Investigating Science

Investigating Science

Assessment Schedule

Below is the list of assessments to be completed as part of the Stage 6 Preliminary

Investigating Science Course as well as their approximate duration. Once you have viewed the
assessment schedule below, complete the Acknowledgement of Assessment Schedule &
Scope and Sequence Quiz below.

Scope and Sequence

Below is the sequence of topics to be covered in the Stage 6 Preliminary Investigating Science
Course as well as their approximate duration. Once you have viewed the scope and sequence
below, complete the Acknowledgement of Assessment Schedule & Scope and Sequence Quiz
below.
Intro to Module 1
 Module 1 Notes

Content Focus
Observation instigates all scientific experimentation. Investigative scientific processes can only be applied to
phenomena that can be observed and measured. Detailed observations motivate scientists to ask questions
about the causes and the effects of phenomena they observe. In this way, science continues to progress and
enhance the lives of individuals and society by encouraging a continued search for reason and understanding.

Students explore the importance of observation and the collection of quantitative and qualitative data in
scientific investigations. They conduct their own practical investigation, either individually or collaboratively,
which is used to demonstrate the importance of making detailed and accurate observations, determining the
types of variables and formulating testable scientific hypotheses.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on developing hypotheses that arise from their observations and evaluate these in
order to gather, select and process appropriate qualitative and quantitative data. Students should be provided
with opportunities to engage with all Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Types of Data
Primary data
This is achieved by making observations or by taking measurements during an
experiment. It is also called empirical data. Observations that can be done either by
a) writing descriptions or
b) taking measurements.
Measuring devices are used to gather accurate data for example a blood pressure
monitor.

Give reasons why gathering accurate data is important.

Accurate data is crucial when conducting a fair investigation as it not only narrows down the range of the
results, but also reduces the amount of errors, creating efficiency and accuracy. The more accurate the
data is, the more reliable the test is, and the prevention of leading to false conclusions. Without accurate
results, it is hard to replicate or support the investigation, ultimately, undermining the scientific
processes and research.

d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using quantitative and qualitative

data.( use persuasive language: benefit, useful, improves, disadvantage, problem,
negative)

Quantitative data is highly useful in more investigations that require numerical data to reach confident
conclusions. It can also become very specific and detail-oriented, reaching more accurate results,
strengthening the conclusion and the validity of the investigation. It is not under observer bias, creating
more pathways to different perceptions within the investigation. However, quantitative data fails to add
context and depth into why the investigation was conditioned and without the proper calibrated
equipment such as measuring cylinder, it would be quite pointless to continue with the experiment.
Qualitative data on the other hand, provides that context and provides an insight on the before and after
effects when conducting the experiment. However, the disadvantages associated with qualitative data, is
that this type of data is heavily subjective, which can cause issues with the validity of the experiment and
have limited sample sizes which can not represent a broader group.

Secondary data
This is primary data that has been gathered by someone else and that you are using to
help make a conclusion. It can be found in scientific literature, textbooks or websites. It
is always important that the method used to gather the data was valid otherwise your
conclusion may be invalid. All sources of secondary data should be acknowledged to
avoid plagiarism

d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using quantitative and qualitative

data.
Quantitative data is highly useful in more investigations that require numerical data to reach confident
conclusions. It can also become very specific and detail-oriented, reaching more accurate results,
strengthening the conclusion and the validity of the investigation. It is not under observer bias, creating
more pathways to different perceptions within the investigation. However, quantitative data fails to add
context and depth into why the investigation was conditioned and without the proper calibrated
equipment such as measuring cylinder, it would be quite pointless to continue with the experiment.
Qualitative data on the other hand, provides that context and provides an insight on the before and after
effects when conducting the experiment. However, the disadvantages associated with qualitative data, is
that this type of data is heavily subjective, which can cause issues with the validity of the experiment and
have limited sample sizes which can not represent a broader group.

Accuracy vs Precision

Measurement
Accuracy, Precision, Systematic and Random Error

Precision: A measure of closeness of data points. Improved through repetition. Measurements are
precise when there is less scatter in the results.
True Value: The agreed or accepted value. E.g., the true value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.8m/s2
Random Error: Errors due to a sudden change in experimental conditions. It can be reduced through
repeating experiments multiple times and average the results, this is called increasing the sample size.
Systematic Error: Errors due to a fault in the measuring device, external conditions, incorrect reading, or
observing of the results incorrectly. It can be improved (instrumentally) through recalibrating the
instrument, (environmentally) through assessing environmental conditions before using the device and
(observational/parallax) through having another observer as a second reader of instruments.
Accuracy: A measure of closeness of data to the true value. Also note: (to see if there is high accuracy, it
depends on the average of the results and on the diagram presented as well)
Scatter/Spread: The closeness of data points to one another.

Revising Mistakes:
Answer: Systematic error - because the difference between each red point and its corresponding black
point is consistent.

Answer: Random Error - because the difference between each red point and its corresponding black
point is inconsistent.
1.1 Role of Observations
1.1 → Role of Observations
Inquiry question: How does observation instigate scientific investigation?

Students:

→ Carry out a practical investigation to record both qualitative and qualitative data from observations,
for example:

●​ - burning a candle floating in a closed container

●​ - the behaviour of slaters in a dry/wet or light/dark environment
●​ - the Bernoulli effect
●​ - strata in rock cuttings

→ Discuss and evaluate the characteristics of observations made compared to inferences drawn in
respect of the practical investigation.
→Research how observation has instigated experimentation to investigate cause and effect in historical
examples, including by not limited to:

●​ - Archimedes observing the displacement of water

●​ - Alexander Fleming’s observations of the effect of mould on bacteria
●​ - Galileo’s observations of the movement of Jupiter’s moons

→ Assess ways in which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use observation to develop an
understanding of Country and Place in order to create innovative ways of managing the natural
environment, including but not limited to:

●​ - firestick farming
●​ - knowledge about plants for medicinal purposes

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Scientific Data is when we record observations to test scientific ideas. We can then use this data to
provide evidence that supports or rejects scientific theories and hypotheses.
You can utilize and convert this data into graphs and tables which demonstrate patterns or trends within
the experiment.

Quantitative Data: Information that uses a numerical value or quantity. (Anything you can count or
measure). They are collected through surveys, experiments and more. Additionally, they are further split
into two categories: Discreet and Continuous

Discrete Data: Data that we can count which are written in whole numbers.

Continuous Data: Data that we measure like height, weight etc. It's generally a specific number with
decimal places.

Qualitative/Categorical Data: Data that refers to the descriptive qualities or characteristics found within
the investigation. It can be counted, grouped or ranked to be a sense of order or clarity. They can be
collected through observations, interviews or even surveys. Additionally, they are split further into two
categories: Ordinal and Nominal Data

Ordinal: Data that can be ordered and ranked such as exam grades.

Nominal: Data that can’t be ordered nor ranked such as grouping people with eye colours or blood
groups.

Making Inferences

Inferences
In science, an inference can be a reasonable conclusion that is drawn from observations and data
gathered. Additionally, inferences help individuals to correlate and distinguish patterns from prior
observations. For example - Observation: There are human shaped footprints in the sand. Inference: A
person has been walking here. When we made observation in the previous activity we had possible
explanations, or we guessed what might be causing the phenomena. We were basing our explanations
on our previous knowledge and/or experience - that is we inferred an explanation.
Characteristics of Strong Inferences

Inferences rely heavily on the knowledge of the individual apprenhending observations. The more
information one garners from observations the stronger inferences and interpretations can be formed.
Making strong extrapolations are derived from having a strong intellectual background in the individual's
area of study.

You can further develop profound inferences through the conduction of a secondary-sourced
investigation. This could be instigated from comprehending previous works/research, performing
experiments with primary/first-hand data and comparing both studies. This is to ensure you can refine
your inferences and are valid for testing.
Case Studies: Alexander Fleming, Galileo, Archimedes → How observations instigated
experimentation

Scientist Problem/Issue Initial observation Further How was the

Experimentation problem solved

Archimedes The King of Sicily He noticed that Archimedes' Archimedes

demanded when he got into principle of discovered that
Archimedes to the bathtub, the density is used as when the crown is
determine water level rose. a foundational compared to real
whether the He called the basis from gold under a set
crown was change in volume psychics to volume of water,
produced from and concluded highly-precise the remaining
 real gold or not that the science research overflow must be
without touching displacement involving accuracy exact to the pure
it. volume was equal and modern gold to testify for
to the volume of critiques. This is the goldsmith.
the part of the used on effects of However, that was
body submerged buoyancy, fluid not the case, and
under water. displacement the overflow
methods and amount was less
density involving compared to real
gravity and other gold thus,
celestial objects. executing the
goldsmith.

Galileo Galileo’s Galileo initially This could be Galileos’s

observation of the observed several further illustrated observations of
movement of small, bright as a basis into the Jupiter’s moon in
Jupiter’s moons points of light early studies of 1610 help
identified a major near Jupiter while light. understand and
problem with the using his Observations of solve the problem
long-accepted telescope. Over the Jovian moon of geocentrism,
geocentric model consecutive Lo provided the and disproving
of the universe. At nights, he noticed first evidence that the theory that
the time, it was that these points light has finite the Earth was the
believed that all changed position speed, later center of the
celestial bodies relative to Jupiter officially universe and all
revolved around but remained addressed by celestial bodies
the Earth, close to the Danish revolved around
reinforcing the planet. He astronomer Ole it.
idea that Earth observed that Rømer in 1676.
was the centre of they sometimes The orbital period
all motion in the appeared on one of lo was not seen
heavens. side of Jupiter and to be constant,
However, Galileo at other times on but instead
observed four the opposite side, appeared to
moons orbiting following a modulate
Jupiter, regular pattern. corresponding to
demonstrating From these the Earth’s
that not repeated position relative
everything observations, to Jupiter.
revolved around Galileo concluded Galileo's
Earth. that these objects identification
were moons demonstrates
orbiting Jupiter how this starts as
rather than fixed a foundation for
stars. different
fundamentals.
Alexander The discovery of When Fleming Fleming originally It was concluded
Fleming penicillin which is returned to throw did not further but not further
commonly used in away a mouldy investigate this developed by
medicine and petri dish away, matter deeply, Fleming himself
antibiotics started when he realised until after 1945, that penicillin was
during an that the bacteria where newer able to kill
investigation in inside had died, scientists won a bacteria safely
1928. Fleming with one region, nobel prize for while protecting
was investigating filled with one utilizing the active itself, later utilized
staphylococcus species outliving compound of as antibiotics.
which is a variant them. This was penicillin to fight
of bacteria that the penicillin against bacteria
cause highly genus which inside our bodies.
infectious produces This is because
symptoms in penicillin. penicillin is shown
individuals with to kill the cell
weak immune walls of infectious
systems. He was diseases,
trying to eventually killing
investigate any it, and itself
preventions from doesn’t have a
these infectious cell wall meaning
bacteria. it won’t bring
harm to our
bodies. This was
useful to many
soldiers after the
war, as well to
civilians and
people had better
chances of
surviving.

He isolated
pencilium and
tested it to see
whether it would
kill other types of
bacteria. He also
tested other types
of mould.
Candle and Bernoulli Practical
Sample Question - Candle Prac

From this investigation, the oxygen inside the bottle slowly depleted, leaving the candle to flicker before
it had been extinguished. Once extinguished, it was noted that the water level inside the beaker
significantly rose increasing the height of the candle

To ensure validity and reliability within the investigation, it would be advised for the experiment to
repeat three times under the same specific conditions such as to the amount of drops of food colouring
to the brand of the candle. It is highly important to ensure that the candle size and height to the brand is
kept the same to produce accurate and valid results of how the height will affect the result.
For this type of question, it is highly advisable to write a highly specific method, paying attention to
certain increments and control variables and ensuring that you write, ‘repeat three times under the
same conditions.’

Using a measuring cylinder rather than a beaker/container to trap the candle inside would be more
accurate as to figure out the increased volume would involve a few steps. Also using a rule with finer
increments to accurately measure the height of the results
Science Behind the Bernoulli Effect (ping pond practical):
In simple terms the Bernoulli effect in our experiment would state that the velocity of a fluid will increase
as it passes through a narrow opening, and the internal fluid pressure at that point will decrease.
Therefore as the air squeezes out between the balloon and the cup it speeds up. At the same time the air
pressure will decrease, below that of the surrounding air. The result is the surrounding air pressure will
force the balloon into the cup.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Observation related to Candle Practical: When the flame of the candle went out, the water level rose.
Inference: With the heat extinguished, the container acted as a vacuum to absorb the water, thus the
increase in height. The flame of the candle used up oxygen as it burned, creating a vacuum, absorbing
the ware into the jar to fill up the vacuum.

Observation related to Bernoulli Effect: The ping pong ball bobbled between two heights as it drifted in
the high velocity airflow, created by the hair dyer. Inference: The mass of the two balls stay suspended as
its gravitational pull collides with the high velocity airflow, creating a state of dynamic equilibrium.
However, as the ping pong ball spun, it could be due to the constant changes of the velocity, ultimately,
breaking that state of equilibrium, leading it to fall off.
Archimedes Practical
Archimedes Practical

Using Archimedes’ Principle to Calculate the Volume

When presented with the task of determining whether the king’s crown was made of pure gold or a mix of
gold and silver, Archimedes used his observation of the water being displaced when objects are submerged.
Whilst it was possible to calculate the volume of a regular object (e.g. a sphere) at the time using
mathematical equations, calculating the volume of irregular shaped objects (e.g. a crown) was not so easy.
Archimedes calculated the volume of irregular shapes by filling a vessel with a known volume of water. He
then submerged the object into the water until the top most part of the object was just below the water
level. He then measured the amount of water that was displaced in the process.
Part A: Calculating the Volume of a Regular Object
You will be calculating the theoretical volume of a ping pong ball using the formula: v= 4/3 πr .
3

Measure the diameter of the ping pong ball and divide by 2 to calculate radius= ___3.51
4/3xpix2^3
=33.51 cm^3 (2 d.p)

Calculate the theoretical volume of the ping pong ball using the above equation. Show your working out in
the space below:
Now we will measure the volume using Archimedes’ Principle.

1.​ Fill up a measuring cylinder with 400mL of water and place a few drops of food dye.
2.​ Place a ping pong ball and submerge in water with the thinnest a layer of water forming above the
topmost part of the ping pong ball.
3.​ Record the final volume.
4.​ Calculate the displacement volume using the equation:

Displacement volume= final volume- initial volume

Results:
Displacement volume= final volume- initial volume
Therefore, volume of ping pong ball is __35 cm cubed
Part B: Calculating the Volume of an Irregular Object
You will be calculating the volume of an irregular object using the Archimedes method.

1.​ Fill up a measuring cylinder with 400mL of water and place a few drops of food dye.
2.​ Place an irregular shaped object (e.g. car, etc.) and submerge in water with the thinnest layer of
water forming above the topmost part of the object.
3.​ Record the final volume.
 4.​ Calculate the displacement volume using the equation:

Displacement volume= final volume- initial volume

Results:
Displacement volume= final volume- initial volume
Therefore, volume irregular object is _407.5=400=7.5 cm 3

Discussion (Part A & Part B):

1.​ Any measurements which require you to read off a scale will expose your results to parallax error.
Describe how you could have tried to minimize this error? To minimise parallax error, we could’ve
ensured our line of sight was strictly perpendicular to the reading, coupled with utilising digital
instruments such as the vernier calliper instead of ruler to garner more accurate and valid results.
1.​ How similar or different are the two volumes you calculated? Would you say that Archimedes’
method yields accurate results? Explain your answer. The Archimedes’ method produced fairly
accurate and similar results compared to the theoretical, however parallax errors and inconsistent
readings may have resulted in minor scientific errors.
1.​ How could you improve the reliability of the volumes you measured? To improve the reliability of
the volumes collected in the experiment, it is vital to repeat the experiment three times under the
exact conditions and create averages as well as the range. This would greatly ensure reliability and
consistency by ensuring the avoidance of human errors and rapid assumptions. It is all dependent
on how close the differences and similarities the values are next to each other.

Conclusion (Part A & Part B):

To conclude this investigation, it is evident that Archimedes’ method of displacement was proven to
accurately display the volume of the both objects in the experiment. It is shown that both theoretical
values of the ping pong ball were close in value in comparison to the results which is a difference of 1.49
cm3, however was due to parallax error which limits the accuracy of the experiment.
The type of the measurement utilized for different types of experiment such as using a (accurate
measurement tool) for the ping pong ball as it greatly improves the reliability as well as the accuracy of the
experiment.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait use of
observation
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander use of observation to understand Country and
Place

→ Assess ways in which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use observation to develop an
understanding of Country and Place in order to create innovative ways of managing the natural
environment, including but not limited to:

●​ - firestick farming
●​ - knowledge about plants for medicinal purposes

Powerpoint Notes

Inquiry question - How does observations instigate scientific investigation?

-​ A scientific investigation is a system approach to answer a question about the universe

using the scientific method.

Accurate Representation of a Scientific Method

Observation, Environmental Management and ATSI peoples

-​ Aboriginal People have inhabited Australia for over 60,000 years, resulting in how their
presence altered due to their adaptation through a positive viewpoint. This can be
through altering the landscape and fauna distribution as well as the evolution of
Australian plant species.
-​ One of these substantial evidence of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander using
sustainable practices is through firestick farming. Firestick farming has led to an increase
in certain bush tucker species (e.g., goannas) in areas where the Indigenous population
was more active. This also significantly accelerated the diversity of plant communities in
these regions. It is also deemed one of the most efficient ways to find food and as a
form of protection from predators that it is still repurposed by many bushland
maintenance and ecosafety organisations. The implementation of controlled fires to
 manage ecosystems has also reduced the occurrence of large wild fires in Australia, and
replenishes nutrients to the soil and triggers germination and fresh growth in species,
benefiting the same mammal species.

The “fire stick farming” hypothesis:

The study tested the idea that fire stick farming was not an accidental but a deliberate strategy that
shaped the landscape in different aspects that not only increased the plant and animal biodiversity but
the ecosystem that thrives.

-​ Aboriginal people used small, controlled fires across a specific region depending on the seasonal
varieties, which resulted in a mosaic of burned and unburned patches that created a fine-grained
habitat structure.
-​ These fire mosaics increased the vegetational diversity at local scales which provided better
habitats and more food sources for animals.
-​ Fire use was closely linked to hunting behaviour, especially for small animals like monitor lizards.
This strategy also boosted hunting success by making habitats more diverse and predictable.
Methods Used
-​ Combines ethnographic data ( observations of Aboriginal burning and hunting) with satellite
imagery analysis of fire patterns and vegetation.
Findings
-​ Anthropogenic burning leads to finer vegetation patches compared with natural lightning fires.
-​ This fine mosaic increase habitat heterogeneity (more types of vegetation in closer proximity)
-​ Beneficial for hunters due to the varied habitats, accessible to more prey.
-​ Fire stick farming was likely a purposeful strategy that supported both cultural practices and
ecological outcomes.
-​ This experiment provides a lot of quantitative evidence, linking human behaviour with long-term
ecological patterns and helps explain why Australia’s biodiversity is so unique and varied.

Aboriginal hunting buffers variability in Australia’s spinifex grasslands

This extract focuses on how greater climatic variability influences fire size and the hunting fires which
demonstrates the mitigation of small mammal populations and wildlife size, as well as reducing large
wildfires. Coincidentally or not, when the population of the Indigenous nation decreased, small mammal
and plant species suffered population declines and extinction. This indicates a relationship between
climate and the fire size which is buffered through the maintenance of an anthropogenic, fine grained
fire regime.
-​ Aboriginal fires are smaller, clustered, remain small even during climate variation causes huge
fires in the lightning region
-​ Alternating wet-dry cycles increase vegetation growth.
-​ Benefits smaller animal’s mortality and biodiversity, while increasing the variation of Australian
species.
 -​ ATSI people were able to develop multiple treatments for illness, often reusing the same
medicinal plant. Since some plants are seasonal, finding the treatments could be
extremely difficult at times.

How observations of people’s reactions to certain plants likely lead to the development of
“bush medicine”.

Bush medicine refers to the medicinal practices and knowledge about plants, minerals, clays,
and other natural resources, passed down through generation within First Nations
communities. Use to prevent, treat, and manage various ailments and health conditions.

There were many variations when testing and observing the effects of different medicinal herbs. To
name a few:

-​ Plants leaves many have been burnt on a stick before application to a wound,
-​ Perhaps mashed up and swallowed
-​ Boiled before drinking.

The most active ingredients of bush medicine - concept of healing an individual through natural means -
tend to be either fat (lipid) soluble, or water-soluble. For this, animal fat was important in the
preparation of many traditional medicines.

-​ First Nations people were intentionally using animal fat to absorb and deliver the lipid -soluble
active ingredient of a natural compound. Without the addition of animal fat, the medicine would
not have worked.
-​ This method/active ingredients are also used in modern medicine.

-​

Examples of regional First Nations bush medicines.

Native hop or sticky hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa):

→ The plant's leathery leaves could be boiled or applied to relieve aches. Commonly found in the
Australian Outback, able to tolerate desert conditions and can be utilized to ferment beer. It would be an
alternative during drought.

Nettle (Urtica Diocia):

→ This indigenous plant possesses prickly leaves that ‘beat aways,’ paralysis and rheumatism by
smacking the ill with its leaves.

Beach bean (Canavalia rosea):

→ This species is derived from the genus Canavalia where careful extraction from the roots relieves
various aches and pains. It is commonly found on beaches, dunes, and open areas.

Mud, Sand, and termite dire:

→ The First Nation’s people observed that mud or soil helped cool down the skin. So this observation
was later used to act as a physical barrier to prevent infection on open wounds. It also served as a
cooling substance to mitigate the harsh conditions of Australia's climate.

Clay:
→ Some animals eat small amounts of clay as part of their diet. The clay can absorb or neutralise toxins
in the stomach before they harm the body. This allows animals to safely eat plants that would normally
be poisonous. Ancient Indigenous Australians may have used clay in a similar way to treat stomach toxins
or infections.

Tree Tea Oil

In the 1920s , scientific experiments confirmed that tea tree oil has powerful bacterial and
fungal-killing properties. Since then, it has been widely used to treat various issues, from insect bites
to acne.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use detailed observation of Country and Place to
understand how ecosystems work. These observations allow them to develop innovative, sustainable
environmental management practices, such as:

●​ Firestick farming, based on observing plant regrowth, animal behaviour, and seasonal cycles,
leading to controlled burning that promotes biodiversity, supports hunting, and maintains
healthy landscapes.
●​ Medicinal plant use, developed through observing the effects of plants on the body and
identifying useful properties (e.g., aromatic oils), resulting in effective natural treatments for
illness.

Their knowledge systems show a deep scientific understanding built from continuous observation,
testing, and adaptation over thousands of years.

Firestick Farming (Cultural Burning)

How observation shaped the practice

●​ Observed how fire affects plant regrowth, animal movement, soil health, and ecosystem balance.
●​ I noticed that young shoots attract grazing animals and that some plants regenerate better after
fire.
●​ Learned seasonal patterns: when to burn, how hot, how often, and which areas.
●​ Fires are intentionally set at specific times and areas to achieve a particular outcome.
●​ Instead of enormous, out of control wildfires, small fires are set in different areas, creating a
patchwork of burned and unburned areas. This is referred to as patch burning. This helps plants
and animals thrive in other parts of the land not affected by the burn, forcing them to migrate to
different parts, and let their old place regenerate.
Innovative environmental management

●​ Hunting: Fire used to flush out animals; observed animal behaviour after burns.
●​ Regeneration: Burning encourages new growth of grasses, ferns, edible plants (e.g., bush
potato).
●​ Landscape shaping: Long-term burning transformed dense forest → open savannah, increasing
kangaroo populations.
●​ Clearing paths: Fire used to remove undergrowth for safe travel; observed how fire reduces
snakes/vermin.
●​ Signalling: Smoke used for communication across Country.
●​ Sustainable cycles: Returned to burnt areas after rain when animals were attracted to new
growth.

Plants used as Medicines

Many plants provided medicines. Very little preparation was required. Leaves were bruised,
roots or bark pounded to use as poultices. To be taken internally the chemical in the plant
materials were extracted using hot water. Many Australian plants such as tea-trees, eucalypts,
boronia and mints are rich in aromatic oils. These oils are very useful in treating respiratory
illnesses.
Example of plants used in medicine:
• The juice and crushed leaves of the Australian Bugle (Ajuga australis) were used by
Aborigines in northern NSW to cure sores and ulcers.
• In WA an infusion of the roots of the Prickly Fanflower (Scaevola spinescens) was
drunk to ease stomach aches.
• The young leaves of the Broad-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) were
chewed as a treat for head colds. They were brewed in warm water to make a liquid
which was helpful in treating headaches and general
illness.
• The leaves of mint bushes (Prostanthera species) were
crushed and placed on the temples to relieve headaches.
• The head could be cleared by inhaling the vapour from
crushed Eucalyptus leaves. Source: AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS EDUCATION SERVICES
The development of fire stick-farming and the use of plants for medicine could be assumed
to have been derived by careful observation during the direct daily interactions that the
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples had with their environment. These observations
would lead to inference of cause and effect that would be tested and become practices used
in their culture.
Atomi Lesson: How First Nations Peoples Use Observations.

How First Nations Peoples Use observations to understand Country and Place:
Country and Place: The land, water and skies to which the First Nations Peoples belong through their
ancestral and spiritual ties and family origins. An understanding of this concept is developed through
the belief that the land is a living entity and all living things are interdependent on one another. This
means that Aboriginal people have ingrained the practice of carefully observing and managing the land
to ensure its health and sustainability.
 -​ Use observation skills to gain a deeper understanding of the environment. They
include:
→ Land
→ Waterways
→ Weather Patterns
→ Natural Environment
→ Environmental changes over an extended period.
-​ Helped develop a strong knowledge and application of utilising Australia’s natural resources in
the best way.
-​ They also used:
→ Prediction
→ Trial and error
→
→ Hypothesis
→ Generalisation
-​ These strategies helped them anticipate and adapt to environmental changes, plan for hunting
gathering activities and ensure sustainable use of natural resources.
-​ They transmit this knowledge through visual artworks or primarily through oral media such as
stories.

-​ It allows them to understand the interdependence of all aspects in the environment,

including the relationships between plants, animals and seasonal changes.

-​
How First Nations Peoples Use Observations to Innovate Ways to Manage the Environment
Weather PAtterns and Seasonal Observations

-​ This information was also able to inform other regions like the seasonal calendar
Seasonal Calendars:
-​ Varies across Australia, reflecting the unique ecological traits of each area.
-​ It consists of distant seasons that align with:
→ Changes in weather
→ Availability of food sources
→ Other natural phenomena, like the movement of stars.
-​ Can predict changes in seasons, like the:
→ Behaviour of animal species and plants
→ Flowering of Plants
→ Presence of specific insects or birds
Example: The Noongar People of Western Australia use a six season calendar with wet, dry,
fire and seasons associated with the breeding cycles of certain animals.
-​ First Nations Peoples gain insight into the health of ecosystems and make informed
decisions about land and wildlife management by observing plant and animals
behaviour.
Example: The Binij and Mungguy people of the kakadu region understand the life cycle of
magpie geese and the behaviour associated with their breeding patterns.

Innovation Fire and Water Practice:

-​ These practices are deeply rooted in observing and understanding the landscape.
Water Management:

Fire Management:
By observing the vegetation, weather condition, and wind pattern, controlled bruns can be
used to regenerate the land.
-​ Promotes biodiversity and reduce large wildlife fires
Practical: Investigation of Tea Tree Oil
Practical: Investigating the Medicinal use of Tea Tree Oil
For the Bundjalung Aboriginal people, from the coast of New South Wales, one of the most
common bush medicines was Tea tree oil from Paper Bark trees (Melaleuca alternifolia). The
tea-tree leaves were crushed and applied as a paste to wounds as well as being brewed as a
kind of tea for sore throat.

In this activity we will investigate the medicinal use of tea tree oil.
Equipment List
• ​ Nutrient Agar plate
• ​ Fresh soil sample as a source of micro-organisms
• ​ 150 ml beaker
• ​ Water
• ​ Pipette
• ​ Tea tree oil
• ​ Filter paper
• ​ Parafilm
• ​ Incubator
• ​ Ruler

Method

1. ​ Place an 1/8 of a teaspoon of fresh soil in 100 mls of water and mix.

2. ​ Leave for a few minutes to allow the soil to settle.

3. ​ Use the pipette to take a sample of the soil water and inoculate the nutrient agar plate with a few
drops. Swish the water around so it evenly covers the agar surface.

4. ​ Cut four 5mm x 5mm squares of filter paper.

5. ​ To two of the filter paper squares add a drop to each of Tea Tree oil.

6. ​ Place the four filter paper squares in each quadrant of the petri dish. Label, so the Tea Tree oil soak
samples can be identified.
 7. ​ Seal the Petri dish with sticky tape and place in the incubator at 320 C

8. ​ After 48 hours observe the petri dish and record observations as a sketch, and as quantitative and
qualitative observation

Results
Qualitative Observations Quantitative Observations
…………………………………………... …………………………………………...

- ​ Water vapour watery substances - ​ 3 large growths of fungal hyphae

inside the petri dish on the edges of the tea tree side
- ​ Bubbles forming cloudy and (keyboard petri dish)
muddy appearance on the dirty - ​ The tea tree oil removed bacteria
water petri dish. 25mm on one side but only 3mm
- ​ The keyboard petri dish contains on the other side.
fungus growth and crystalline - ​ The mould extended 21mm
patterns. - ​ The diameter of the mould was
- ​ Distinct colonies seen in keyboard 3mm on the untreated side
dishes as opposed to disoriented - ​ The distance between nearest tea
growth on dirty water dishes. tree oil filter paper and bacteria
- ​ Significantly less bacterial growth colony was 2.4cm.
on the treated side
- ​ One type of bacteria develops in
drops while the other spreads
across the side
- ​ The bacteria were yellow in
colour.
Question

1.​ Give a possible reason why only two pieces of filter paper were treated with tea tree
oil.

Two of the four filter paper squares were treated with tree oil, while the remaining two served as
controls. This is to ensure that the effect of the tea tree oil on bacterial growth is accurately measured. By
maintaining equal groups, potential bias and inconsistency within the results are minimized, henceforth,
strengthening the validity and reliability of the resulting observations.

2. Describe the inferences you can deduce from your observations.

The petri dish illustrates that the side treated with the tree oil, exhibits significantly less bacterial growth
compared to the untreated side, which displays extensive fungal and bacteria proliferation. This discovery
emphasises the exceptional observation skills that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples possess,
seeing how they identified the antibacterial properties of the tea tree’s oil. This can be deduced that this
understanding was later applied to clean and preserve certain objects, displaying their intelligence that
parallels with modern methodologies.

3. Outline a scenario of how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples would observe the
effects of Tea Tree oil and develop similar inferences.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples observed that when crushed tea tree leaves were applied on
cuts, rashes, or other skin infections, it would soon soothe the skin, reducing the pain. Seeing this
transition, may evoke further comparisons between untreated wounds to wounds applied by the tea tree
leaves. This could be completed through repeated observations, over time which allowed them to deduce
that the leaves possessed significant microbial/healing and preservative properties. This knowledge led
to diverse application from medicinal infusions to the preservation of weapons and other artifacts. This
practice would be carried down through generations as a sophisticated system of traditional medicine.
This proves how their scientific thinking and applications are connected through observations and
inferences.
1.2 Observations
1.2 → Observations

Inquiry question: What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative and quantitative observations?

Students:

→ carry out a practical activity to qualitatively and quantitatively describe, for example:

- microscopic images of a variety of cells

- geological strata in rock faces and road cuttings

- an object falling due to gravity

- characteristics of acids and bases

→ analyse the quantitative data from the following information sources, including but not limited to:

- digital images and hand-drawn diagrams of cells

- geological succession obtained from rock strata

- graphs of results obtained from observations of an object falling due to gravity

- data showing the pH of acids and bases

→ evaluate the differences between qualitative and quantitative observations and data and where
these are used

Things to improve one:

PH scale, mass and weight.

Control groups act as a baseline, which is compared with the experimental group. If the experimental
group is significantly greater than the baseline, it concludes that the tree oil has a greater effect on the
control of bacteria growth.

Geological Succession Data

How we can observe geological strata:

Geological Strata: A common term when referring to the many rock layers that appear over
large areas. It is stacked-up layers of rocks in the Earth’s crust.
→ These are formed over millions of years and hold undiscovered insights about the Earth’s
history.
→Through analysing these structures, scientists can learn about past environmental
conditions and events that shaped the planet.
→ Scientists can collect geological data from
-​ Rock faces at famous landmarks

-​ Road cuttings you may see on construction sites

→ Geological strata found in rock faces and road cutting can provide valuable insight into the
Earth’s extensive past, and studying them can help scientists better understand the evolution
of the Earth.
Road Strata:
→ Can range from tiny outcrops where the layers are visible on the surface to huge ones deep
in the Earth’s crust.

Sedimentary Rock
 -​ Ingenious rocks can also sneak through the rock strata through volcanic intrusions, pushing
magma into the rock layers.
-​ Metamorphic and igneous rocks are formed deep in the Earth’s crust, culminating through the
immense pressure.

Types of Quantitative and Qualitative Data We Can Collect From Rock Strata:

What can the data we collect from rock strata tell us about the past environmental conditions
of the site?

Some qualitative observations could include what rock types are present. The type of rock present can
actually tell us a lot about the past environment. For instance, it could tell us if the site was once a
marine environment or river. The presence of sandstone may indicate a beach deposit, while limestone
could be a sign of a marine environment that was once home to lots of coral and animals.
Fault, Folds and Intrusions

The presence of fossils in the rocks can also indicate the age of the layer. For example, fossils like
ammonites tell us the layer is between 150-200 million years old. The presence of fossils like ammonite
are called indicator fossils as they indicate the age of the layer for us.

Grain Shape:
Analysing grain size can also indicate the environmental conditions and how long the deposit took to
form. Small grains take longer to deposit, require less energy to transport, resulting in thinner layers.
They are also usually formed deep in the ocean. In contrast, larger grains:
-​ Deposited quickly
-​ Require more energy to transport
-​ Thicker layers
-​ Probably formed in rivers, beaches, or after flood events.

Geological data is also loaded by quantitative data, providing insight into the amount of rock
and possible natural resources hidden below.

Layer Thickness:
Analysing Geological Succession Data:

Rules of Geological Succession Strata:

There are three main rules that can help us analyse geological succession data:

Superposition: Superposition allows us to determine the relative age of rock strata or layers. This rule
states that rock layers are super imposed. That means they are laid down on top of another. So the
oldest rock start will be on the bottom, and the younger layers positions on higher levels.

Uniformitarianism: Processes that alter the Earth’s crust today are the same processes that occurred
millions of years ago. So from that information, we can take our observations of processes occurring
today and also assume that these processes were also happening a long time ago. E.g., ripple marks in
the sand on a stream bed, formed by the flow of water. Ripple marks in the rock record can correlate
with this prior information, assuming that a similar process was at work to form those sediments.
Original Horizontality: It means that sediment is deposited horizontally, meaning that even if the
rock strata aren’t sitting perfectly horizontal in nature today, it was originally horizontal when
deposited.

Features in Geological Rock Stata:

Faults and Erosion:

Analysing Geological Succession Data:

We can visually interpret geological data through cross-section diagrams.
Cross-Section Diagrams are used as a visual aid, to communicate the information gathered from
analysing rock strata. They take samples of the rock, images and observations and compile it.

Analysing Quantitative Geological Succession Data:

→ The scale can be used to tell us the depth or thickness of the rock strata. It helps us compare the
thickness of each layer and the size of some features in the rock strata.

Analysing Qualitative Geological Succession Data

→ The key helps us identify the composition of different rocks.

→ We can spot marked faults within the rocks.
→ The youngest layer is B, and the oldest layer is P (although it is quite deformed)

To determine the youngest and the oldest faults, we need to look at the rock layers the fault is cutting
into. Fault D is cutting into layers F,E and P. Fault H is cutting through all these layers too, as well as
layers O,M and J. In conclusion, fault H is the younger fault as it disrupted more layers that are sitting
above the previous fault.
→ Youngest Fault is H
→ Oldest Fault is D
→ We can also identify the evidence of erosion in a cross-section indicated by unconformity (what
looks out of place, not that horizontal, looks for uneven or disrupted layers, jagged and rough).

On top of the cross-section we can see that the algiers are horizontal and straight, with some
intrusions and faults cutting into them. However, on the bottom, we can see that the layers are folded
and deformed. So the boundary where our folded and neat horizontal layers meet is the unconformity.

→ Erosion occurred at boundary L

Geo - Strata Practical
1Bi. carry out a practical activity to quantitatively and qualitatively describe, for example:
→ geological strata in rock faces and road cuttings

Geological strata in rock faces and road cuttings.

When driving, you will often pass through road cuttings, and make simple observations such as:
“the rocks are in layers”. These layers are known as strata (singular = stratum).

Looking closely at rock strata can reveal many interesting observations of strata that can give
evidence of the history of the geology of the area.

Try this activity on line – the link is below

- We’ve found this cliff. Help us work out the relative ages of the layers of sedimentary
rocks.
Remember that younger sedimentary rocks lie on top of older ones and were horizontal when
formed.
It looks as though one group of layers was tilted and eroded away before new rocks were
formed on top.
- Instructions
- Move your mouse over one of the geologist’s hammers. Information about one of the rock
layers will appear – drag the hammer and drop it onto the layer you think is being
described.
Carry on and place all the hammers on the correct layers.

- [Link]

Now…..let’s analyse the rock face below

Ask for a photocopy of the rock face so you can manipulate the cutting, rather than imagine it.
You also need to annotate your photo in your booklet.

1. Label the TWO major primary faults/fractures travelling from top to bottom with A and B

2. Label TWO secondary faults/fractures C and D

3. Label FIVE horizontal rock layers 1 to 5, from the youngest to the oldest layer (HINT: youngest layers
are at the top). Describe the appearance of these layers and record as qualitative observations

4. On the photocopy, cut through labelled faults and adjust to match the layers selected
5. Use the scale to measure the thickness of the selected layers 1 to 5, and the distance slipped at each
of the two major faults A and B of each of these layers – record this information in a table

6. Use a protractor to measure the average angle of the two major primary faults/fractures and the
two secondary faults/fractures and record this information in a table (HINT: place the base of the
protractor parallel with the bottom of the page in your book)

7. Use the scale to measure the distance slipped at each of the secondary faults/fractures C and D –
record this information in a table

8. When rock layers are heated and placed under pressure, they bend or warp. Identify TWO examples
of warped layering at least 10 cm long in the rock face and label them Warp a and Warp b

9. When rock layers are not heated and placed under pressure, they appear straight. Identify TWO
examples of straight layering at least 20 cm long in the rock face and label them Area c and Area d

10. Identify the oldest rock layer in the cutting and label ‘oldest’

Your pictures of the rock cutting should now be fully annotated and the extra copy can be pasted
below.
Equipment list:
-​ Ruler ​
-​ Protractor​
-​ Scissors ​
-​ Picture of road cutting

Method
· ​ You may work collaboratively but must record data individually for this activity
· ​ The picture below is of a road cutting showing rock strata.
-​ Scale (cm)
Observations

Qualitative Observation Quantitative Observations

The bedding planes/sedimentary layers Layer 1 - 0.6cm

seem to be thinner compared to the
thickening bedding layers as we delve the
deeper into the strata.

The older layers seem to display darker Layer 2 - 1cm

schemes, appearances whereas the younger
layers have lighter lines/appearance.
There seems to be more warped areas within Layer 3 - 0.5cm
the older layers, specifically layer 5

Layer 4 - 0.8cm

Layer 5- 1cm

Angle of B - 54 degrees

Angle of a - 64 degres

Average Angle - 59 Degrees

Average Angle of C (22 degrees) and D

(60 degrees) - 41 degrees
Distance Slipped of Layer 5 - 3.2 cm

Distance Slipped of Layer 2 - 2cm

Distance Slipped of Layer 3 - 2cm

Distance slipped of Layer 4 - 2.2 cm

Distance Slipped of Layer 1 - 1.5cm

Distance Slipped of A - 1.7cm

Distance slipped of B - 1cm

1.2.1c - Cell Notes
1.2.1c - Observations of Cells

Making Observations – ChatGpt Notes

Inquiry Question What are the benefits and drawbacks of Qualitative observations and Quantitative
observations

Microscopes

●​ Used to see objects too small for the naked eye

●​ Have:
○​ Higher resolution
○​ Greater magnification than the human eye

Resolution

●​ Resolution = ability to distinguish two close objects as separate

●​ Also called resolving power
●​ Higher resolution → clearer detail

Human Eye

●​ Resolving power = 100 µm (0.1 mm)

●​ If two points are closer than 100 µm → appear as one point

Light Microscope

●​ Resolution ≈ 0.2 µm
●​ About 500× better than the human eye

Electron Microscope

●​ Resolution ≈ 0.0002 µm
●​ About 5 million × better than the human eye
●​ Shows very detailed cell structures

Unit Conversions
 ●​ 1 µm = 10⁻⁶ m
●​ 1 mm = 1000 µm
●​ Plant & animal cells: 5–100+ µm wide

Magnification

●​ Magnification = enlarging an object

Light Microscope

●​ Magnifies up to 1000×

Electron Microscope

●​ Magnifies up to 1,000,000×

Calculating Total Magnification

Formula:

Total Magnification = Eyepiece × Objective Lens

Common School Microscope Magnifications:

●​ Low Power: 10× × 4× = 40×

●​ Medium Power: 10× × 10× = 100×
●​ High Power: 10× × 40× = 400×
Analysing Images of Cells - Qualitative Data

Components of Plants and Animal Cells:

We can examine cells by looking at them under a microscope, or even at photos and
hand-drawn diagrams.

Animal Cells

→ Same set of organelles (specialised "mini-organs" made of molecules that perform specific jobs like
the Mitochondria or the nucleus. Think of organelles as the cell’s organs.) in order to survive.
→ Nucleus contains the cell's DNA, so it essentially controls all cell’s activities. Most cells have one
nucleus, but some super-specialised cells have more than one. It is usually the biggest thing inside an
animal cell.
→ Mitochondria are small rod-like structures that are referred to as the powerhouse of the cell,
because they turn food into energy.
→ Outside of all animal cells is a cell membrane. It is a protective barrier that surrounds the cell and
controls what’s allowed to enter and exit it.
→ Inside the cell membrane, all animal cells contain a jelly-like fluid called cytoplasm which dissolves
or suspends everything inside the cell.

Plant Cells

→ All the organelles found in animal cells are also found in plant cells, but on top of the nucleus,
mitochondria, cell membrane and cytoplasm there are chloroplasts, cell walls and vacuoles.
→ Chloroplasts make plants green.
→ Cell walls are an extra protective layer and is a lot stronger than the cell membrane.
→ One large vacuole in the middle, which is surrounded by a membrane that stores liquids, like water,
nutrients and wastes.

Analysing Qualitative Data from Cell Diagrams:

We are looking at aspects of the cell we can identify and describe. We can use observations of
the cell component to help us tell the difference between a plant and animal cell.

→ We can also see if a vacuole is present. We need to look for a large empty space in the cell because
it is mainly full of water, so it won’t show up under a microscope.
→ The cell wall is thin, making it difficult to be visible under a microscope. However, there are some
identifiable factors such as having a more structured shape as cell walls are rigid. They are often
rectangular with flat sides and corners and neatly packed like a brick wall.

→ Animal cells only have a cell membrane, so they are more flexible in shape.

→ Plant cells are much larger than animal cells.

Analysing Images of Cells: Quantitative Data

Analysing Quantitative Data from Cell Diagrams:

Total Magnification: How big the specimen appears under the microscope compared to real
life. To find the total magnification, we have to multiply the magnification of the ocular lens
and the magnification of the objective lens together.
E.g., The microscope has a magnification of 50x. It means that the image we view is fifty
times larger than the object in real life. Most microscopes have two lenses: Ocular Lens
(eyepiece) and Objective Lens. Both of these lenses work together to magnify the specimen.

Actual Cell Size: Once we know the magnification of the cell, we can then measure the
diameter of the cell under the microscope. We measure cells in micro (10 to the power of -6
or one millionth) metres (µm) → Micrometres.
→ 1 µm = 0.000001 m
→ 1mm = 1000 µm

To determine the size of an individual cell:

1.​ Measure the size of the field of view (distance from one side of the image to the
other/diameter of the image) under our microscope using a ruler in millimeters.
 2.​ Convert millimeters to micrometers by multiplying by a thousand. (millimeters is not accurate
enough for a specimen this small.)
3.​ Determine how many cells are in that field of view.
4.​ Divide this number by the field of view distance to determine the individual size of the cell.

Communicating Quantitative Data with Cell Diagrams

In diagrams and images of cells, we represent the size of the cell using a scale bar.

Scale Bar:
→ Capped horizontal line drawn at the bottom corner of a biological drawing.
Object Falling Due to Gravity Practical
1Bi. carry out a practical activity to quantitatively and qualitatively describe, for
example: an object falling due to gravity

Activity 3: An object falling due to gravity

Have you ever wondered how fast a heavy object falls compared with a lighter one? Imagine if you dropped both of them at the
same time. Which would hit the ground first? Would it be the heavier one because it weighs more? Or would they hit the ground
at the same time? In the late 1500s in Italy the famous scientist Galileo was asking some of these same questions. And he did
some experiments to answer them. In this activity you'll do some of your own tests to determine whether heavier objects fall
faster than lighter ones.

Aim: To qualitatively and quantitatively describe an object falling due to gravity

Equipment list

•​ Metre ruler
•​ Clamps
•​ Retort stand
•​ Mobile phone
•​ 1x Tennis Ball
•​ 1x Styrofoam ball

Method

Part A:

1. ​ Set up an experiment as shown in the diagram on the right. Ensure that the 0 end of the ruler is touching the
floor and the 100cm end is facing upwards.
2. ​ Place the Styrofoam ball and tennis ball so that the base of both balls are in line with the 0cm line.
3. ​ As both balls are released make a video recording in slow motion of the balls hitting the ground.
4. ​ Play back the video to determine whether both balls hit the ground at the same time.
5. ​ Repeat Steps 1-4 two more times.

Part B:

1. ​ Set up an experiment as shown in the diagram on the right. Ensure that the 0 end of the ruler is touching the
floor and the 100cm end is facing upwards.
2. ​ Decide upon four heights from which to drop the tennis ball.
3. ​ Place the base of the tennis ball in line with the first height.
4. ​ As the tennis ball is released make a video recording in slow motion of the tennis ball hitting the ground. Stop the
recording after it has hit the ground.
5. ​ Play back video to determine the exact time taken to hit the ground. Assume that your phone video camera
captures 240 frames/second.
Type of Ball Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
nd st
Tennis Ball 2 1 1st
Styrofoam Ball 1st 2nd 2nd

Time taken to drop (seconds)

Height (cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

100 0.34 0.32 0.32 0.31
90 0.28 0.23 0.40 0.30
80 0.22 0.25 0.35 0.27
70 0.28 0.24 0.025 0.25

Range (100cm) = 0.03

Range (90cm) = 0.13
Range (80cm): 0.12
Range (70cm) = 0.02
Graph of Results

Questions

1. ​ List below the quantitative and qualitative observations you made

 Qualitative:
- ​ The tennis ball is depicted to accelerate as it fall downs rather than the styrofoam ball
- ​ The tennis ball is heavier than the Styrofoam ball
- ​ The tennis ball is shown to spin slightly as it falls
- The tennis ball is shown to hit the ground faster than the styrofoam ball
Quantitative
- ​ The tennis ball is shown to reach the ground faster than the Styrofoam ball, meaning it has
greater mass.
- ​ The shorter the height the tennis ball is dropped from, the longer the time before it reaches
the ground compared with greater heights such as the 100m.
- ​ The average of the 70cm drop was 0.031 which was a 0.006 millisecond difference from the
100m
- The range of the tennis ball dropping from different heights shows:
- Range (100cm) = 0.003
- Range (90cm) = 0.013
- Range (80cm): 0.012
- Range (70cm) = 0.002

2. ​ Describe a limitation of the data collection method of Part A and how you could overcome this
limitation.

The limitation of part A is that there was not much data to collect in measurements but rather
was observed which can differ from person to person. This is compounded by parallax error
caused by inconsistent camera angles and human reaction time errors when recording. To
overcome this limitation, the camera must be mounted at a position where it levels with the floor
and can frame the experiment clearly. This can accurately depict the ‘finish line’ and when the
ball reaches the floor first. Furthermore, the slow-motion feature allows for frame-by-frame
analysis, which removes guesswork. It also makes it easier to reach a more accurate conclusion
through the ability of replays.

Acceleration due to Gravity: s = ut + ½ at squared

U - initial speed of the ball before it was released

A - Acceleration

T - Time

S - Distance

Acceleration

70m - 14.57 m/s

80m - 17.78 m/s

90m - 24.69 m/s

100m -32 m/s

3. ​ Describe the adjustments you could make to your method to improve your results

Some adjustments that can be added to the method is to utilize a mechanical release machine
that reduces human error and ensures that both balls are dropped at the same time. I would also
encourage part A to record quantitative results such as the time taken to fall. This would allow
for an objective analysis of how surface area and mass influence the effect of air resistance. I
would also suggest that the experiment is done in a room, where external variables like the wind
are minimised which doesn’t affect the air resistance which correlates to the gravitational pull,
thus altering the acceleration rate.

4. ​ Explain how the use of digital technology improved your results.

The usage of slow motion also accurately depicts the action through frame-by-frame analysis
improving accuracy. This reduces human error due to our slower reaction times, which can be
hard to depict in a fast experiment in comparison to digital technology, where it can do through
the identification and detail on each frame. Digital technology also provides more accurate
measurements which are easily accessible and can be reviewed multiple times, ensuring
consistency and reliability. The quality and fixed camera positions possess more clarity and
features that other manual machines or humans can’t do, improving accuracy and reducing
parallax error.
Analysing Graphs Showing the Effects of Gravity

→ When considering an object falling due to gravity, we can collect quantitative data from observation
alone, including distance and time.

●​ We can use this data to calculate the velocity of the falling object.

→ A time-series graph shows how velocity changes over time.

 ●​ The smooth line connects every data point, so we can get information from every
stage of the fall.

●​ Motion graphs use dot-to-dot, not trend lines

→ At the beginning of an object's fall due to gravity, the velocity increases at a constant rate.

→ The object will continue accelerating at this rate while there isn't that much air resistance.

●​ Then, we see the gradient starting to flatten.

→ This is because as we get faster, air resistance increases.

●​ The downward net force decreases as a result, meaning the acceleration

decreases.

→ Eventually, the air resistance increases to the point where it balances the force due to gravity.
●​ At this point, the object begins to move at a constant velocity, also known as
terminal velocity.

Features of the graph:

-​ x-axis: Time (s)

-​ y-axis: Distance fallen (m)
 -​ The curve becomes steeper over time

It tells us:

-​ The object is accelerating

-​ Distance increases at an increasing rate
-​ The slope (gradient) is increasing

Key Interpretation Skill (Syllabus – Analyse Data):

-​ A curved line indicates changing velocity

-​ Increasing gradient = increasing speed
-​ Motion is not constant speed

High-Level Scientific Language to Use

Instead of saying:

●​ ❌ “It speeds up”​

●​ ✅ “The velocity increases at a constant rate, indicating constant acceleration.”​

●​ ❌ “The graph flattens”​

●​ ✅ “The decreasing gradient indicates reduced acceleration due to increasing air resistance.”​

●​ ❌ “It moves at the same speed”​

●​ ✅ “The horizontal section represents terminal velocity where net force equals zero.”​
Acids and Bases Practical
A solution’s position on the pH scale depends on its acidity or alkalinity. pH is determined by the relative concentrations of
hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻). More hydrogen ions means a lower pH (more acidic), while more hydroxide ions
means a higher pH (more alkaline).

Equipment list
• 1 x Universal indicator dropper bottle Samples to be tested
• 1 x Universal indicator colour chart • 0.5M HCl dropper bottle
• 1 x test tube rack • 0.5M NaOH dropper bottle
• 6 x medium test tubes • Vinegar
• Plastic pipette • lemonade
• Data Logger, pH probe and buffer solution
• Shampoo
• Transformer, voltmeter, electrodes & wires
• Detergent
• Toothpaste
• Baking soda
• Windex
• Lemon juice
Method
1. Collect each sample in a labelled medium test tube.
2. Using the pH probe and data logger, record the pH of each sample in a table.
3. Place a red litmus paper in each sample and record observations.
4. Repeat Step 3 with blue litmus paper.
5. Take note of the pH scale colour chart. Place a few drops of universal indicator into each test
tube with a small sample of each of the liquids above and record observations in a table.
Draw fully labelled diagrams of each test in the space below.
Observations
Questions
1. List the observations that were qualitative
-​ The majority of the solutions turned the litmus paper into red.
-​ Lemonade and Lemon juice seem to appear orange when mixed with the universal indicator.
-​ Weaker acids turned more orangeier-yellowish like for shampoo.
-​ Weaker bases showed hues of greens - blue like baking soda.

3. List the samples that were either acid or base below.

Acids Bases

Glass Cleaner (neutral) Shampoo

Lemonade Baking Soda

Lemon Juice Toothpaste (neutral)

Substance Lithmus Universal Indicator pH Probe

Glass Cleaner The litmus paper pH 7 6.7

turned acid, indicating
acid.

Lemonade The litmus paper The pH is 3. 3.0

turned red, indicating
that it is an acidic
substance.

Shampoo Shows signs of the The pH is 4. 5.7

litmus paper turning
blue and red

Lemon Juice The litmus paper The pH is 3. 2.3

turned red, indicating
that it is an acid.

Baking Soda (with The litmus paper The pH is 8. 8.0

water) turned blue indicating
that it is a basic
 solution.

Toothpaste (with The litmus paper The pH is 7. 6.7

water) turned blue and red.

4. Which observations allow us to rank these acids and bases? Explain why.

The quantitative observations allows us to rank the acidity and the alkalinity of these solutions through
its more specific terms on the pH scale rather than using our qualitative observations to indicate the
ranking of the acids and bases. This is because, when applying the universal indicator or the litmus paper,
the colours vary from person to person, leading to more different conclusions, reducing the accuracy of
the pH scales of the solutions. In contrast, quantitative data from the pH probe offers more intricate
results of the pH scale of different solutions, avoiding human error and sustaining accurate
characteristics of the solutions.

5. Comment on any discrepancies between the pH values obtained from the data logger
compared to the pH value from the colour chart.
The values between the universal indicator and the data logger were quite consistent with the outlier of
the shampoo pH level. This could be due to many factors affecting the accurate measurement of the pH
levels of the substances such as the human errors and subjectiveness. Human error can be evident when
handling the data logger which can detect the wrong substance if not treated properly. Additionally, the
universal indicator provides a general outcome of the pH level which can be altered depending on the
individuals’ observations and usage. The universal indicator outcomes can be subjective due to the
different hues, which can change from person to person. This proves to be a more inaccurate use of
instruments unlike the data logger that has specific increments to accurately measure the levels of the
solution.

6. Which type of observation (qualitative or quantitative) would provide a more accurate

value? Explain why.

Quantitative observations would provide a more accurate value towards the investigation rather than
qualitative observations. This is due to what the experiment’s aim is, which is to determine what the pH
level of different solutions are, which can’t be attained through qualitative observations of colours.
Additionally, the qualitative observations can be subjective, leaving more room for interpretation rather
than closing in the outliers of the experiment. Quantitative data on the other hand, provides specific
levels, which correlates with the aim of the experiment and is utilized by more detail-oriented
instruments such as the pH probe, that eliminates human error and sustains accurate measurements.

7. Describe any trends related to the acidity or alkalinity of the substance tested and their
household use.

From the results, there is an underlying trend that the majority of household items like glass cleaners and
shampoo possess weaker acidity and alkalinity, meaning they are safe to use, sustaining practical
instruments with safety. Furthermore, alkaline substances differ between neutrality and as a weak basic
solution, allowing for clean application without the need of toxic fumes and the corrosive nature of both
solutions.

Analysing Data of Acids and Bases

→ The pH scale is a way to determine how acidic or alkaline a substance is.

→ The pH value is calculated based on the relative concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
within the solution.

●​ A pH value between 0–6.999 means the substance is acidic.

●​ A pH value between 7–14 means the substance is alkaline.
●​ A pH value right on 7 means the substance is neutral.

→ As the hydrogen ion concentration increases by a factor of 10, then the pH value of a solution
decreases by a factor of one.
●​ E.g., An acidic solution with a pH of 3 seems similar to a solution with a pH of 2, the solution
with a pH of 2 contains a concentration of hydrogen ions 10 times greater than the other
solution. Basically, it's 10 times more acidic!
1.3 Observations as Evidence
1.3 → Observations as Evidence

Inquiry question: How does primary data provide evidence for further investigation?

Students:

Use data gathered to plan a practical investigation to:

→ Pose further questions that will be investigated

→ Discuss the role of variables

→ Determine the independent and dependent variables

→ Formulate a hypothesis that links the independent and dependent variables

→ Describe at least three variables that should be controlled in order to increase the validity of the
investigation

Develop a method to collect primary data for a practical investigation by:

→describing how to change the independent variable

→ determining the characteristics of the measurements that will form the dependent variable

→ describing how the data will be collected

→ describing how the controlled variables will be made consistent

→describing how risks can be minimised

Evaluate how observation is limited by the observational tools available, including but not limited to:

→ observing the Universe

→ digital versus analogue technologies

Posing Further Questions to Investigate

(1.3.1: use data gathered to plan a practical investigation to)
([Link]: pose further questions that will be investigated)

Asking further questions serves several important purposes.

→ Firstly, it helps us deepen our understanding of a topic by encouraging us to explore different aspects and
uncover new information.
→ Secondly, it refines our research objectives and goals, allowing us to address patterns, unexpected outcomes,
or gaps in knowledge. The initial goals may not necessarily be wrong, but they can often be broad or vague.
Leads towards more specific aims and goals.

→ Thirdly, it promotes scientific curiosity and drives the advancement of scientific knowledge. Each question
answered often leads to new questions that push the boundaries of our understanding even further.

Data Collection Methods:

How can we use Data to Pose Further Questions

We can carefully look at previously collected data to find patterns, trends and unusual
things (outliers or anomalies). Researchers can visualize the data using charts, graphs or other visual
representation that may reveal interesting and unexpected findings. This can prompt new questions like:
→ We can also re-examine untested variables we might have missed. Means that we should have looked at the
data to see there any variables they didn’t consider in their original investigation, that might be worth
investigating now.

Posing Questions About Hertzsprung-Russell (HE) Diagram

→ The diagram plots the temperature or colour of stars against their luminosity or brightness.
→ There were some data points that did not align with the general trend; there were inconsistencies
in the data and unexpected results which prompted scientists to question the diagram.

→ They meticulously analysed the data to ensure its accuracy and reliability, and yet the outliers
persisted, even after thorough examination.
→ How could these stars main their youthfulness when they should have evolved and dimmed over
time (question when they discovered the blue stragglers)
→ This discovery challenged our understanding of stellar evolution and led to the development of new
theories and models.

Developing a Hypothesis
(1.3.1 use data gathered to plan a practical investigation:)
([Link] formulate a hypothesis that links the independent and dependent variables)
Your hypothesis should be based on:
-​ Your own observations
-​ Existing knowledge
-​ Or, some research you have already done through sources
A hypothesis is a testable statement describing what you think the outcome of an investigation or
experiment will be.
-​ If you can't prove that your hypothesis is conclusively right or wrong, then you haven't developed a testable hypothesis.

One way to structure your hypothesis is by answering a question that has been asked. To do this, you
must identify what you think will happen to the dependent variable if you manipulate the independent
variable.

Another way to develop a hypothesis is by using an "if, then, because" statement. To do this, you can
ask yourself a couple of questions:

●​ What is the independent variable?

●​ What is the dependent variable?
●​ And, what science is out there that will support my prediction?
Regardless of which method you use, make sure to consider your independent and dependent
variables.

Increasing Validity:
(1.3.1: use data gathered to plan a practical investigation to:)
([Link]: describe at least three variables that should be controlled in order to increase the validity of
the investigation)
Scientists must ensure their experiments are as valid as possible. When conducting an investigation in
class, we should try to keep our experiment valid:
Internal Validity → Refers to the ability of the experimental process to measure what we intended to
measure.
External Validity → Refers to how well the results of an investigation can be generalised or
extrapolated beyond the context of the study.

Ways to increase validity include:

-​ Controlling all the variables in an experiment In other words, all other factors that could
potentially influence the experiment's outcome should be kept constant. This ensures that any
changes observed are due to the variable being tested and not due to other factors.
Example: conducting an experiment to determine how temperature affects the expansion
of a metal rod. To increase the validity of the investigation, three variables should be
controlled:
→ The starting length of the metal rod should be consistent across all trials to ensure that
any observed changes in expansion are solely due to temperature variations.

→ The type of metal used should be the same for all trials to eliminate the influence of
different expansion rates between metals.

→ The heating method should be controlled, ensuring a consistent heat source and
intensity to accurately measure the relationship between temperature and expansion.
 -​ Improving measurement techniques. Accurate and precise measurements are achieved by
using correctly calibrated instruments. E.g.,
→ Pipettes

→ Scales and balances

→ Centrifuges

→ pH meters.

Independent and Dependant Variables

(1.3.2: develop a method to collect primary data for a practical investigation by:)
([Link]: describing how to change the independent variable)
([Link]: determining the characteristics of the measurements that will form the dependent variable)

What are Variables in a Scientific Experiment

Variable - Measurable factor of the experiment that can change or that we can control.
-​ Each experiment has independent, dependent and control variables specific to its research
question.
→ Makes our finding more reliable and we can clearly narrow the accuracy of the conclusion.

Examining the Role of Variable in a Scientific Experiment:

→ these additional measurements can provide us with more information about the plant and helps us
understand the true effect of the fertilizer on plant growth.

→ There are actually multiple dependent variables in this experiment that we could consider and
measure. This will give us a better idea of what exactly plant growth looks like.
→ By conducting multiple smaller experiments with different experiments with different independent
variables, it can be compiled into a comprehensive report of multiple factors that may impact plant
growth.

Data Collection Methods:

(1.3.2: develop a method to collect primary data for a practical investigation by:)
([Link]: describing how the data will be collected)
([Link]: describing how the controlled variables will be made consistent)
What is Data:

Collection Methods:

Data can come in many forms, so how we collect it depends on the type of data we need.

Experiments:

Observational Studies:
However, observational studies can be affected by other factors that might unintentionally
alter the results. That’s the risk when they don’t intervene or choose to manipulate any
variables. So scientists need to be aware of all the potential outside influences.

Case Studies:

Surveys:
How Do We Collect Primary Data During an Investigation?

Example:
Developing a Risk Assessment

(1.3.2: develop a method to collect primary data for a practical investigation by:)
([Link]: describing how risks can be minimised)
How can we Minimise Risks in the Lab:

Chemical Hazards:
Fire Hazards:

Electrical Hazards:

Biological Hazards:
Physical Hazards:

General Summary of Preventions:

How do we write a Risk Assessment:

(Instead of Level of Risk → Injury where we describe the accidents and the incidents that may be
associated with the hazard.)
→ Writing a risk assessment is a crucial preparation for a scientific investigation, as it involves
identifying potential risks, determining preventions and implementing those measures.

Limitations of Observational Tools: Observing the Universe

(1.3.3: evaluate how observation is limited by the observational tools available, including but not
limited to)
([Link]: observing the Universe)

How Are Our Observations of the Universe Limited?

→ What our eyes perceive is just a tiny fraction of what's out there
→ Technology allows us to explore the extensive universe
Universe: Region that lies beyond the Earth’s atmosphere that humans can observe with their senses
or with technology. Yet, despite technological advancements and the development of powerscopes,
there is still much more to undercover.

Visual Limitation:
For instance, the study of x-rays has been instrumental in discovering black holes and their properties.

Hearing Limitations:

Apparently, there is a lot in space too! While our human hearing is limited, scientists are developing
technology to enhance our ability to hear events in the universe.
→ Our understanding of the universe is limited by our human perceptions. However, we can use
technology to expand our perception and explore things beyond our reach. However, technologies
have limitations too.

Limitation of Technology Use To Observe the Universe:

→ We use many different techniques to gather and analyze information about the universe
beyond our range of senses.

Telescopes: Use mirrors or lenses to observe distant objects in space. They enable us to study the
properties of objects in the universe, including:

-​ Size
-​ Shape
-​ Composition
-​ Motions

However, there are some limitations and solutions:

Spectroscopy: A way of analysing the light emitted or reflected by objects in space.

Example of this limitation:

X-rays and gamma ray, are challenging to observe from the found because of earth;s atmosphere
block them.

Interferometry: Combines the light received from multiple telescopes around in a straight light or a
triangular shape.
→ As we continue to harness the power of technology to gather more and more data, we are also
facing a new challenge. With the continuous collection of data and numbers, it is easy to get
overwhelmed and lost in it. Computers, experts and scientists help us organise this data.

Differences Between Digital and Analogue Technologies

(1.3.3: evaluate how observation is limited by the observational tools available, including but not
limited to:)
([Link]: digital versus analogue technologies)
How Available Technologies Limit Scientific Observations:
→ Our observations play an integral part of scientific investigation, with technologies to our aid, helping us
observe the phenomena around us, but they don’t eliminate all our problems. They can sometimes only take us
so far.
→ We are also responsible for selecting the most appropriate type of technology for the job ahead. And they can
choose from two: digital or analogue.
Sensitivity: Refers to the smallest change in the signal that a device can detect.

Resolution: Refers to the smallest portion of the signal that can be observed
Access: The ability of equipment to observe phenomena in particular environments.

Difference Between Digital and Analogue Technologies:

→ The position of the hands represent the times as a continuous moving signal
→ The digital clock displays the time using discrete numbers that change regularly.

Comparisons of a Digtial and Analogue measurement of mass:

→ Scientists must carefully consider their research need and resources before choosing which technology to use
→ The type of instrument used is more beneficial the more intricate, and specific it is, leading towards more
accuracy in an investigation
→ They may also need a combination of both digital and analogue technologies to get the most comprehensive
and accurate data.
Observations as Evidence Practice
Scaffold
Observations as Evidence Inquiry Question

How does primary data provide evidence for further investigation?

In the previous activity you have collected primary data to observe how objects fall. You
have collected qualitative and quantitative data that shows that the object speeds up as
it falls to the ground. Another way of describing this motion is to say that the object
accelerates as it falls to the ground.

In the next activity, you will design an experiment to measure the acceleration due to
gravity.

Inquiry Question (based on primary data):

Does the linear relationship between the height that the ball is dropped and the time taken to
teach the found continue for distances over 1 metre? Must change drop height.

Variables:

Independent (Change): Height from which tennis ball is dropped: drop ball from top
of balcony, halfway up the stairs, from 1 metre height. Be specific (don’t use human
error, instead use parallax error as it is more specific)

Dependent (Measure): Time taken to reach the ground using a stopwatch – have two
people record the time taken and take an average.

Controlled (what is kept the same): The person recording the time, the force with
which the ball is dropped, the type of ball dropped, the type of stopwatch used.

Hypothesis:

As the heights increase, the results will continue to remain as a linear

relationship.

Reliability: is determined by how consistent your results are. A measurement is

reliable if you repeat it many times and get the same, or a similar answer. An
experiment is reliable if the results are consistent when the experiment is repeated.
How will you assess the reliability of your results?

Repeat the experiment three times and check for consistency by calculating range in
results. Calculating an average for trials.

What can you do in experimental design to try and ensure you get reliable
results?

By controlling all variables so that the only variable affecting the dependent variable is
the independent variable. When you are writing these types of questions, check to
see that the test is conducted three types UNDER THE SAME CONDITIONS.

Accuracy: Can be determined by comparing how close the value you calculate is to
the true or accepted value. The closer it is, the more accurate the experiment. In this
case, you could compare the known value of acceleration due to gravity at sea level
to the value calculated in this practical activity.

The accuracy can be improved through the experimental method if each single
measurement is made more accurate. You can do this through the choice of your
equipment, e.g. a temperature probe calibrated to two decimal places is more
accurate than a glass thermometer.

What will you measure in this experiment?

Time taken for the tennis ball to reach the ground.

What equipment could you use?

Stopwatches, Measuring rulers

Is there other equipment that could be used to improve the accuracy of your
measurements?

Video camera set to slow motion.

Validity: Validity relates to the experimental method: is it a fair test? Does the
experimental method address the aim of the experiment – does it test what it’s meant
to test? Am I actually measuring what I am trying to measure? ( NO BIAS)

Several aspects of the experiment can contribute to validity:

- ​ Equipment that can be used to make appropriate measurements.

- ​ Experimental method: The experiment is ultimately testing a relationship

between X and Y – if I change X, what happens to Y? If you allow other changes at
the same time, then you cannot make a valid conclusion about how X affected Y.
Therefore, to be a fair test, you must only change one variable (Independent),
measure the change in the affected variable (Dependent), and keep all other variables
controlled (Same).

The method (and analysis) may contain some assumptions that need to be satisfied,
e.g. maybe something that has been simplified or an equation being used is an
approximation. In this experiment, you will assume that there is no air resistance, or
that air resistance is negligible. This is not actually the case, and so you may expect
that your final calculated acceleration due to gravity will be less than the actual value.
The experimental method must ensure that all the assumptions are satisfied,
otherwise you will end up using a method or analysis that is inappropriate, and the
result will be invalid. You may be able to identify invalid measurements and discard
them from the analysis.

Equipment:
Now that you have thought a bit more about experimental design, list the equipment
you will need for this practical:

1x Tennis Ball
1x Stopwatch
1x Measuring Tape

Risk Assessment:
- ​ Identify risks and outline how these risks will be eliminated or minimized. A
table is an easy way you can display this information, or you may choose to research
other risk assessment templates.
- ​ Of course, the risk must be relevant to the procedure!

Method:
Numbered steps, command verbs, clear expression, no personal pronouns
(ask miss if you use past tense for the method)

1.​ Hod, the ball so that the base of the ball is in line with the 1 metre graduation of
the metre ruler
2.​ Release the ball simultaneously starting the stopwatch.
3.​ 3 Record the time taken for the ball to hit the ground
4.​ Repeat Steps 1-3 three times
5.​ Repeat 1-4 from the top of the balcony and halfway up the stairs.

Results:
What data are you collecting?

What are the units?

Time – Seconds, height – metres

How will you collect the results?

How will you calculate the acceleration due to gravity?

Draw up your results table with appropriate headings / units / room for data collection.

Drop Tim (s)

Height (m) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Halfway up the
stairs (2.6)

Balcony (4.47)

Graphs:

Results: Calculating the Acceleration Due to Gravity

 Analysis of Results:

Describe the trends in your data.

Comment on the precision of your

data.

Compare the accuracy of your calculated value with the accepted value for
acceleration due to gravity

Discussion Questions:
1. ​Describe any sources of systematic error that may have affected your
results.
How did you minimise the effect of random errors on your results?

Reflective Statements
1)​ WHAT DID YOU FIND CHALLENGING ABOUT THIS EXPERIMENT?
2)​ How did you overcome these obstacles?
3)​ How has your ability to make observations improved?
4)​ What (if any) changes did you have to make to the method?
1.4 Observing and Collecting and
Recording Data
1.4 → Observing and Collecting and Recording Data

Inquiry question: How does the collection and presentation of primary data affect the outcome of a
scientific investigation?

Students:

Carry out the planned practical investigation, above, to collect primary data
Apply conventions for collecting and recording observations to qualitatively and quantitatively analyse
the primary data, including but limited to:

→ tabulation

→ graphing

→ visual representations

→ digital representations

Compare the usefulness of observations recorded in the initial practical activity with the primary data
gathered in this planned practical investigation
1.5 Conclusions Promote Further
Observation
1.5 → Conclusions Promote Further Observations

Inquiry question: How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of primary data promote further
scientific investigation?

Students:

●​ draw conclusions from the analysis of the primary data collected in the practical
investigation
●​ evaluate the process of drawing conclusions from the primary data collected
●​ assess the findings of the scientific investigation in relation to the findings of other related
investigations
●​ assess the need to make further observations by gathering data about other phenomena
arising from the practical investigation
Assessment Preperation and Guidelines
Assessment Preparation and Guidelines

-​ Learn graphs, qualitative and quantitative data, designing and evaluating an

experiment.
-​ Analysing trends, evaluating accuracy of the data collected, experimental
method
-​ Confident in all case studies (theories)
-​ No multiple choice question, mainly short and extended responses.