FORM FOUR AGRICULTURE NOTES.

CHAPTER ONE.
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION FIVE (POULTRY)
The management of poultry aims at the production of high-quality eggs and meat. There are
many types of poultry kept in Kenya e.g chicken, turkeys, ducks, geese and pigeons. However,
the chicken is the most common bird in many farms. This topic concentrates mainly on the
rearing of chicken. The life of a chicken starts with the development of a chick in the egg.
Selection and breeding
Farmers who intend to multiply their flock should select birds with the following characteritics:
i. Young hens and cocks.
ii. Healthy birds.
iii. Able to go broody.
iv. Prolific.
v. Have good mothering ability.
Commercial farmers must also consider the following:
i. Whether the enterprise is for meat or egg production.
ii. Age (either day old or at the point of lying).
iii. Breed of birds in respect to egg size, colour and size of birds.
iv. Production (% laying or growth rate).

NB After selection of a breeding stock, cocks are allowed to run with hens daily to ensure that all
the eggs laid are fertilised.
The composition of an egg
Parts of an egg
The shell
Forms about 10-12% of the total egg content. It’s made up of calcium and phosphorus
compounds.
Functions
-Gives shape to the egg.
-Protects the inner contents.
-Its porous and allows gaseous exchange to take place for the benefit of the developing embryo if
any.
Shell membrane
Makes only 1% of the whole egg content. It is formed of two separate membranes whose contact
is fairly difficult to identify. They separate at the broad end of the egg to form an air space.

Function
-The air trapped between the two membranes is used by the developing embyo during egg
incubation.
Albumen (egg white)
Forms about 55-60% of the total egg content. It’s divided into four major parts:
-Chalaza and chalaziferous albumen (membrane).
-Outer thin albumen.
-Thick albumen.
-Inner thin albumen.

Functions
-Serves as food reserves to the developing chick. Its mainly protein.
-Surrounds and buoys the yolk.
Chalaza
Forms about 3%of the albumen and looks like a dense white mass floating all over the place
within the egg. It consists of two twisted cords.

Functon
  Hold the yolk in place at the centre of the egg, allowing the yolk to move the germinal
disc always to the top position.
 Chalazae is also important for the purpose of heat transfer to the developing embryo. If
the chalazae are broken, the yolk shakes and is displaced from its normal position.
The yolk
Forms about 30-33% of the total egg content. It is yellow in colour and spherical.
Function
-Supplies for all the requirements of the embryo since it contain food reserves for the developing
embryo/chick.
The yolk is rich in vitamin, fats, minerals and proteins.
The three parts of the yolk are:
a) The germinal disc
Formed from the ovary at fertilisation and is always found at the top of the yolk
regardless of what position an egg is resting. The streak allows for maximum heat
transfer to the developing chick inside the yolk.
b) The egg pigments
The pigment in the yolk is known as xanthophyll and is responsible for the colour of the
shell and that of the yolk (yellow).
c) The vitelline membrane
Sorrounds the yolk and therefore gives the yolk its shape. In chicken if the egg is not
properly stored this membrane may break up causing the yolk to come out of it.
QUIZ
How can a farmer improve the following?
i. Hardness of egg shells
Sufficient supply of calcium minerals
ii. Yellowness of the egg yolk.
Provision of green vegetables/grass.

Incubation of eggs
Egg incubation is the embryonic development of a fertilized egg into a chick under correct
conditions which will ensure that a chick is ultimately hatched from the egg. In chicken these
conditions must be provided for 21days while in turkeys and ducks it takes 28 days.
Selection and care of eggs for incubation
Characteristics of eggs for incubation.
i. They should be fertilised.
ii. They should be of medium size 55-60grammes in weight.
iii. Should have smooth shells.
iv. Should be oval in shape.
v. Should be free of any cracks in the shells.
vi. Should be clean to ensure that pores are open.
vii. Should not have any abnormalities e.g blood spots, meat spots or double yolk.
viii. Eggs should be fresh (collected within one week.)
ix. Should not have been stored for more than 8-10days.

Egg candling
This is a method of examining the internal condition of an egg for abnormalities by looking at it
against a strong light in a dark room.

Procedure of candling.
 The egg is placed over a hole made on a cardboard box.
 A light under the box is then put on.
 Observe the egg against the light below
Through candling method, the following can be achieved:
-The size of the air space.
-If the egg is fertilised (germinal disc will be seen as a black spot)
-Whether the yolk has blood spots.
-Whether the shell has hair cracks.
-Whether the egg shell is broken.
-presence of double yolk. A double yolked egg cannot be good for incubation because even if the
egg were fertilized, two chicks cannot develop within the existing space in an egg.

Methods of incubation
1. Natural incubation.
2. Artificial incubation.
1. Natural incubation
In this method, a broody hen is given adequate number of eggs to sits on eggs thus providing the
conditions necessary for incubation. i.e warmth and turning of eggs.

Going broody.
This indicates readiness of a hen to sit on eggs and provide the conditions necessary for hatching.
Signs for broodiness
 Plucking feathers from the abdomen.
 Hen sits on the eggs after laying.
  The hen becomes aggressive and hostile.
 The hen reduces egg production.
 Production of a characteristic sound when approached in the nest.
Preparation and management of natural incubation.
 Provide a nesting box for a broody hen. It should be spacious to allow movement
of the hen.
 The nesting materials are placed in the nesting box to provide warmth in the nest.
Materials include, dry grass, sawdust and woodshaving.
 Provide enough eggs to the hen i.e 10-15 eggs depending on the size of the bird.
 Set eggs at night or evening which will ensure that chicks will start emerging at
night or evening otherwise the hen may leave unhatched eggs if emergence occurs
during the day.
 Ensure the birds comes out atleast once a day for exercise and feeding.
 Dust the nesting area with insecticides to control external parasites.
 Ensure the bird is fed daily.
Advantages of natural incubation
i. A small-scale farmer who cannot afford an incubator can multiply flocks using this method.
ii. Its less laborious as there is no need for turning the eggs and checking the temperature.
iii. Little skill is required.
iv. The margin of risk is reduced.
Disadvantages
i. Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen.
ii. The farmer cannot plan when to incubate as it depends on hens going broody.
iii. Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks.
iv. Hens can only be used when broody.
v. Egg production falls when hens are broody.
2. Artificial incubation
In this method, all the necessary conditions for hatching eggs are provided artificially in an
incubator. A device that provides these conditions is called an incubator.
Diagram of an incubator.
Conditions necessary for artificial incubation.
a. Temperature
The temperature in the incubator should be maintained at 37.5-39.4oc. lower or higher
temperatures would kill the developing embryo.
b. Fresh air (ventilation)
There should be enough air circulation in the incubator. Fresh air is required by the
developing embryo and also ventilatiation facilitates gaseous exchange and helps to control
humidity.
c. Relative humidity
 Should be about 60%. Water or a damp cloth is placed in the incubator to maintain the
humidity. High humidity lowers hatchability and leads to the production of bigger chicks
which look marshy while low relative humidity, embryos lose moiture and die/low
hatchability.
d. Egg turning
This is done regularly to avoid the germinal disc from sticking on the egg shell leading to a
possible lack of hatchability because of embryonic mortality. Wrong turning may also result
in the breakage of blood vessels.
NB Turning should always be done along the long axis of the eggs and in different directions to a
position of 450 from vertical, then reversed in the opposite direction to a similar position. Some
incubators may have automatic egg turning arrangements.

Managing the incubator

Eggs should be turned every 6-8hours each day. However, in the first 24hours and the last 3days
they should not be turned.
Infertile and broken eggs should be removed on the fifth day. Humidity and temperature should
be maintained within the set range.
The incubator should be cleaned and disinfected or fumigated before putting in the eggs.

Advantages of artificial incubation

i. Many chicks can be hatched at a time.
ii. It’s possible to plan when to hatch the chicks.
iii. The incubator is usually ready when required.
iv. If management is good, chicks have no danger of suffering from parasites or diseases.
Disadvantages
i. Capital investment is high e.g purchasing the incubator
ii. Its more labour demanding.
iii. It requires more skill than the natural method.
iv. Involves high risks of damaging all the eggs or embyos if all the reqirements eg temperatures
not adhered to.
BROODING.
This is the rearing of chicks. This is the most critical and difficult period in the management
of birds.
Methods of brooding/rearing of chicks
a. Natural brooding
b. Artificial brooding.
a) Natural brooding
Here, a hen is allowed to stay with chicks and provide warmth and other requrements to the
chicks. Feed and water should be provided for both the hen and the chicks. The hen stays with
the chicks until they are old enough to feed themselves.
b) Artificial brooding.
 Here chicks are kept in a structure (brooder) in which food and other requirements for their
growth are provided. Chicks remain in a brooder for 6-8wks after hatching.
Requirements in an artificial brooder.
i. Litter.
This should be in form of wood shavings. They should be on the floor to maintain warmth
and absorb moisture.
ii. Fresh air.
Holes for ventilation should be made on the walls of the brooder to allow gaseous exchange.
The holes should be made in such a way that they will not allow draught into the brooder.
iii. Heat source.
The correct temperature should be maintained at:
32-35oc in the first week
29.7-32.2oc in the second week
26.6-29.7oc in the third week
Heat source should be withdrawn in the fourth week where ambient temperatures are not very
low. A thermometer should be used to check the temperatures. The behaviour of the chicks in the
brooder is used to check whether the temperature is correct.
Heat sources include; electric bulbs, charcoal burners, lantern and gas burners.

The behavour of chicks at different temperature levels in the brooder.

Normal tempreture range.
 Chicks are evenly spread out in the brooder.
Diagram

Low temperatures.
 The chicks overcrowed around the heat source
Diagram.

High temperatures.
 Chicks move away from heat source.
 Chicks sleep with head and neck stretched on the floor.
 They pant
 They make abnormal noises
 They take a lot of water.
Diagram
iv. Equipment
Feeder-There should be sufficient and clean feeders for the chicks. They should be cleaned in
the morning before feeding.
Waterers-Should be made in such a way that chicks don’t defecate or step in the water.
Waterers should have pointed tops on which chicks cannot perch.
v. Shape of the brooder.
Most brooders are round so that there are no sharp corners at any point. If the brooder has a
corner, hardbords should be fitted to round it out. Corners encourage overcrowding causing
suffocation.
Brooder preparation and management
Preparation before chicks arrive
 The brooder should be ready 2-3days before chicks arrive. All equipments should be
functioning.
 The brooder house and the brooder equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected before the arrival of the chicks.
 On arrival, the chicks are fed on chick mash (20-22%DCP and vitamin A and D) for eight
weeks.
 Provide plenty of water and check on the chicks regularly for the first two weeks.
 Chicks should be vaccinated at:
 2 weeks against gumboro.
 3-4 weeks against Newcastle.
 7 weeks against fowl typhoid.
 Coccidiosis is controlled by giving coccidiostats through water and feed.
 Provide roosts at 6weeks for chicks to perch on.
1 3
 Introduce growers mash in the 7th week which should be mixed with ration of chick
4 4
mash.
 Remove chicks at 8weeks from the brooder and take them to the main poultry house.
 In the 9th week chicks are feed on growers’ mash only.

Feeding and rearing of growers

 Should have sufficient floor space, roosts, feeders and waterers.
 Litter reaching 15cm on the floor should be provided.
 Birds are fed on growers’ mash (16-17 DCP). Water is also given in plenty.
 Parasite and disease control should continue.
 Green vegetation is hang at various points for growers to peck to keep them busy.
 Soluble grit or oyster shell should be provided at about 12 weeks of age.
 At the 16th week layers mash should be introduced gradually to be completed by the end
of 18th or 19th week.

Feeding and rearing of layers.

 Every six months the birds should be vaccinated against Newcastle and fowl typhoid.
 Enough floor space, roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided.
 Litter is kept as dry as possible where deep litter system is practised.
 Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening.
 Green leaves are hanged in the house to keep birds busy and to prevent cannibalism.
 Hens which do not lay or which are cannibals should be culled.
 Layers are feed on layers mash 14-16% DCP or pellets depending on the rearing system
used.
 Grains should be given in addition to the layers feed.
 Soluble grit or oyster shell should be provided to encourage strong shelled eggs and
efficient digestion.

Feeding and rearing of broilers

  From day old to 4 wks of age these birds should be fed with broiler starter mash or
crumbs.
 The fed should contain a high level of coccidiostat to give protection from coccidiosis.
 Feed should also contain high levels of protein, vitamins and trace elements so essental
for rapid early growth.
 From 4-8wks of age chicks should be given broiler follow-on mash or pellets.
 From 8wks until slaughter these birds are given finisher pellets.

Rearing systems
NB The choice of the system to use will depend on some of the following factors:
 Availability of land for rearing
 Topography of land to facilitate easy drainage
 Availability of labour
 Availability of appropriate equipment.
 Availability of capital.
 Security.
 Availability of market.
 Knowledge of the farmer.

1. Free range (extensive system)

Here birds are allowed to move freely in a fenced ground which has a simple house to provide
shelter at night.
Laying nests are also placed in this house. Feed and water troughs are placed outside but
protected against rain.
Requirements
a) Land -Must be large, well drained and with trees for shade.100 birds require 0.4 of an
hectare.
b) Runs -These are partitional areas which allow rotation and reduces disease and parasite
build up.
c) House -Should be moveable so that it can be moved from one run to another.
Alternatively, it should be in the centre of the runs.

Advantages of free range

i. Cannibalism and egg eating are reduced because the birds are not crowded.
ii. Birds have plenty of exercise thus helping to keep good health.
iii. There is no need to provide grit as birds pick it from the soil.
iv. Less feed is used as birds pick insects and grass.
v. Manure is evenly spread to the runs.
vi. Requires low capital outlay.

Disadvantages
i. Large piece of land is needed.
ii. Birds can be stolen or eaten by predators.
iii. Eggs get lost in the runs.
iv. Eggs get dirty.
v. Difficult to have close supervision on individual birds.
 vi. Range area may become contaminated with diseases and parasites.
vii. Breeding programme is not easy to follow.
viii. Birds cause damage to crops easily.

2. Fold system semi-intensive system

Here birds are confined in small portable structures called arks or folds which should be moved
daily to a fresh ground to:
 Reduce disease build up
 Provide fresh grass/greens
 Avoid accumulation of droppings and also to spread manure
1
A fold should measure 3.5m long 1.5m wide and 1.5m high. is roofed to provide shelter and
3
the rest of the fold is left open but enclosed by the wire mesh. The unroofed part is used for
sunning and exercise.

Advantages
i. Manure is spread uniformly in the field
ii. Less feed is used because the birds eat grass.
iii. Reduces parasite and disease build up.

Disadvantages
i. Few birds are kept per fold (10-15hens). Where many birds are kept, many folds will
be required and this is very expensive.
ii. It is very laborious e.g., moving folds
iii. Individual egg production record is difficult to keep.
iv. The fold is not long lasting and may not be adequate for raising large number of
birds.

3. Deep litter system (intensive system)

In this system birds are totally confined in a house and stay indoors for the whole of their lives.
Requirements
a) Site -should be well drained.
b) House –should be leak proof, floor should have litter, floor space 1sqm per 2-3birds.
c) Feeders and waterers -should be enough and clean.
d) Roosts and perches-Roosts are timber frames which the birds perch for rest. They should be
movable.
e) Nests -These are laying boxes. They should be dark to discourage egg eating and cannibalism.

Advantages
i. Many birds can be kept in a small area hence allows high stocking rate.
ii. Labour reqirement is low as one person can care for many birds.
iii. The system can be used to rear breeding stock.
iv. Birds are safe from predators and thieves.
v. There is fast accumulation of manure.
vi. There is less loss of eggs.
 Disadvantages
i. Incidence of cannibalism, egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking are
common.
ii. Parasite and disease accumulation in the litter is high.
iii. An individual record of egg production per bird is not possible.
iv. Litter may be difficult to find in some areas.
v. Eggs may become dirty especially if they are laid on the floor or if the nesting
boxes are not clean.
vi. Feed hoppers and waterers can be contaminated by litter if they are not placed
well above the litter.

4. Battery cage system (most intensive system)

Here birds are totally confined in cages throughout their laying period.
Advantages
i. Higher egg production due to less energy wastage by birds.
ii. Accurate egg production records can be kept.
iii. Cannibalism and egg eating are minimised
iv. Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them.
v. The system can easily be mechanised.
vi. Birds do not contaminate food and water.
vii. Handling is easy as hens are restricted to a small place.
viii. Broodiness is discouraged as birds do not reach the eggs.
ix. A large number of birds’ can be kept in a small space hence higher stocking rate.
x. Sick birds can easily be detected and isolated for treatement.
xi. Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidia.
xii. Ther is no bullying during feeding.
xiii. There is low labour requirement.

Disadvantages
i. Requires high initial capital hence very expensive.
ii. Requires high level of management and technical knowledge.
iii. Incase of disease outbreak spreading is very fast.
iv. Birds develop bruises on combs, breast and toes as they stick their necks out to eat
and walk in the cages.
v. Birds have no enough room for exercise.
vi. The system is not good for brooding purposes/rearing chicks.

Factors affecting egg production

1. Vices
a) Egg eating
This vice is influenced by the following factors
i. Presence of broken or soft-shelled eggs
ii. Bright light in the nests allowing birds to see eggs.
iii. Idleness.
iv. Inadequate nests forcing birds to lay eggs on the floor.
 v. Lack of minerals e.g., calcium in the diet.

Control measures
 Collect eggs regularly.
 Make nests to be dark.
 Feed birds on balanced ration.
 Debeak perpetual egg eaters.
 Supply green leaves to keep birds busy.
 Scatter grains in the litter to enable birds to scratch for them.

b) Cannibalism
This is a condition where the birds peck each other. This may result in the death of a large
number of birds.
Causes
 External parasites e.g., fleas.
 Overcrowding.
 Bright light makes the toes of chicks to shine resulting in toe pecking.
 Prolapse -Occurs when the cloaca does not retract after laying an [Link] cloacca is then
pecked at by others.
 Mineral deficiency.
 Introduction of a new bird in a flock.

Control measures
-Avoid bright light in the house.
-Avoid overcrowding.
-Provide birds with balanced feeds.
-Birds should be kept according to age groups.
-Control external parasites.
-Keep birds busy by hanging green leaves or vegetables in the house.
-Debeak hens’ that peck at others.
-Cull perpertual cannibals.
DIAGRAMS of debeaking

2. Stress
Factors causing stress in birds
 Any sudden change i.e., sudden change of feed.
 Strangers and predators e.g., mangoose in the bird’s house.
 Handling of birds e.g., during vaccination, culling or debeaking.
 Diseases and parasite infestation.
 Lack of food and water.
Control measures
 Keep the poultry house quiet.
 Insulate the poultry house to maintain uniform temperatures.
 Control diseases and parasites.
 Change of routine programme must be gradual.
 Provide enough feed and water.
Routine management practices
1. Feeding
Birds should be fed adlibitum i.e feed must be available at all times.

2. Control of diseases and parasites

a) Controlling diseases
 Antibiotics e.g., furaxol and amprol are added to drinking water to control bacterial
diseases.
 Vaccination against Mareks, Newcastle and Fowl typhoid should be carried out according
to the reccomended vaccination schedule.
 Correct sanitation measures should be observed.

b) Controlling parasites
 Dusting birds and spraying or dusting the poultry houses.
 Litter should be removed and replaced after every six months.
 Administering dewormers to control internal parasites.
 Providing the right sanitary conditions.

3. Egg collection
This is mainly done at around noon and in the evening. Good eggs are stored in a cool dry place
with the broad side up.

5. Debeaking
This is done to discourage cannibalism, egg eating and toe pecking.

6. Culling
This is the removal of unproductive birds from the flock.

Factors that necessitate culling of birds

 Poor or stunted growth.
 Chronic diseases or injuries that render birds unproductive.
 Old age which lower production.
 Vices e.g., egg eating and cannibalism.
 Poor layers.
Ways of differentiating between a good layer and a bad layer
a) Observation of physical characteritics of a bird

Good layer Poor layer

 Combs and wattles are large, warm,  Combs and wattles are small or
waxy and red. shrunken, dry, scaly, pale and cold.

 Bright orange and alert eyes  Dull and pale-yellow eyes.

 Pale beak  Beak is yellowish

  Vent is oval, moist reddish and active.  Vent is round, dry and less active.

 Abdomen is soft, pliable and wide  Abdomen is hard and sometimes full.

 Space between keel and pelvic bone is  Space between keel and pelvic bone is
wide and can fit 3-4 fingers. small and can only fit 1-2 fingers.

 Temperament-Alert and active.  Temperament-Lazy and dull.

 Plumage-Dry and rugged. Feathers  Plummage-Preened and glossy.

appear worn out due to frequenting the Feathers are beautiful and smooth.
nest.

 Moulting starts late  Moulting starts early.

 Shanks are pale.  Shanks are yellowish.

 Broodiness is rare.  Broodiness is common.

b) Trap nesting
A nest is built in such a way that when a layer enters to lay, it cannot come out. At the
time when it is removed it is marked. Those that remain unmarked are poor layers.

Marketing of poultry products

1. Eggs
a) Sorting and grading
The following factors are considered in sorting and grading eggs for the market.
i) Cleanliness -Clean eggs command high prices in the market.
ii) The size of the egg -large eggs fetches higher market prices. Sort and park eggs into grades
i.e., small, medium and large.
iii) Candling Quality -Eggs of high candling quality are preferred by consuers.
iv) Egg colour -Some consumers prefer brown shelled to white eggs.
b) Packaging
Eggs are packed on egg trays. The trays are then packed into egg boxes. Eggs can also be kept in
ordinary boxes in which clean sawdust or wood shavings have been put.
c) Marketing of eggs
Prospective poultry farmers should ensure that there is a good market for their eggs before
deciding to go into poultry keeping business. Farmers can sell eggs to consumers, retailers or
through cooperatives. Market prices depend on demand and supply.

2. Chicken meat
 a. killing the bird.
Methods of killing birds
i) Dislocating the neck
 Birds are starved for 12hours before killing otherwise the carcass may turn green
especially the vents.
 Legs are held firmly with the left hand and then the head is grasped then twisted
backwards and at the same time extented downwards with a sharp thrust.
 The bird is then hung by the feet so that blood may drain from the body.
ii) Killing with a sharp knife
Legs and wings are held firmly and the neck is cut instantly and hung by the legs for the blood to
drain.
b) Plucking
 plucking of feathers starts from the should commence immediately after killing, when the
bird is still warm. One should start from the back, breast and lastly the wings and the tail.
 Stubborn feathers are removed with a sharp knife.
 Wing tips are removed with a shap knife then the body is signed by holding it over a
flame.
 In some large-scale poultry machines are used to pluck feathers mechanically.
c) Dressing
 lay the bird on its breast on the table
 Pull and cut off the skin of the neck at the point where the neck enters the body;
 Cut the neck from the head at the point of dislocation/the cut;
 Turn the carcass on its back;
 Grasp and gently pull out its crop;
 Insert the index finger as far as possible into the body cavity through the opening left after
removing the neck and crop;
 Work around the finger close to this body to loosen the organs from the ribs and the back;
 Turn the bird and hold the abdomen with the left hand;
 Make a horizontal cut between the vent and the keel bone to expose the intestines;
 Insert a finger into the abdomen through the cut and loop around the vent to close the
intestines;
 Hold the intestines away from the vent and then cut around with the bowels still attached;
 Insert the right hand into the abdominal opening gently grab the gizzard and pull it out
accompanied with other internal organs;
 Cut the skin around the shank to remove the sinus just below the hocks and pull them out
strongly from the body;
 Pack this carcass in a polythene bag for sale;
NB// sinews are tough, fibrous tissues uniting muscles to the bones.
CHAPTER 2
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION VI (CATTLE)
Introduction
Dairy cattle are kept for milk production. However; they are an important source of meat
especiall from steers, young bull calves and the culls.
Beef cattle are purposely kept for meat production although they also supply milk for the
communities living in the arid and semi arid areas.
Raising of the young stock
Calf rearing is an important practice in dairy and beef production because it aims at raising a
high-quality replacement stock.
Feeding dairy calves
Whitin six hours after birth the calf should be feed on colostrum (thick yellow milk produced by
a cow in the first 4-6 days after calving)
Reasons why colostrum is important to the calf
i) Its highly digestible
ii) It’s highly nutritious and contains vitamins for growth and disease resistance.
iii) Has antibodies that enable the calf to resist early disease infection
iv) Its good in cleaning the bowels of the calf (has a laxative effect)
v) It is highly palatable.
Preparation of artificial colostrum
 A fresh egg is whipped in 0.86liters of water after which the following ingredients are added;
1
- litre of warm water
2
- One teaspoonful of cod liver oil
- One teaspoonful of castor oil
 The ingredients are mixed thoroughly and the colostrum is ready for use.
 This should be feed to the calf 3times a day for the first 4days and thereafter the castor oil
should be omitted in the mixture when the calf starts to pass dung normally.

Methods of calf rearing

a) Natural method
Advantages
 The calf takes milk at body temperature.
 The milk is free from contamination.
 Problems of scouring are minimised.
Disadvantages
 The farmer may remove all the milk from the udder such that the calf is underfed
or the calf may suckle too much milk resulting in digestive disorders e.g., scours.
 Cows used to be stimulated by calves will not let down the milk in the absence of
the calf.
 Its difficult to keep clear records of milk yield.
b) Artificial or bucket feeding
The calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. The calf is trained as
follows:
 Put clean milk in a clean bucket.
 Place the index finger into the calf’s mouth.
 When the calf starts sucking the finger, lower the finger slowly until its
submerged in milk as the calf sucks.
 Slowly withdraw the finger while the calf is sucking.
 Repeat the above steps until the calf learns to drink milk without assistance.
Advantages
 Its possible to keep accurate records of milk yield.
 Its easy to regulate the amount of milk taken by the calf.
 Cows produce milk even in the absence of the calf.
 It is easy to maintain high standards of sanitation.
 There is the likelihood of the farmer selling more milk hence maximising profits.

Disadvatages

 It is labourous.
 Calf might be given cold milk.
 Equipment used and the stockman might be dirty leading to scours.

Weaning calves
In artificial calf rearing method there are two calf weaning programmes.
i. Early weaning.
 In this programme the calf is fed on whole milk upto the tenth week when it is
weaned
 Calf is given milk equal to 10% of its body weight upto 8th week.
 After the 8th week, milk is reduced gradually by 1kg until weaning.
 Calf is given early weaning concentrates and soft forage.

Early weaning guide.

Age in weeks Whole milk kg/day Concentrates kg/day

1 Colostrum adlibitum -

2-3 5 -

4-5 6 0.25

6-7 6 0.5

8-9 5 0.75

10-11 4 1.00

12-13 - 1.50

14-15 - 2.00
 16 - 2.00

ii. Late weaning programme

 The calf is fed on whole milk which is replaced gradually with a mixture of whole
and skim milk from the third week onwards.
 At the age of 3 weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets and green fodder.
 The calf is given plenty of clean water.
 The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when
maximum amout of milk is given
 Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done.
Late weaning guide.

Age(wks) Whole milk kg/dy Skim milk kg/dy Concentrates kg/dy

1 Colostrum adlibitum - -

2 3.5 - -

3 4.0 - -

4 4.5 1 0.25

5 4.0 3 0.50

6 3.0 5 0.75

7 - 7 1.00

8-14 - 8 2.00

15 - 4 2.00

16 - 4 2.00

Describe how late weaning is carried out

 In the first week, the calf should be fed on colostrum ad libitum.
 In the second and third weeks; it is fed on 3.5kg and 4.0kg of whole milk per day
respectively.
 Calf pellets should be introduced gradually from the third week.
 Green fodder should be gradually introduced from the third week.
 From the fourth week, whole milk is gradually replaced with a mixture of whole
and skim milk.
  The milk given to the calf should be at body temperature.
 The amount of milk given to the calf should initially be divided into three equal amounts and later
into two equal amounts.
 The amount of whole milk fed should be reduced as the calf grows.
 Skim milk should be increased as whole milk reduces.
 From the 7 t h week the calf is not fed on whole milk.
 Concentrates should be increased as the calf copes with bulky solid feeds;
 At the 16week the calf can be fully introduced to forage crops.
12 x 1 (12 marks)
Nb-The amount of milk given to the calf should initially be divided into three equal amounts
and later into two equal amounts.

Rearing replacement stock

Replacement stock is a group of heifers and young bulls meant to replace old stock. They should
be fed properly with quality pasture. If young stock is poorly fed, they easily get stunted and
don’t reach service weight at the right age.
Routine management practices
Include; parasite control, disease control, castration, identification, removal of extra teats,
dehorning/disbudding.
Calf housing
Calves should be housed to protect them from diverse environmental conditions such as wetness,
high temperatures and chilly conditions.

Types of calf pens

a) Raised permanent pens
These are raised 0.5m above the ground with slatted floor to allow water urine and dung to drain
easily.
b) Permanent calf pens with concrete floor
This measure 1.5m long and 1.0m wide. The floor is slanted to allow drainage to take place.
c) Mobile / movable calf pens
These are movable pens with slatted floor. They are roofed well because they are kept
outside. In some cases, slats are not necessary when pens are moved from one point to
another in the pastures every two days.
Requirements of calf pens
i. Cleanliness
The pen should be easy to clean i.e they should be kept clean always. The pens which have
concrete walls and floors are easy to clean.
ii. Dryness and warmth
The calf pen should be kept warm and dry, this is achieved by placing dry litter on the floor
(straw or dry grass). The litter should be changed once a week when it shows signs of
 wetness. Wetness encourages infections such as pneumonia, navel illness, scours and others.
Roof should be leak proof.
iii. Adequate space
The pen should be large enough to allow calves to exercise and to accommodate feeding and
watering.
iv. Proper lighting
The calf pen should be properly lit. light is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D. To allow
enough light into the pen, the front wall is constracted 60cm to 90cm high and the space
above is left open
v. Proper drainage.
The place where the calf pen is to be constracted should be well drained. Poor drainage
causes dampness which encourages infection.
vi. Draught free.
The structures should have solid walls to prevent cold winds from entering. Cold winds
encourage infections such as pneumonia. The side facing the direction of the wind should be
completely solid from the top to the bottom.
vii. Proper ventilation
The structure should allow fresh air circulation.

viii. Single housing.

Calves should be housed singly within the first three months of life to prevent licking one
another which may lead to formation of hair balls in their rumens and prevents the spread of
worms and diseases.

Milk and milking

Composition of milk
Milk composition varies from one animal to another. The normal variations are slight depending
on the type of milk whether it is colostrum, mastitic milk, milk from late lactation,
unhygienically produced or tainted from certain feedstuffs.
Milk is a complete food containing proteins, fats, carbohydrates (lactose) minerals and water.
Animal Protein Fat % Lactose (Minerals)Ash Water % Total solids
% % % %

Human 1.3 3.8 7.0 Trace 87.3 12.6

Sheep 5.4 6.2 4.3 0.95 78.9 21.1

Goat 3.3 4.1 4.7 0.79 87.9 12.0

Cow 3.3 3.7 7.3 0.72 86.0 13.0

Factors affecting milk composition

a) Age of the animal
As the animal grows older, the percentage of butter fat composition in the milk becomes less
and less. This, means that young animals produce milk with a higher butter fat content than
older animals.
b) Condition of the animal
This is the physiological condition of the animal such as emaciation, sickness and pregnancy.
Under extreme emaciation, there is a substantial drop in the butter fat content of the milk.
Likewise, an animal at its late stages of pregnancy, it produces milk with low butter fat
content.
c) Stage of lactation and pregnancy
Butter fat content in milk tends to be higher at the middle phase of lactation period. Other
milk constituents such as proteins and minerals increase in the second phase of lactation
except lactose which increases slightly in the first two months and then gradually decline
upto the end of the lactation. Hormonal changes in a pregnant lactating animal are
responsible for the lactation trends in milk composition.
d) Completeness of milking
It has been established that the last milk drawn from the udder produces 10% of the total fats
in milk. Milk produced in the morning has lower fat content than that drawn in the evening.
e) Breed differences
Different breeds of animals produce milk with different percentage composition. Most of
these differences are more pronounced in terms of fat content.
f) Season of the year
Fat % increases during cold seasons of the year. In exotic breeds it has been established that
there is an increase in fat content of milk between 10% - 40% over a temperature range of
100c to 32.20c, as the fat content increases with temperature, the lactose and proteins tend to
decrease.
g) The type of food eaten by the animal
The volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen of the animal influence the composition of
milk: This acid includes;
- Propionic acid
- Acetic acid
-Butyric acids
When animals eat large amounts of grains, they produce large amounts of propionic and
butyric acids and little acetic acids.
Roughages produces large amounts of acetic acids which is used in the mammary gland in
large quantities as a source of energy to synthesise fat, proteins and lactose.
An animal eating large quantities of roughages produce milk with high fats, proteins and
lactose than an animal fed on a lot of grains.
h) Other factors
Diseases like mastitis reduce lactose composition in milk since the mastitis bacteria attack
the milk sugars. Also, animals under treatment through use of different drugs also produces
milk of variable composition.
Milk secretion and let-down
a) The structure of the mammary gland
b) Milk secretion (Lactogenesis)
Milk secretion or synthesis is known as lactogenesis. Milk is made from the food that the
cow eats. The digested food is taken to the udder via blood vessels where milk is synthesised.
In the udder, the nutrients are carried into the alveoli cells where metabolic reactions take
place to build up these nutrients into milk. Low levels of oestrogen towards the end of
pregnancy activates the pituitary gland to release prolactin hormone. Prolactin acts directly
on the mammary gland to initiate lactogenesis.
The milk secreted is then stored in the upper region of the udder and the teat cistern waiting
to be released.
c) Milk let-down
This is the flow of milk from the upper region of the udder (alveolar region) to the gland and
teat cisterns and then out of the teats either by milking or suckling. This occurs when the cow
is stimulated i.e., by washing the udder, suckling and feeding the animal. The stimulus sends
a message through the nervous system to the pituitary gland to release a hormone known as
oxytocin to the blood stream.
Oxytocin causes the contraction of the udder muscles of the upper region of the udder forcing
the milk down the teat. If a cow is frightened, the brain flashes a message to the adrenal
glands and hormone adrenalin is secreted. This hormone is capable of limiting the blood
supply to the udder and thereby preventing oxytocin hormone from reaching the muscle
fibres around the alveolar region.
NB//
  Oxytocin hormone last for 7-10 mins in the blood stream hence fast milking is
important to withdraw the milk.
 Before milking, the alveolar cells are engorged but after milking they appear long and
thin
Diadgram of alveolar cells

Factors influencing milk let-down.

i. Presence of the calf
ii. Presence of the milkman
iii. Rattling of the milk equipment
iv. Site of the food/feeding the animal
v. Massaging or washing the udder
vi. Sight of the milk parlour.
Factors inhibiting milk let-down
i. Beating the animal/ inflicting pain to the animal
ii. Presence of strangers and animals e.g dogs
iii. Poor milking technique
iv. Absence of the calf (in case the cow is used to it)

d) Clean milk production

Milk is a food which must be produced and kept in a clean and hygenic condition as it can
easily pick up, carry and pass on infection especially the calves and young humans.
Characteristics of clean and high-quality milk
 Should be free from disease causing organisms.
 Has no hair dirt or dust.
 Is of high keeping quality.
 Has good flavour.
 Its chemical composition is within the expected standards
Essentials of clean milk production
i) Healthy milking herd
Cows should be tested annually for milk-borne diseases e.g., tuberculosis and brucellosis
which are easily transmitted to man. Those with such diseases should be removed
 immediately from the herd and treated. A mastitis test with strip cup should be done before
each milking.
ii) Clean milking cows
The flanks, underline and the whole udder should be washed and dried thoroughly before
each milking. The milkman should carry two towels; one for washing and the other one for
drying the udder. Long hair on the udder should be clipped
iii) Healthy and clean milkman
The milkman should not be suffering from any contagious disease. Fingernails should be
short and hair covered. Wear white overalls when milking and handling milk.
iv) Clean milking shed/parlour
The milking shed or palour should be kept clean, free from dust or odours. It should be
constructed on well drained area. The floor should be constructed in such a way that they can
be cleaned easily. Milk shed should be cleaned after every milking.
v) Clean milking utensils
Should be seamless, smooth with joints filled to facilitate easy and thorough cleaning. They
should be washed with hot water and a detergent and then rinsed with clean water after each
milking. They are sterilized by keeping them in the sun during the day.
vi) Milk filtration, cooling and storage
Milk should be filtered and cooled immediately to 50c after milking. Cooling slows down
bacteria multiplication hence improving the keeping quality.
vii) Avoid flavours in milk
Foodstuffs which cause bad flavours e.g., onions, Mexican marigold should be fed to cows
after and not before or during milking.
e) Milking materials and equipment

i) Udder cloths/towels
Provide two towels per cow; one for washing and the other one for drying the udder. If the
animals are many the towels can be disinfected or dipped in hot water before using on
another animal.
ii) Filtering pads
The pads are used for straining milk. They are more efficient and hygienic than ordinary
white clothes that are used by some farmers.
iii) Milking jelly
The jelly is smeared on the teats after milking to prevent from cracking.
NB// it should not be applied before or during milking.
iv) Warm water
Warm water is necessary for washing the udder before milking to remove dirt. It also
stimulates the milk let-down.
v) Milking pails/buckets
 Should be made of materials free of copper or iron traces on their surfaces to avoid oxidation
flavours. Oxidation flavours in milk is due to the oxidation of milk fats if it has been exposed
to sun or put in containers which have traces of iron or copper.
vi) Srip cup
It is necessary for detecting mastitis. The first srip of milk from each teat is put into it and
checked whether there are flakes or clots.
vii) Milk cans/churns
They are used to hold milk during storage and transportation. They should be made of
materials free of copper and iron on their surface.
viii) Milking machine
The components of the machine should be washed in disinfectant. Particular attention must
be given to the metal teat cups which fit over the cows’ teats.
ix) Other equipments
Cooling apparatus such as refrigerators, charcoal cooler, milking stool and weighing scale are
also necessary.

f) Milking procedure
Stages in milking either in Hand or machine milking.
i) Pre-milking procedure
 Milking materials and equipments are availed
 The cow is restrained in the milking parlour and given food.
 The udder is washed and dried with towel or udder cloth.
 Checking for the presence of mastitis.
ii) Milking technique
The main aim of using the proper milking technique is to obtain all the milk from the udder
and also avoid mastitis.

iii) Procedure of proper milking

In hand milking the teat is grasped tightly at its base between the thumb and the forefinger
and the other three fingers are closed in tightly applying the pressure from the top to the
bottom forcing the milk to drain from the teat to the bucket.
When the force is applied rhythmically on the muscles of the teat, the teat’s orifices opens
and the milk is discharged.
The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent the back flow of milk into the gland cistern.
 Rules to be observed when milking
 Milk quickly and evenly
The effect of oxytocin lasts for five to seven minutes and therefore quick and efficient
milking is required.
 Milk at regular times.
Cows are usually milked two times a day at approximately 12-hour intervals. Milking
should be done the same time in the morning and evenings. High yielding cows
maybe milked three times a day.
 Avoid use of wet hands.
The use of dry hands is recommended as it is hygienic. The milker should dry the
hands after washing the udder.
 Complete Milking
All milk should be removed during milking as incomplete removal of milk from the
udder leads to the cow drying off too soon.

(Space)

iv) Post milking practices.

The post milking practices include weighing, recording, straining, cooling and storing,
cleaning utensils and washing the parlour.
Dry cow therapy
This is the application/infusion of antibiotics into the teat canal of a cow that is preparing for
drying off to control mastitis. This is because during drying off period, the little milk which
is left in the teat canal act as a culture medium for bacterial infection which causes mastitis.
 Milk products
a) Homogenised and pasteurised milk
Homogenisation is the process by which fat globules in milk are broken mechanically to
smaller fat particles which are then distributed evenly in the milk.
Pasteurisation is the heating of milk and then cooling it immediately.
b) Ultra heat treated (U.H.T) milk.
Heat treated milk at a temperature between 1300c and 135oc for one second and then
immediately packed and cooled.
c) Cream
A layer of fat that collect at the top of the milk when milk is allowed to stand. A separator
can accompolish this process mechanically by spinning the milk rapidly so that the
centrifugal force which is created separates the milk fat globules from the rest of the milk.
d) Skim milk
This is the part of the whole milk which is left after the cream has been removed.
e) Butter
This is obtained by churning the cream in a churn which separates milk fat from the non-fat
solids.
f) Ghee
This is prepared by either heating cream or butter inorder to remove moisture and non-fat
solids.
g) Curd
Formed when raw, whole or skim milk is allowed to stand unprotected forming a semi-solid
form which solidifies and floats.
h) Cheese
This is consolidated curd. It is prepared by compressing milk curd until the moisture has been
drained out.
i) Powdered milk
This milk is prepared by drying the whole or skimmed milk and converting it into powder.
Marketing of milk
 Farmers can sell directly to the consumers.
 Farmers can also sell milk to middlemen who will then reach the consumers.
 Through co-operatives who buy and sell milk for the farmer and on behalf of the
farmers. E.g., Brookside, Tuzo milk and Limuru dairies.
Marketing of beef cattle
In Kenya there are three channels through which Kenyan beef farmers can market their
products.
a) Kenya meat commission (KMC)
This is a statutory board which was mandated by an act of parliament to buy animals
from farmers, process and sell the meat products.
b) Livestock marketing division (LMD)
This is a division in the ministry of livestock development that is charged with the
marketing of livestock especially those from the arid and semi arid areas referred to as
the pastoral areas.
c) Local slaughter houses
These are specially constructed houses with all the slaughter faccilities. Butchers buy
animals, slaughter and sell to the consumers through butcheries.