Unit 2: Modulation
Digitized Notes • Electronics Engineering
1. Fundamentals of Modulation and Demodulation
• Modulation : Modulation is the process in which some characteristics of a carrier is varied
according to the instantaneous value of a modulating signal (message signal).
• Demodulation : Demodulation is the process in which a modulated wave is suppressed to
provide the original signal back to the receiver.
Need for Modulation
• The modulating signals are directly incompatible for transmission over the medium.
• It reduces the height of the antenna.
• It avoids the mixing of signals and allows multiplexing of signals.
• It increases the range of communication.
• It provides the effect of narrow banding.
• It improves the quality of reception.
Antenna Height Considerations
• The height of the antenna required for the transmission and reception of radiowaves is a function
of wavelength.
• The minimum height of the antenna is given by λ / 4.
• The wavelength can be given as λ = c / f, where c is the velocity of light and f is the frequency.
• For a baseband signal frequency of 15 kHz, the calculated antenna height is 5000 m, which is
impractical.
• With modulation (e.g., introducing a carrier frequency of 1 MHz), the required antenna height
reduces to 75 meters, which is possible.
2. Classification of Modulation
Modulation
Analog Digital Pulse
AM: Amplitude PCM: Pulse Code PAM: Amplitude
FM: Frequency DM: Delta PWM: Width
PM: Phase ADM: Adaptive Delta PPM: Position
• Analog Modulation : Includes Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), and
Phase Modulation (PM).
• Digital Modulation : Includes Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation (DM), and
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM).
• Pulse Modulation : Includes Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), and Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
3. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Definition : The process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
DSBFC / AMFC DSBSC SSBSC VSB
• DSBFC: Double sideband with full carrier (or AMFC: amplitude modulation with full carrier).
• DSBSC: Double sideband with suppressed carrier.
• SSBSC: Single sideband with suppressed carrier.
• VSB: Vestigial sideband.
Expressions for DSBFC / AMFC
• The instantaneous value of the modulating signal is e = E cos ω t, where ω = 2πf .
m m m m m
• The instantaneous value of the carrier signal is e = E cos ω t, where ω = 2πf .
c c c c c
• After modulation, the resultant modulated wave is N
AM = A cos ωct, where A = Ec + em.
• The expanded equation is:
NAM = Ec [ 1 + (Em/Ec) cos ωmt ] cos ωct
Modulation Index (m)
• It is the ratio of the peak value of the modulating signal to the peak value of the carrier: m = E / E .
m c
• When m < 1, it is under modulation.
• When m = 1, it is perfect modulation.
• When m > 1, it is over modulation, which causes envelope distortion.
Frequency Components and Bandwidth
• Expanding the AM wave equation reveals it contains the carrier and two sidebands.
NAM = Ec cos ωct + (m Ec / 2) cos(ωc + ωm)t + (m Ec / 2) cos(ωc - ωm)t
• The terms represent the Carrier, Upper Sideband (USB), and Lower Sideband (LSB).
• Bandwidth is calculated as USB - LSB = 2f .
m
4. Power and Efficiency of an AM Wave
• An AM wave consists of a carrier and two sidebands, meaning the total power will contain more
than the power contained by the original signal.
• Total Power (P ) = Power of Carrier (P ) + Power of USB (P
t c USB) + Power of LSB (PLSB).
• Carrier power is P = E 2 / 2R.
c c
• Sideband power is P 2
USB = PLSB = m Pc / 4.
• The total power equation is:
Pt = Pc [ 1 + m2 / 2 ]
• When transmitting a number of carrier waves, the total modulation index is m = √(m 2 + m 2 + ...).
t 1 2
Transmission Efficiency (η)
• It is the ratio of transmitted power containing the information to the total transmitted power.
• η = (P 2 2
USB + PLSB) / Pt = m / (2 + m ).
• Total current is related by the formula I = I √(1 + m2 / 2).
t c
5. Modulators and Demodulators
Square Law AM Modulator
• The modulating signal and carrier signal are applied to a non-linear device.
• The characteristic of the non-linear device is given by v (t) = a v (t) + b v 2(t).
2 1 1
• The output v (t) is applied to a band-pass filter tuned at the center frequency f .
2 c
• The resulting output is the AM wave: v (t) = a E [1 + m x(t)] cos 2πf t, where m = 2b / a.
c c c
Square Law Demodulator
• An amplitude-modulated signal is provided at the demodulator and applied to a non-linear device.
• The non-linear characteristic is given as v (t) = a v (t) + b v 2(t).
2 1 1
• v (t) is applied to a low-pass filter (LPF) which is tuned at frequency f .
2 m
• The resulting output is the original modulating signal v (t) = k · x(t).
0