BEEE409L Robotics and Control

Module 2: Kinematics of Robot Manipulator

Handled by,
Dr Swetha R Kumar
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Representation of an Object in 3-D Space

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Representation of the Position

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Representation of the Orientation

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Frame Transformations
Frame: A set of four vectors
carrying position and orientation
Information

Translation:

Rotation:

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Transformation of a Frame

Homogeneous Transformation Matrix.

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Transformation of a Frame

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Translation operator
• Translation along the X-axis
1 0 0 𝑞
0 1 0 0
Trans 𝑋෠ 𝑞 =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
where
𝑞= distance translated along the X-axis

Translation operators are commutative.

Trans 𝑋෠ 𝑞𝑥 Trans 𝑌෠ 𝑞𝑦 = Trans 𝑌෠ 𝑞𝑦 Trans 𝑋෠ 𝑞𝑥

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Rotational Operator Rotation about the Z-axis - anticlockwise
Rot 𝑍መ 𝜃

Geometric Relations
᪄ = 𝑞𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝐷𝐶
᪄ = 𝑞𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝐴𝑄
᪄ = 𝑞𝑥 cos 𝜃
𝑂𝐶
᪄ = 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐷 ᪄ = 𝑞𝑦 sin 𝜃
Original coordinates:
𝑄 = 𝑞𝑋 𝑞𝑌
Coordinates after rotation:
𝑄′ = 𝑞𝑥 𝑞𝑦
where
𝑞𝑋 = 𝑞𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑞𝑦 sin 𝜃
𝑞𝑌 = 𝑞𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑞𝑦 cos 𝜃

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Rotational Operator 𝑞𝑋 = 𝑞𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑞𝑦 sin 𝜃
𝑞𝑌 = 𝑞𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑞𝑦 cos 𝜃

In Matrix Form
𝑞𝑋 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑌 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 𝑞𝑦
𝑞𝑍 0 0 1 𝑞𝑧

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Rotation Matrix
• Rotation about x axis by θ (anticlockwise direction)

1 0 0
Rot 𝑋෠ 𝜃 = 0 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
0 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

• Rotation about the Y-axis by an angle 𝜽 (anticlockwise direction)

cos 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃
Rot 𝑌෠ 𝜃 = 0 1 0
− sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃
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Properties of rotational matrix
• Orthogonal Matrix
𝑅𝑇 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼
• Inverse Equals Transpose
𝑅 −1 = 𝑅𝑇
This makes inverse transformations computationally efficient.

• Composition of Rotations
Successive rotations are obtained by matrix multiplication.
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑦 𝑅𝑧

• Matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e.,

𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑦 ≠ 𝑅𝑦 𝑅𝑥
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Problems
A frame {B} is rotated about the 𝑌𝑈 axis of the universal coordinate system by
30° and translated along the 𝑋𝑈 , 𝑌𝑈 , and 𝑍𝑈 axes by 2, 4, and 1 units,
respectively.

The position of a point 𝑄in frame {B} is

4
𝐵Q = 1
2
1
Determine the coordinates of the point in the universal frame, 𝑈 Q.

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Problems
A frame {B} is rotated about the 𝑍𝑈 axis of the universal coordinate system by 60° and
translated along the 𝑋𝑈 , 𝑌𝑈 , and 𝑍𝑈 axes by 5, 2, and 3 units, respectively.

The position of a point 𝑄in frame {B} is

2
𝐵𝐐 = 3
1
1
Determine
𝑈
𝐐.

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Composite Rotation Matrix
A composite rotation matrix represents a sequence of rotations performed about
different coordinate axes.

Consider a rotation of

𝛼 about the 𝑍-axis,

followed by a rotation of 𝛽 about the 𝑌-axis,

followed by a rotation of 𝛾 about the 𝑋-axis.

The composite rotation matrix is given by

෡ 𝜸 𝑹𝒐𝒕 𝒀
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒐𝒕 𝑿 ෡ 𝜷 𝑹𝒐𝒕 𝒁
෡ 𝜶
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Cylindrical Coordinate System
• A point in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (r, 𝜃, 𝑧)
where
• 𝑟= radial distance from the Z-axis
• 𝜃= angle measured from the X-axis
• 𝑧= height along the Z-axis

Transformation Sequence
• Translate by 𝑟 along the X-axis
• Rotate about the Z-axis by 𝜃
• Translate by 𝑧 along the Z-axis

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Composite Transformation
𝑈
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑍መ 𝑧 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑍መ 𝜃 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑋෠ 𝑟
Composite Matrix
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑈 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑇=
0 0 1 𝑧
0 0 0 1
Cartesian Coordinates
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑧=𝑧

Inverse Transformation
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
−1
𝑦
𝜃 = tan
𝑥
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Spherical Coordinate System
A point is represented as (r, 𝜶, 𝜷)
where
𝑟= distance from origin
𝛼= inclination angle (from the Z-axis)
𝛽= azimuth angle (about the Z-axis)
Transformation Sequence
• Translate by 𝑟 along the Z-axis
• Rotate about the Y-axis by 𝛼
• Rotate about the Z-axis by 𝛽
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Composite Transformation
𝑈
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑍መ 𝛽 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑌෠ 𝛼 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑍መ 𝑟

Composite Matrix
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 𝑟 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽
𝑈 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 𝑟 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
𝑇=
− sin 𝛼 0 cos 𝛼 𝑟 cos 𝛼
0 0 0 1
Cartesian Coordinates
𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼

Inverse Transformation
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑧
𝛼 = cos −1
𝑟
−1
𝑦
𝛽 = tan
𝑥
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Roll, Pitch and Yaw
• Roll, Pitch, and Yaw (RPY) are
three sequential rotations used to
describe the orientation of a rigid
body in 3D space.

Rotation Axis Motion Example

Roll (α) X-axis Tilting left/right Aircraft wing dips
Pitch (𝜷) Y-axis Nose up/down Aircraft climbing or descending
Yaw(𝜸) Z-axis Turning left/right Car changing direction
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Roll, Pitch and Yaw
The body frame is rotated in the following
order:

• Rotate about the X-axis by angle 𝛼(Roll)

• Rotate about the Y-axis by angle 𝛽(Pitch)

• Rotate about the Z-axis by angle 𝛾(Yaw)

Therefore,

𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑌 = 𝑅𝑍 𝛾 𝑅𝑌 𝛽 𝑅𝑋 𝛼

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 Extracting Roll, Pitch and Yaw
The complete Roll–Pitch–Yaw rotation If
𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13
matrix is 𝑅 = 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33
𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑌 = 𝑅𝑍 𝛾 𝑅𝑌 𝛽 𝑅𝑋 𝛼
then
which expands to −1
𝑟32
𝛼 = tan
𝑟33

𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛼 𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛼 + 𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝛼 −𝑟31
𝛽= tan−1
𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼 𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛼 − 𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼 2
𝑟11 2
+ 𝑟21
−𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼

𝑟21
𝛾= tan−1
𝑟11

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Problem
The orientation of a frame 𝐵 with respect to the reference frame 𝑈 is
represented by the following rotation matrix:

0.612 −0.354 0.707

𝑈
𝐵 𝑅 = 0.612 0.707 −0.354
−0.500 0.612 0.612
Determine the Roll (𝛼), Pitch (𝛽), and Yaw (𝛾) angles.

Final Answer

𝛼 = 45∘ , 𝛽 = 30∘ , 𝛾 = 45∘

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Euler Angles
Euler angles describe the orientation of a rigid
body using three successive rotations about
the body (moving) axes.
Unlike Roll–Pitch–Yaw (RPY), where rotations
are performed about the fixed reference axes,
Euler angle rotations are performed about
the rotated body axes.

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Euler Angles
Sequence of Rotations (Z–Y–X Euler Angles)
Let the three Euler angles be
𝛼– Rotation about the Z-axis
𝛽– Rotation about the new Y-axis
𝛾– Rotation about the new X-axis

The sequence is:

• Rotate the body about 𝑍𝐵 by angle 𝛼
• Rotate the body about the new 𝑌𝐵′ by angle 𝛽
• Rotate the body about the new 𝑋𝐵′′ by angle 𝛾
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Composite Rotation Matrix Extracting Euler Angles
The composite rotation matrix is If
𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13
𝑅𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑍 𝛼 𝑅𝑌 𝛽 𝑅𝑋 𝛾 𝑅 = 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33
then
Expanded Rotation Matrix 𝑟21
−1
𝛼 = tan
𝑟11
𝑅
𝑐𝛼 𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛼 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛾 − 𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝛾 𝑐𝛼 𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛾 + 𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝛾
= 𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛾 + 𝑐𝛼 𝑐𝛾 𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛾 − 𝑐𝛼 𝑠𝛾 −𝑟31
𝛽= tan−1
−𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝛽 𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛾 2
𝑟11 2
+ 𝑟21

−1
𝑟32
𝛾 = tan
𝑟33

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Problem
A robot-assisted surgical system is performing a minimally invasive procedure. Before making
an incision, the surgical instrument must be oriented accurately to approach the target tissue
from the desired direction.
The robot controller commands the following Euler angle rotations to orient the surgical tool:
• Rotate the tool frame about the body 𝑍-axis by 30°.
• Rotate the resulting frame about the new body 𝑌-axis by 45°.
• Rotate the resulting frame about the new body 𝑋-axis by 60°.
Assuming a Z–Y–X Euler angle sequence, determine the final orientation matrix of the surgical
instrument.

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Step 1: Rotation about the Body 𝑍-axis
0.866 −0.500 0
𝑅𝑍 30∘ = 0.500 0.866 0
0 0 1

Step 2: Rotation about the New Body 𝑌-axis

0.707 0 0.707
𝑅𝑌 45∘ = 0 1 0
−0.707 0 0.707

Step 3: Rotation about the New Body 𝑋-axis

1 0 0
𝑅𝑋 60∘ = 0 0.500 −0.866
0 0.866 0.500
Composite Euler Rotation Matrix
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑍 30∘ 𝑅𝑌 45∘ 𝑅𝑋 60∘
0.612 0.280 0.739
𝑅 = 0.354 0.739 −0.573
−0.707 0.612 0.354
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Interpretation of a Composite Rotation Matrix
Each column of the rotation matrix represents the orientation of one tool frame axis expressed
in the base frame.
Column Represents Interpretation
1st Column XT​ Direction of the tool's X-axis in the base frame
2nd Column YT Direction of the tool's Y-axis in the base frame
3rd Column ZT Direction of the tool's Z-axis (tool pointing direction)
0.739
The third column is 𝐙𝐓 = −0.573
0.354
This means the tool's Z-axis points:
73.9% along the positive X-axis
57.3% along the negative Y-axis
35.4% along the positive Z-axis
Thus, the surgical instrument is pointing diagonally in 3D space.
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Interpretation of a Composite Rotation Matrix
0.739
The third column is 𝐙𝐓 = −0.573
0.354
This means the tool's Z-axis points:
73.9% along the positive X-axis
57.3% along the negative Y-axis
35.4% along the positive Z-axis

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 Denavit-Hartenberg Notations
• A robot arm is made of several connected links, each with its own coordinate frame. We
need a systematic way to describe how one link is positioned and oriented relative to the
next.
• Rather than writing a different transformation for every robot, Denavit and Hartenberg
proposed a standard convention using just four parameters for each joint. This
convention forms the foundation of forward kinematics and is widely used in industrial
robots.
• The Denavit–Hartenberg (DH) convention is a standardized method used to assign
coordinate frames to the links of a robot manipulator and to describe the relative
transformation between consecutive links.
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Denavit-Hartenberg Notations

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Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters
Link Length (𝑎𝑖 )
It is the mutual perpendicular distance between Axis𝑖−1 and Axis𝑖 .

Link Twist (𝛼𝑖 )

It is the angle between Axis𝑖−1 and Axis𝑖 .

Link Offset (𝑑𝑖 )

It is the distance measured from the point where 𝑎𝑖−1 intersects Axis𝑖−1 to the point
where 𝑎𝑖 intersects Axis𝑖−1 , measured along the said axis.

Joint Angle (𝜃𝑖 )

It is defined as the angle between the extension of 𝑎𝑖−1 and 𝑎𝑖 , measured about
Axis𝑖−1 .
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DH- Coordinate assignment rules
Step 1: Assign the 𝑍𝑖 -Axis
The 𝑍𝑖 -axis is always assigned along the axis of motion of joint 𝑖.
• For a revolute joint, 𝑍𝑖 is along the axis of rotation.
• For a prismatic joint, 𝑍𝑖 is along the direction of translation.

Step 2: Assign the 𝑋𝑖 -Axis

The 𝑋𝑖 -axis is chosen based on the relationship between the consecutive joint axes 𝑍𝑖−1and 𝑍𝑖 .

Case 1: Parallel Axes

Draw the common normal between 𝑍𝑖−1and 𝑍𝑖 .
Assign 𝑋𝑖 along this common normal from 𝑍𝑖−1toward 𝑍𝑖 .

Case 2: Intersecting Axes

If 𝑍𝑖−1and 𝑍𝑖 intersect, 𝑋𝑖 is perpendicular to both axes and passes through their intersection.

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DH- Coordinate assignment rules
Case 3: Coincident Axes
If 𝑍𝑖−1and 𝑍𝑖 are coincident, 𝑋𝑖 may be chosen as any convenient direction perpendicular to the
𝑍-axis.

Step 3: Assign the 𝑌𝑖 -Axis

Once 𝑋𝑖 and 𝑍𝑖 are assigned,
determine 𝑌𝑖 using the right-hand rule:
𝑌𝑖 = 𝑍𝑖 × 𝑋𝑖
The three axes must form a right-handed coordinate system.

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DH Transformation Sequence
Once the coordinate frames are assigned, the transformation from frame 𝑖 − 1to frame 𝑖 is
obtained by performing four elementary transformations:
𝑖−1 𝑇 = 𝑖−1 𝑇 𝐴 𝑇 𝐵 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇
𝑖 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑖

𝑖−1
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑍 𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑍 𝑑𝑖 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑋 𝛼𝑖 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑋 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑍 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑋

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DH Transformation Sequence
𝑖−1 𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑍 𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑍 𝑑𝑖 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑋 𝛼𝑖 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑋 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑍 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑋
𝑖

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DH Problems
Determine the Denavit–Hartenberg
(DH) parameters and derive the
forward kinematic model of the two-
link planar manipulator shown in the
figure.

Frame θᵢ dᵢ αᵢ aᵢ

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DH Problems
Step 1: DH Parameters

Frame 𝜃 𝑑 𝑎 𝛼
1 𝜃1 0 𝐿1 0
2 𝜃2 0 𝐿2 0

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DH Problems
Step 2: Transformation from Frame 0 to Frame 1

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DH Problems
Step 3: Transformation from Frame 1 to Frame 2

Step 4: Overall Transformation

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DH Problems

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DH Problems
Derive the inverse kinematic equations for the two-link planar RR manipulator shown in the
figure. Given the desired end-effector position 𝑥 𝑦 , determine the joint angles 𝜃1and 𝜃2 .

Desired end-effector position:

𝑥 = 𝐿1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝐿2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
𝑦 = 𝐿1 sin 𝜃1 + 𝐿2 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2

Determine 𝜃1 & 𝜃2

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Determine the forward kinematics of the
manipulator shown in the figure using the
Denavit–Hartenberg (DH) convention.