DETERMINATION OF THE I-V AND P-V CHARACTERISTICS
OF A SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
1.0 Aim / Objective
To investigate the current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of a solar photovoltaic
(PV) module under varying load resistance, and to determine its short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit
voltage (Voc), and maximum power point (MPP).
2.0 Apparatus / Materials
● Solar photovoltaic module
● Two digital multimeters (used as an ammeter and a voltmeter)
● Breadboard
● Fixed resistors, ranging from 47 kΩ down to 2.7 Ω
● 5 kΩ potentiometer
● Banana-clip connecting leads
● Connecting wires
3.0 Theory
A solar module converts incident light energy into electrical energy and behaves as a current source
whose output depends on the external load connected to it. When the load resistance is varied from open
circuit to short circuit, the module traces out a characteristic I-V curve: at low voltage the module delivers
a nearly constant current, and as the voltage approaches the open-circuit value (Voc) the current falls
sharply to zero. The corresponding power delivered to the load, P = V × I, rises from zero, reaches a peak
at the maximum power point (MPP), and falls back to zero at Voc. Three key parameters describe this
behaviour:
● Short-circuit current (Isc): the current when V = 0 (load resistance → 0).
● Open-circuit voltage (Voc): the voltage when I = 0 (load resistance → ∞).
● Maximum power point (MPP): the operating point (Vmpp, Impp) at which output power P = V ×
I is greatest.
Sweeping the load resistance, either by substituting a series of fixed resistors or by adjusting a
potentiometer, moves the operating point along this curve and allows the full I-V and P-V characteristics
to be mapped experimentally.
4.0 Circuit Diagram
The solar module, ammeter, voltmeter, and load were connected as shown below. The voltmeter was
connected in parallel across the solar module terminals to measure the module's output voltage. The
ammeter was connected in series, between the module's positive terminal and the load, to measure the
current flowing through the circuit. The other end of the load was returned to the negative terminal of the
module, closing the loop. All connections were made on a breadboard, with the two digital multimeters
connected to the breadboard nodes via banana-clip leads.
Polarity: the module's positive (+) terminal feeds the top rail through the ammeter to the load, and the
load's return path connects back to the module's negative (-) terminal, completing the loop. The voltmeter
is connected with its positive lead on the same side as the module's positive terminal, so that it reads a
positive voltage consistent with the direction of conventional current flow shown in red/blue in Figure 1.
Correct polarity matters here because both multimeters are polarity-sensitive: reversing the leads would
either give a negative reading or, in the case of some analogue-style meters, could damage the meter.
Figure 1: Circuit layout used for the experiment, showing terminal polarity and conventional current direction.
5.0 Procedure
1. The solar module, ammeter, voltmeter, and load were connected on a breadboard as described
above and shown in Figure 1.
2. Reading 1: A fixed resistor was inserted as the load, starting from the largest value (47 kΩ) and
decreasing in steps (2650 Ω, 2000 Ω, 1000 Ω, 748 Ω, 270 Ω, 217 Ω, down to 2.7 Ω, then a direct short).
3. At each resistance value, the voltage across the module and the current through the circuit were
recorded from the two digital multimeters.
4. Reading 2: The fixed resistor was replaced with a 5 kΩ potentiometer. The potentiometer was
adjusted in steps from its maximum resistance down to its minimum, and the voltage and current were
again recorded at each setting.
5. The power delivered to the load at each step was calculated as P = V × I, and the results were
used to plot the I-V and P-V curves for both loading methods.
6.0 Results
6.1 Reading 1 - Fixed Resistor Loads (47 kΩ - 2.7 Ω)
Resistor (Ω) Voltage (V) Current (mA) Power (mW)
47000 4.15 0 0
2650 4.01 0.07 0.2807
2000 1 0.37 0.37
1000 0.75 0.37 0.2775
748 0.38 0.37 0.1406
270 0.28 0.37 0.1036
217 0.1 0.37 0.037
2.7 0.08 0.38 0.0304
- 0 0.38 0
Figure 2: I-V and P-V curve, Reading 1 (fixed resistor loads).
6.2 Reading 2 - Potentiometer Load (5 kΩ)
Voltage (V) Current (mA) Power (mW)
4.16 0 0
Voltage (V) Current (mA) Power (mW)
1.7 0.35 0.595
1.69 0.35 0.5915
1.68 0.34 0.5712
1.65 0.35 0.5775
1.55 0.35 0.5425
1.43 0.35 0.5005
1.24 0.35 0.434
1.15 0.36 0.414
0.87 0.36 0.3132
0.86 0.37 0.3182
0.57 0.36 0.2052
0.55 0.37 0.2035
0.19 0.37 0.0703
0 0.37 0
Figure 3: I-V and P-V curve, Reading 2 (potentiometer load).
6.3 Summary of Key Parameters
Parameter Reading 1 (Fixed Resistors) Reading 2 (Potentiometer)
Isc (mA) 0.38 0.37
Voc (V) 4.15 4.16
Vmpp (V) 1.00 1.70
Impp (mA) 0.37 0.35
Pmax, actual (mW) 0.370 0.595
P theoretical = Voc x Isc 1.577 1.539
(mW)
Fill Factor, FF = Pmax / (Voc 0.235 (23.5 %) 0.387 (38.7 %)
x Isc)
The theoretical power, Ptheoretical = Voc x Isc, is the power the module would deliver if it behaved like
an ideal source capable of sustaining both its maximum voltage and maximum current simultaneously.
Real cells cannot do this; the Fill Factor (FF) expresses how closely the actual I-V curve approaches this
ideal rectangular shape, and is defined as FF = Pmax / (Voc x Isc), where Pmax is the actual maximum
power measured from the P-V curve. A commercial silicon module typically has FF in the range of 0.75-
0.85; the low FF values obtained here (0.235 and 0.387) indicate a I-V curve that is far from the ideal
'knee' shape, consistent with a low-power module, non-ideal test conditions, and the coarse resolution of
the load steps discussed in Section 7.0.
7.0 Discussion
Both loading methods produced the characteristic solar-module I-V curve shape: current remained
roughly constant at low voltage before falling steeply as the voltage approached Voc. The measured open-
circuit voltage was consistent between the two readings (4.15 V and 4.16 V), as expected, since Voc is a
property of the module under the given illumination and does not depend on how the load is varied. The
short-circuit current was likewise similar (0.38 mA and 0.37 mA).
The maximum power point, however, differed between the two data sets: Reading 1 gave a lower Pmax
(0.370 mW at 1.00 V) than Reading 2 (0.595 mW at 1.70 V). This difference is most likely explained by
the coarser resolution of the fixed-resistor steps, which may have skipped over the true peak of the power
curve, whereas the potentiometer allowed a finer, more continuous sweep of the load and so located the
MPP more precisely. This illustrates a practical advantage of using a variable resistor (potentiometer)
over discrete fixed resistors when the objective is to locate the maximum power point accurately.
Minor irregularities in the current readings (e.g., small fluctuations between 0.34-0.38 mA rather than a
perfectly smooth curve) are attributable to the resolution limits of the digital multimeters, small variations
in illumination during the measurement period, and contact resistance at the banana-clip connections on
the breadboard.
7.1 Why the Experimental Curve Is Not Smooth
The underlying physical I-V characteristic of a solar cell, described by the single-diode equation, is a
continuous, smooth curve. The curves plotted in Figures 2 and 3 instead appear jagged and made up of
straight-line segments. This is a measurement artefact, not a property of the module itself, and arises from
several compounding factors:
● Sparse, unevenly spaced data points: only 8-15 readings were taken per curve, so the plotting
software simply draws straight lines between consecutive measured points rather than a
continuous function. The fixed-resistor steps in particular are unevenly spaced (large gaps
between 47 kΩ and 2650 Ω, small gaps near 2.7 Ω), so the curve is sparse in some regions and
denser in others.
● Instrument resolution: the digital multimeters displayed current to only two significant figures
(e.g., 0.34, 0.35, 0.37 mA), so small real changes in current were rounded to the same displayed
value, or jumped by a whole display digit, producing visible steps.
● Manual, sequential measurement: each reading was taken one at a time by hand, with a short time
delay between them, during which the sunlight intensity, panel temperature, or angle of incidence
could drift slightly, shifting individual points off the ideal curve.
● Contact and lead resistance: the breadboard and banana-clip connections introduce small, not
perfectly repeatable, resistances that add noise to each reading.
A manufacturer's (datasheet) I-V curve looks smooth for the opposite reasons: it is generated using an
automated electronic load that sweeps continuously through thousands of closely spaced points in a
fraction of a second, under fixed Standard Test Conditions (STC: 1000 W/m² irradiance, 25 degC cell
temperature, AM1.5 solar spectrum), and the raw data is typically fitted to the single-diode model
equation before being plotted. This removes measurement noise, human timing lag, and environmental
drift, and yields a continuous, well-resolved curve rather than a set of straight-line segments joining a
handful of manually recorded points. The difference between our experimental curve and a datasheet
curve therefore reflects a difference in measurement method and equipment, not a difference in the
module's actual physical behaviour.
Why the I-V/P-V curve matters
It's the single most complete description of how a solar module actually behaves electrically. A
datasheet quotes a few numbers, but the curve shows the whole relationship between voltage and
current at every possible operating point — which is what you need to:
• Pick the right load or MPPT controller so the system always operates near the peak of the
P-V curve, not off to the side where you're leaving power on the table
• Size a system (how many modules in series/parallel to hit a target voltage and current)
• Diagnose problems — a healthy module traces a specific curve shape; shading, dirt,
ageing, or a bad cell distort it in recognisable ways
• Compare modules or batches for quality control, since two modules with the same "rated
power" on paper can have different curve shapes and therefore different real-world
performance
How to read the summary parameters
• Isc (short-circuit current) — the current when V = 0. Set almost entirely by how much
light is hitting the cell (irradiance) and cell area/quality. A lower-than-expected Isc
usually points to shading, dirt, low sunlight, or cell damage.
• Voc (open-circuit voltage) — the voltage when I = 0. Set mainly by the material's
bandgap and cell temperature; it barely depends on light intensity. A lower-than-expected
Voc often signals high temperature, cell degradation, or a partially shaded/faulty cell in
the string.
• Vmpp, Impp (voltage/current at the maximum power point) — the exact operating
point where the module delivers its most power. This is the target an MPPT controller
tries to lock onto continuously.
• Pmax (maximum power) — Vmpp × Impp, the actual peak power available. This is
what a system is really sized around, not just Isc × Voc.
• Fill Factor (FF) — Pmax ÷ (Voc × Isc). Tells you how "square" the curve is, i.e. how
close the module gets to its theoretical best. High FF (0.75–0.85) means low internal
resistance and a well-behaved knee; a low FF (like the 0.235–0.387 you measured) means
the curve is more rounded/sloped rather than boxy, usually from series resistance, a small
or lower-quality cell, or — in your case — coarse measurement resolution smoothing
over the true knee.
• Efficiency — Pmax ÷ (incident solar power on the module area). Ties the electrical
output back to how much sunlight energy was actually captured; this is the number
usually printed on a commercial datasheet.
8.0 Precautions / Sources of Error
● The solar module was kept under a constant, unobstructed light source throughout each set of
readings, since changes in illumination directly affect Isc and the shape of the I-V curve.
● Multimeter probes and banana-clip connections were checked for firm contact before each
reading to minimise contact-resistance errors.
● Readings were allowed to stabilise on the multimeter display before being recorded.
● The potentiometer was adjusted slowly and in small increments near the expected maximum-
power region to capture the peak of the P-V curve accurately.
9.0 Conclusion
The experiment successfully demonstrated the I-V and P-V characteristics of a solar photovoltaic module
using two different loading methods. The module exhibited an open-circuit voltage of approximately
4.15-4.16 V and a short-circuit current of approximately 0.37-0.38 mA. The maximum power point was
found to be more accurately located using the potentiometer (0.595 mW at 1.70 V) than with the coarser
fixed-resistor steps (0.370 mW at 1.00 V), highlighting the importance of fine load resolution when
characterising PV module performance.
Physics of Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Silicon as a Semiconductor
Silicon is a Group IV element with four valence electrons. In a crystal lattice, each silicon atom forms
four covalent bonds with its neighbours, using all four valence electrons and leaving none free to conduct
electricity at absolute zero. This places silicon between conductors (which have many free electrons) and
insulators (which have none available): it is a semiconductor, whose ability to conduct depends strongly
on temperature, impurity content, and light exposure.
Doping: Creating p-type and n-type Silicon
Pure ('intrinsic') silicon conducts poorly. To make it useful in a solar cell, it is deliberately doped with
small amounts of other elements:
● n-type silicon: doped with a Group V element (e.g., phosphorus), which has five valence
electrons. Four form covalent bonds with neighbouring silicon atoms, leaving one extra, loosely-
bound electron that is free to move. Majority charge carriers are electrons (negative).
● p-type silicon: doped with a Group III element (e.g., boron), which has only three valence
electrons. This leaves one covalent bond incomplete, creating a 'hole' (a missing electron) that
behaves as a mobile positive charge carrier. Majority charge carriers are holes (positive).
When a p-type layer and an n-type layer are joined to form a p-n junction, electrons near the junction
diffuse from the n-side into the p-side and holes diffuse the opposite way, until a built-in electric field
develops across a thin 'depletion region' that opposes further diffusion. This built-in field is what
separates and drives apart any electron-hole pairs generated near the junction, which is the basic
mechanism that turns absorbed light into a usable electric current.
The Photon and the Photoelectric (Photovoltaic) Effect
Light arrives at the module as a stream of photons, each a discrete packet ('quantum') of electromagnetic
energy given by E = hf = hc/λ, where h is Planck's constant, f is the light's frequency, c is the speed of
light, and lambda is its wavelength. Higher-frequency (shorter-wavelength) light carries more energetic
photons. When a photon strikes the silicon lattice, it can be absorbed by an electron; if the electron gains
enough energy, it can be freed from its covalent bond, generating one electron-hole pair per absorbed
photon. This absorption-and-liberation process is the photovoltaic effect (a close relative of the classical
photoelectric effect, but occurring inside a solid semiconductor rather than ejecting the electron out of the
material entirely).
Valence Band, Conduction Band, and the Energy Gap
Electron energy states in a solid are grouped into bands. The valence band contains electrons bound in
covalent bonds, at their normal, lowest energy. The conduction band contains higher-energy states in
which an electron is no longer tied to a specific atom and is free to move through the crystal and
contribute to electrical current. Between these two bands lies the energy gap (or bandgap, Eg), a range of
energies for which no electron states exist inside the material - an electron cannot have an energy inside
this forbidden gap. For crystalline silicon, Eg is approximately 1.12 eV.
Electron Excitation, Transfer, and Why the Photon Energy Must Exceed the Bandgap
If an incoming photon's energy is greater than or equal to the bandgap (Eph >= Eg), it can transfer that
energy to a valence-band electron, exciting it across the forbidden gap into the conduction band and
leaving a hole behind in the valence band. This is only possible because the conduction band offers a
permitted energy state for the electron to land in; there are no allowed energy levels within the gap itself
for the electron to occupy on the way across, so the full jump from valence to conduction band must
happen in a single step, which is why the photon energy must equal or exceed Eg. Photons with energy
below Eg (Eph < Eg) cannot excite an electron across the gap at all - they are either transmitted through
the material or absorbed as heat without producing a free electron-hole pair, representing a fundamental
loss mechanism in the cell.
Once freed, the electron in the conduction band and the hole left in the valence band are both mobile. The
built-in electric field at the p-n junction (see 7.2.2) sweeps the electron toward the n-type side and the
hole toward the p-type side before they can recombine. This charge separation is what produces a voltage
across the module's external terminals; when a complete external circuit (ammeter + load) is connected,
the separated charges flow around the loop as the measured photocurrent.
Thermalisation
If a photon's energy exceeds the bandgap (Eph > Eg), only the portion of energy equal to Eg is usefully
captured as electrical potential energy. The excess energy above Eg is not lost immediately, but appears
as extra kinetic energy of the newly excited electron, which very rapidly (within picoseconds) loses this
surplus energy as heat through collisions with the silicon lattice (emitting phonons - lattice vibrations),
settling down to the bottom edge of the conduction band before it can be collected by the external circuit.
This process, called thermalisation, is one of the two dominant energy-loss mechanisms in a single-
junction solar cell (the other being sub-bandgap photons that are not absorbed at all, from Section 7.2.5),
and is the main reason a solar cell cannot convert 100% of incoming sunlight into electricity, regardless of
how well it is manufactured.
The Shockley-Queisser Limit
In 1961, William Shockley and Hans Queisser calculated the maximum possible efficiency of a single p-n
junction solar cell under standard unconcentrated sunlight, considering only the two unavoidable loss
mechanisms described above: transmission losses (sub-bandgap photons not absorbed) and thermalisation
losses (excess photon energy above the bandgap lost as heat), together with unavoidable radiative
recombination. This theoretical ceiling, the Shockley-Queisser limit, depends on the material's bandgap: it
peaks at around 33.7% for a bandgap of about 1.34 eV, and for silicon's bandgap of 1.12 eV the detailed-
balance limit works out to approximately 29%. Real commercial silicon solar cells achieve roughly 20-
27% efficiency, sitting below this theoretical limit because of additional practical losses (resistive losses,
surface reflection, imperfect light trapping, and non-radiative recombination at defects and surfaces) that
the Shockley-Queisser analysis does not include.
Practical Solar Panel Efficiency and Energy Storage
Commercial silicon PV panel efficiency (typically 15-22%) is lower than even the Shockley-Queisser
limit for silicon because of further real-world losses: reflection off the front glass and cell surface,
resistive (I-squared-R) losses in the metal contacts and interconnecting wiring, shading and soiling (dust,
dirt) on the panel surface, imperfect anti-reflective coatings, recombination at surface and bulk defects,
and a gradual drop in efficiency as cell temperature rises above the 25 degC standard test condition.
Because a PV module only generates power while illuminated, practical solar power systems normally
include energy storage or grid connection so that electrical energy is available when sunlight is not: a
charge controller regulates the current fed into a battery bank (commonly lead-acid or lithium-ion) to
prevent overcharging, and many systems use Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) rather than simple
resistive (PWM) charge control, so that the electronic load presented to the panel is continuously adjusted
to sit at the module's maximum power point (as identified experimentally in Section 6.3 of this report)
regardless of changing sunlight or temperature conditions, maximising the energy actually harvested and
stored.