distance
● electrical work – when charge flows (electricity)
● heating – when there is difference in temperatures
● radiation – when energy is transferred as a wave, for
example as light or sound.

Electrical Appliances
If you look at the electrical appliances found in your home you may see labels that show the
power rating of the appliance.
Power is the amount of energy transferred each second. Power is measured in watts (W).

If you have a device that has a power rating of 100 watts, this means that 100 joules of energy
are transferred each second.
Some appliances transfer large amounts of energy so their power rating is shown in kilowatts
(kW)
1 kilowatt = 1000 watts 1kW = 1000 W
So therefore:
2 kW = 2 x 1000 W
2 kW = 2000 W

Calculating Energy Transferred

The power rating of an appliance can be used to calculate the amount of energy transferred
whilst it is being used. Apply the following formula to do this:
Energy transferred=Power x Time

Energy transferred in joules (J).

Power in watts (W).
Times in seconds (s).
Conservation of energy
● Energy can be stored or transferred, but it cannot be created or destroyed. This is the Law of
conservation.
● This means that the total energy of a system stays the same.
● The idea that the total energy has the same value before and
after a change is called conservation of energy.
● We measure energy in a unit called joules (J)
Sankey Diagrams
● You can show energy transfers in a Sankey diagram.
● In these diagrams, the thicker the line or arrow, the greater
the amount of energy involved

Heating and temperature

● The temperature of an object is to do with how hot or cold it is, measured in degrees Celsius.
● Note that the unit of temperature is written as °C, (not °c or oC)
● All objects contain internal energy.
● Some of this is due to the movement of the particles in the
object.
● When an object is heated, its particles move more vigorously
and its internal energy increases.
● Unless the object changes state (eg melts or boils), its
temperature will increase.
1. What is temperature
To know if something is hot or cold.
2. Give the units for temperature
°C
3. How is temperature measured?
With thermometers
4. When particles are heated, what energy do they gain?
They gain thermal energy.
5. Do particles move faster or slower in a cold object. Explain why.
They move faster and its temperature rises.
6. What change of state occurs when you boil water
Liquid turns into gas/vapor

Energy loss

Ways to reduce energy transfer

There are some simple ways to reduce energy transfers from a house, including fitting:
● carpets and curtains
● reflective foil on the inside walls
● double glazing

Energy is transferred from warm homes to the outside by:

● conduction through the walls, floor, roof and windows
● radiation from the walls, roof and window
Double Glazing
● Double glazing involves having two panes of glass in the window instead of just one.
● There is air or an even better insulator such as argon gas between the two panes of glass.
● This reduces energy transfer by conduction.

Cavity Wall Insulation

● Energy loss through walls can be reduced using cavity wall insulation.
● This involves blowing insulating material into the gap between the outside wall and the inside
wall to reduce conduction
● Loft insulation works in a similar way.
1. Explain the difference between a conductor and an insulator
conductor is a material that easily allows electricity to pass through it.
insulator is a material that does not let electricity pass through it.
2. How is energy transferred from a warm house to the outside.
Give two ways.
By conduction and convection
3. What is double glazing?How does it reduce energy
Double glazing involves having two panes of glass in the window instead of just [Link] reduces
energy by conduction
4. How does cavity wall insulation work?
blowing insulating material into the gap between the outside wall and the inside wall to reduce
conduction

Thermal Energy Transfer

Thermal Equilibrium
● If there is a difference in temperature between two objects, energy is transferred from the
hotter object to the cooler one.
● This will continue until both objects are at the same temperature.
● When they are at the same temperature, we say that they are in thermal equilibrium, and
there is no overall transfer of energy any more between the two objects
Conduction
● When a substance is heated, its particles gain internal energy and move more vigorously.
(Heat transfer by molecular contact.)
● The particles bump into nearby particles and make them vibrate more.
● This passes internal energy through the substance by conduction, from the hot end to the
cold end
● Conduction occurs in solids

This is how the handle of a metal spoon soon gets hot when the spoon is put into a hot drink.
● A substance that transfers energy easily from the hot part to the cold part is called a
conductor. Metals are good conductors.
● A substance that does not transfer energy easily from the hot part to the cold part is called an
insulator. Air and plastics are insulators.

Convection
The particles in liquids and gases can move from place to place.
Convection happens when particles with a lot of thermal energy in a liquid or gas move, and take
the place of particles with less thermal energy.(Heat transfer through density difference.)
Thermal energy is transferred from hot places to cold places by convection.
Radiation
All objects transfer energy to their surroundings by infrared radiation. The hotter an object is, the
more infrared radiation it gives off.
No particles are involved in radiation, unlike conduction. This means that energy transfer by
radiation can work when objects are not touching, even in space:(Heat transfer through wave
motion.)
● radiation is why we are warmed by the Sun, even though it is millions of kilometres away in
space
● infrared cameras give images even in the dark, because they are detecting infrared light, not
visible light
MATERIAL PROPERTIES,ACID OR ALKALI
Metals and Non Metals

Metals
● Metals are very useful materials.
● They are the substance from which objects are made.
● There are many different metals.
● Metals are used to do lots of different jobs.

Properties of Metals
All metals share some properties
- Metals are shiny when polished or cut
- Metals are sonorous (ring like a bell)
- Metals are strong and tough. They do not shatter when dropped and
they do not crack easily.
- They are malleable which means they can be hammered into shape
- They are ductile which means they can be drawn out into wires
- Metals don’t melt easily
- Some metals are magnetic
- Metals are good conductors of heat
Non Metals
● Non metals are useful, often because of their chemical reactions.
● There is a lot of variation between non-metals

Properties shared by many non metals

- Non metals are not as strong and hard wearing as metals
- Many nonmetals are gases
- The non- metals that are not gases have low melting points and
low boiling points

Properties shared by almost all non-metals

1. Non metals look dull. They do not reflect light very well and the surface is not as smooth as
metals
2. Non metals that are solids are brittle
3. Most non-metals do not conduct heat energy well. This useful
because some can be used to make handles for cooking pans.
4. Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. This is useful
because some can be used to make coverings for electric cables and plugs

Comparing Metals and Non- Metals

Metals
- Most are solid at room temperature
- They are shiny
- They do not shatter
- They conduct heat energy well
- They conduct electricity
- They are malleable
- They are ductile
- They make a ringing sound when hit
Non - Metals
- Many are gases at room temperature
- They are dull
- They are brittle
- They do not conduct heat energy well
- Most do not conduct electricity
Everyday materials and their properties:

What are materials used for?

● Many different materials are used to make the clothes we wear, the buildings we live in and
everything you use each day,
● We make things out of materials with the properties we need for a particular purpose
● Examples of materials we use include plastic, fibres, ceramics and glass

Plastics
● Plastics come in many different types with different properties.
● Some plastics are flexible, lightweight and easily shaped
● Plastics can be transparent or opaque.
● Plastics can be used for containers for food and drink. It does
not react with the food.
● Plastics can be easily coloured and recycled
● However, plastics take a long time to break down which can be
an issue with disposal and litter
● Plastic may be affected by heat and may change shape

Fibres
● Fibres can be natural (made from living materials such as silk and cotton) or synthetic (made
from other chemicals).
● Fibres are tiny threads so they can be strong and bendy.

Ceramics
● Ceramics can withstand high temperatures.
● They are very hard, brittle and strong
● Ceramics are used for floor tiles, sinks and the tiles on the
outside of a space shuttle

Glass
● Glass is translucent or transparent.
● It is hard but very brittle
● It can be easily colored
● Glass is waterproof and does not react with the food or water
inside the jar.
● Glass is cheap to make and can be made in many shapes. It
can also be recycled
● However, glass is heavy and easily broken
● Some glass is treated so that it can be heated without breaking.
Acids and Alkalis:

Acids are Everywhere

● Many things contain acid
● Some foods contain acid
● They have a sour, sharp, tangy taste
● Lemons and limes taste sour. They contain citric acid. This is a
weak acid.
● Common acids in the lab include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid
and nitric acid

Some acids are dangerous

● Some acids are strong. They are corrosive.
● The bottles have a hazard warning label.
● If a strong acid gets on your skin it will dissolve it and you may
get a chemical burn.
● Acids can be diluted with water. This makes them less
dangerous.
● Dilute acids are still harmful or irritant.

Some acids are dangerous

● Some acids are strong. They are corrosive.
● The bottles have a hazard warning label.
● If a strong acid gets on your skin it will dissolve it and you may
get a chemical burn.
● Acids can be diluted with water. This makes them less
dangerous.
● Dilute acids are still harmful or irritant.
Acid or Alkali?

Indicators
● An indicator is a substance that we can use to check if something is an acid or an alkali.
● Some plants materials make good indicators e.g. red cabbage and beetroot
Common indicators include
- Litmus
- Universal Indicator Paper

Litmus
● Litmus is a common indicator. It is a dye
● Litmus turns red in acids
● Litmus turns blue in alkalis
● Litmus turns purple when it is in a neutral substance. This is a
substance that is neither acid or alkali.

Universal Indicator
● Universal indicator shows how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
● This indicator can change to many different colours.
Type of Substance
Color of Universal Indicator
Strongly acidic
Red
Weakly acidic
Yellow
Neutral
Green
Weakly alkaline
Blue
Strongly alkaline
Purple
The pH scale
● The strength of an acid and alkali is measured on the pH scale.
● Universal indicator changes color and shows the pH of a
substance

Neutralization:
Neutralization:

Neutralisation
● Acids and alkalis can cancel each other out when you mix them together.
● When you add the correct amount of an acid and an alkali you make a neutral solution.
● If you add too much acid to an alkali, it makes an acidic liquid.
● If you add too little acid to an alkali, it stays an alkaline solution

Making a neutral solution

● You can use a piece of equipment known as a burette to neutralise an alkali,
● You also add universal indicator to the alkali in the flask.

Neutralisation in action
Neutralisation is used in many of life's processes. These include
1. Indigestion 2. Toothpaste
3. Neutralisation Lakes
4. Growing

1. Indigestion
● Your stomach produces hydrochloric acid which gives the stomach the right conditions to
digest food.
● When your stomach produces too much acid you have indigestion and this can be very
uncomfortable.
● The medicines that are used are all alkalis and help to neutralize the solution.
● These medicines are often called antacids.

2. Toothpaste
● There are millions of bacteria in your mouth which feed on food pieces left on your teeth.
● The bacteria produce acid when they feed.
● This acid damages your teeth and makes them decay.
● Toothpaste contains alkali which helps to neutralise the acid.

3. Neutralising Lakes
● In some parts of the world there are harmful chemicals in the air that make the rain acidic.
● This acid rain damages trees and changes the pH of the lakes, rivers and ponds.
● The plants and animals that live in the lakes cannot live in acid conditions.
● Some countries drop alkalis into the lake to neutralise the acid.

4. Growing Crops
● In some areas the soil is very acidic and plants do not grow well.
● Farmers spread lime on the soil to neutralise the acids so that the plants can grow better.

MICROORGANISMS:

Characteristics of Living things.

Living organisms have a set of seven characteristics that make them different from nonliving
things
1. Nutrition
2. Growth
3. Movement
4. Sensitivity
5. Excretion
6. Reproduction
7. Respiration
You can remember these by [Link]
(Movement,Respiration,Sensitivity,Growth,Reproduction,Excretion,
Nutrition.)

1. Nutrition
Plants obtain food by a process known as photosynthesis
Animals obtain food from other sources such as plants and animals.
Animals can be classified into three groups of feeders
1. Herbivore - only eats plants
2. Carnivore - only eats meat
3. Omnivore - eats both plants and meat

2. Growth
● All living organisms grow
● They can permanently increase their size or dry mass
(mass after water has been removed) by increasing the number or size of their cells.

3. Movement
● Living things can move and have the ability to change their position

4. Sensitivity
● they can detect or sense stimuli and respond to them.
● A stimulus is a change in the environment
The five senses are
- Touch - Taste - Smell - Hear - See

5. Excretion
● Living things get rid of waste materials, such as carbon dioxide
● They can excrete toxic materials, waste products of
metabolism, and excess substances (note that excretion is not the same as egestion)

6. Reproduction
● Living organisms can produce offspring
● They can make more of the same kind of organism as
themselves.

7. Respiration
● they can create chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to
release energy.

Microorganisms:
What is a microorganism?
● A microorganisms is a living organism so small that we can only see it with a microscope.
● Microorganisms are made up of cells, like all living organisms
● Most microorganisms are made up of only one cell and are therefore known as single celled
organisms or unicellular

Groups of Microorganisms
1. Bacteria
2. Microscopic Fungi
3. Single Celled Algae and Protozoa

1. Bacteria
● Bacteria are found everywhere
● (Bacteria - plural, Bacterium = singular)
● Bacteria are very small and exist together in communities of
millions
● Examples include, Coccus, Bacillus, Spirillum Rickettsia, and
Mycoplasma.
● Small amounts of bacteria is fine but in big amounts it is bad.
2. Microscopic Fungi
● Many fungi, including mushrooms and toadstools, are large.
● However, there are also some microscopic ones.
● Yeast us a single celled microscopic fungus

3. Single Celled algae and protozoa

● Algae are tiny plant like organisms that are found in the water.
● Protozoa are one celled organisms that show characteristics
similar to animals

Where can you find microorganisms?

● Microorganisms are everywhere.
● They live in air, in the soil, in the water, on our skin and inside
our bodies.
● One teaspoon of soil may contain one thousand million
bacteria.

Organic Matter
● Microorganisms have grown on this apple. The have changed the apple and have made it go
bad.
● Apples come from plants.
● A substance that has been
made from living organisms is called organic matter.

Decay
● Microorganism can break down organic matter.
● They make it decay.
● This is a nuisance to humans
● Most of the time, microorganism decay is useful.
Microorganisms break down dead bodies and animal waste.
● The return the nutrients in this organic matter to the soil.
● Plants can use the nutrients to help them to grow.

Slowing Down Decay

Most microorganisms grow fastest when they have
- A warm temperature
- Plenty of water
- Plenty of oxygen
To slow down the rate of microorganisms we need to avoid these conditions

Learning Check
1. What is a microorganism?
A living organism that is microscopic

2. Name the three groups of microorganisms

Bacteria,fungi,single cell algae

3. Why are they called bacteria and not bacterium?

Because Bacterium means a single bacterium while bacteria means a group of bacteria

4. Name 3 examples of bacteria

Coccus, Bacillus, Spirillum

5. Name a microscopic fungi

Yeast

6. Why are mushrooms not microscopic fungi?

Because they are large
7. Where are algae found?
Near water

8. Name three places you would find microorganisms

In the air,At the water,On our foods

9. What conditions do microorganisms need to grow quickly?

Very warm,lots of water and oxygen

10. What is organic matter?

A substance made from a living organism is organic matter

Food and Disease:

Making Cheese and Yoghurt
● Microorganisms can feed on the same things that humans eat.
● Sometimes, we like the changes that microorganisms make in
our food.
● For example, some special kinds of bacteria change milk into
yoghurt or cheese.
● These bacteria feed on sugar in the milk.
● They change the sugar into a weak acid, called lactic acid.
Lactic acid gives yoghurt its sharp taste.

Making Bread
● We use yeast to make kinds of bread.
● The yeast feeds on nutrients in the flour
● When the yeast respires, it makes carbon dioxide gas.
● The gas makes bubbles in the dough, which makes the
dough rise.

● Most microorganisms are harmless and many of them are useful to us.
● However, there are some that can make people ill. If they get inside your body they can
reproduce there.
● They produce harmful substances called toxins. The toxins damage your cells and can make
you feel ill.
● Diseases that are caused by microorganisms are called infectious diseases. This means they
can be passed from one person to another.
Harmful microorganisms
1. Tuberculosis 2. Malaria
3. Influenza
For each you will need to know the cause, symptoms, prevention and treatment

1. Tuberculosis
Cause - Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria that spread from person to person through
microscopic droplets released into the air. This can happen when someone with the untreated,
active form of tuberculosis coughs, speaks, sneezes, spits, laughs or sings
Symptoms - coughing, chest pain, unexplained weight loss. Prevention - Avoid people with TB,
younger people are vaccinated
against it
Treatment - Take a full course of antibiotics