Unit - II

Introduction:
Welding which is the process of joining two metallic components for the desired purpose, can be
defined as the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metallic components with the application
of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. Heat
may be obtained by chemical reaction, electric arc, electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and
light energy. If no filter metal is used during welding then it is termed as ‘Autogenous Welding
Process'.
During ‘Bronze Age' parts were joined by forge welding to produce tools, weapons and ornaments
etc, however, present day welding processes have been developed within a period of about a
century.
First application of welding with carbon electrode was developed in 1885 while metal arc welding
with bare electrode was patented in 1890. However, these developments were more of
experimental value and applicable only for repair welding but proved to be the important base for
present day manual metal arc (MMAW) welding and other arc welding processes.
In the mean time resistance butt welding was invented in USA in the year 1886. Other resistance
welding processes such as spot and flash welding with manual application of load were developed
around 1905.
With the production of cheap oxygen in 1902, oxy – acetylene welding became feasible in Europe
in 1903.
When the coated electrodes were developed in 1907, the manual metal arc welding process become
viable for production/fabrication of components and assemblies in the industries on large scale.
Subsequently other developments are as follows:
• Thermit Welding (1903)
• Cellulosic Electrodes (1918)
• Arc Stud Welding (1918)
• Seam Welding of Tubes (1922)
• Mechanical Flash Welder for Joining Rails (1924)
• Extruded Coating for MMAW Electrodes (1926)
• Submerged Arc Welding (1935)
• Air Arc Gouging (1939)
• Inert Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) Welding (1941)
• Iron Powder Electrodes with High Recovery (1944)
• Inert Gas Metal Arc (MIG) Welding (1948)
• Electro Slag Welding (1951)
• Flux Cored Wire with CO 2 Shielding (1954)
• Electron Beam Welding (1954)
• Constricted Arc (Plasma) for Cutting (1955)
• Friction Welding (1956)
• Plasma Arc Welding (1957)

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• Electro Gas Welding (1957)
• Short Circuit Transfer for Low Current, Low Voltage Welding with CO 2 Shielding (1957)
• Vacuum Diffusion Welding (1959)
• Explosive Welding (1960)
• Laser Beam Welding (1961)
• High Power CO 2 Laser Beam Welding (1964)
All welded ‘Liberty ' ships failure in 1942, gave a big jolt to application of welding. However, it
had drawn attention to fracture problem in welded structures.
Applications:
Although most of the welding processes at the time of their developments could not get their place
in the production except for repair welding, however, at the later stage these found proper place in
manufacturing/production. Presently welding is widely being used in fabrication of pressure
vessels, bridges, building structures, aircraft and space crafts, railway coaches and general
applications. It is also being used in shipbuilding, automobile, electrical, electronic and defense
industries, laying of pipe lines and railway tracks and nuclear installations etc.
General Applications:
Welding is vastly being used for construction of transport tankers for transporting oil, water, milk
and fabrication of welded tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other items. Steel furniture,
gates, doors and door frames, body and other parts of white goods items such as refrigerators,
washing machines, microwave ovens and many other items of general applications are fabricated
by welding.
Pressure Vessels:
One of the first major use of welding was in the fabrication of pressure vessels. Welding made
considerable increases in the operating temperatures and pressures possible as compared to riveted
pressure vessels.
Bridges:
Early use of welding in bridge construction took place in Australia. This was due to problems in
transporting complete riveted spans or heavy riveting machines necessary for fabrication on site
to remote areas. The first all welded bridge was erected in UK in 1934. Since then all welded
bridges are erected very commonly and successfully.
Ship Building:
Ships were produced earlier by riveting. Over ten million rivets were used in ‘Queen Mary' ship
which required skills and massive organization for riveting but welding would have allowed the
semiskilled/ unskilled labor and the principle of pre-fabrication. Welding found its place in ship
building around 1920 and presently all welded ships are widely used. Similarly submarines are
also produced by welding.
Building Structures:
Arc welding is used for construction of steel building leading to considerable savings in steel and
money. In addition to building, huge structures such as steel towers etc also require welding for
fabrication.

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Aircraft and Spacecraft:
Similar to ships, aircrafts were produced by riveting in early days but with the introduction of jet
engines welding is widely used for aircraft structure and for joining of skin sheet to body.
Space vehicles which have to encounter frictional heat as well as low temperatures require outer
skin and other parts of special materials. These materials are welded with full success achieving
safety and reliability.
Railways:
Railways use welding extensively for fabrication of coaches and wagons, wheel tyres laying of
new railway tracks by mobile flash butt welding machines and repair of cracked/damaged tracks
by thermit welding.
Automobiles:
Production of automobile components like chassis, body and its structure, fuel tanks and joining
of door hinges require welding.
Electrical Industry:
Starting from generation to distribution and utilization of electrical energy, welding plays
important role. Components of both hydro and steam power generation system, such as penstocks,
water control gates, condensers, electrical transmission towers and distribution system equipment
are fabricated by welding. Turbine blades and cooling fins are also joined by welding.
Electronic Industry:
Electronic industry uses welding to limited extent such as for joining leads of special transistors
but other joining processes such as brazing and soldering are widely being used. Soldering is used
for joining electronic components to printed circuit boards. Robotic soldering is very common for
joining of parts to printed circuit boards of computers, television, communication equipment and
other control equipment etc.
Nuclear Installations:
Spheres for nuclear reactor, pipe line bends joining two pipes carrying heavy water and other
components require welding for safe and reliable operations.
Defence Industry:
Defence industry requires welding for joining of many components of war equipment. Tank bodies
fabrication, joining of turret mounting to main body of tanks are typical examples of applications
of welding.
Micro-Joining:
It employs the processes such as micro-plasma, ultrasonic, laser and electron beam welding, for
joining of thin wire to wire, foil to foil and foil to wire, such as producing junctions of
thermocouples, strain gauges to wire leads etc.
Apart from above applications welding is also used for joining of pipes, during laying of crude oil
and gas pipelines, construction of tankers for their storage and transportation. Offshore structures,
dockyards, loading and unloading cranes are also produced by welding.

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Classification of Welding Processes:

Welding processes can be classified based on following criteria;

1. Welding with or without filler material.

2. Source of energy of welding.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding.
4. Fusion and Pressure welding.

1. Welding can be carried out with or without the application of filler material. Earlier only
gas welding was the fusion process in which joining could be achieved with or without
filler material. When welding was done without filler material it was called ‘autogenous
welding'. However, with the development of TIG, electron beam and other welding
processes such classification created confusion as many processes shall be falling in both
the categories.
2. Various sources of energies are used such as chemical, electrical, light, sound, mechanical
energies, but except for chemical energy all other forms of energies are generated from
electrical energy for welding. So this criterion does not justify proper classification.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding processes classification embraces all the arc welding processes
in one class and all other processes in other class. In such classification it is difficult to
assign either of the class to processes such as electroslag welding and flash butt welding,
as in electroslag welding the process starts with arcing and with the melting of sufficient
flux the arc extinguishes while in flash butt welding tiny arcs i.e. sparks are established
during the process and then components are pressed against each other. Therefore, such
classification is also not perfect.
4. Fusion welding and pressure welding is most widely used classification as it covers all
processes in both the categories irrespective of heat source and welding with or without
filler material. In fusion welding all those processes are included where molten metal
solidifies freely while in pressure welding molten metal if any is retained in confined space
under pressure (as may be in case of resistance spot welding or arc stud welding) solidifies
under pressure or semisolid metal cools under pressure. This type of classification poses
no problems so it is considered as the best criterion.

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Processes falling under the categories of fusion and pressure welding are shown in Figures 2.1 and
2.2.

Design of Welded joints

The performance of weld joints is determined by not only the load resisting cross sectional area of
joint but also properties of region close to the weld metal i.e. heat affected zone (HAZ). The design
engineer must keep in mind that HAZ can be significantly wider or stronger than weld and so
accordingly various parameters of weld joint design should be established. This module based on
design of weld joints has been covered in next nine lectures (Lecture 22 to 30). This chapter
describes the fundamentals of weld joint design including the parameters that are obtained after
designing a weld joint. Keywords: Modes of failure, rigidity and stiffness, loading condition,
welding symbol, type of weld and weld joint.

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Introduction Weld joints may be subjected to variety of loads ranging from a simple
tensile load to the complex combination of torsion, bending and shearing loads depending
upon the service conditions. The capability of weld joints to take up a given load comes
from metallic continuity across the members being joined. Mechanical properties of the
weld metal and load resisting cross section area of the weld (besides heat affected zone
characteristics) are two most important parameters which need to be established for
designing a weld joint.
Modes of failure of the weld joints A poorly designed weld joint can lead to the failure of
an engineering component in three ways namely a) elastic deformation (like bending or
torsion of shaft and other sophisticated engineering systems like precision measuring
instruments and machine tools) of weld joint beyond acceptable limits, b) plastic
deformation (change in dimensions beyond acceptable limits as-decided by application)
of engineering component across the weld joint and c) fracture of weld joint into two or
more pieces under external tensile, shear, compression, impact creep and fatigue
loadsTherefore, depending upon the application, failure of weld joints may occur in
different ways and hence a different approaches are needed for designing the weld joints
as per application and service requirements.
Design of weld joints and mechanical properties Stiffness and rigidity are important
parameters for designing weld joints where elastic deformation is to be controlled. Under
such conditions, weld metal of high modulus of elasticity (E) and rigidity (G) is deposited
for producing weld joints besides selecting suitable load resisting cross sectional area.
When the failure criterion for a weld joint is the plastic deformation, then weld joints are
designed on the basis of yield strength of the weld metal. When the failure criterion for
weld joint is to avoid fracture under static loading, then ultimate strength of the weld metal
is used as a basis for design. While under fatigue and creep conditions design of weld
joints is based on specialized approaches which will be discussed in later stages of this
chapter. Under simplified conditions, design for fatigue loads is based on endurance limit.
Weld joints invariably possess different types of weld discontinuities of varying sizes
which can be very crucial in case of critical applications e.g. weld joints used in nuclear
reactors, aerospace and space craft components. Therefore, weld joints for critical
applications are designed using fracture mechanics approach which takes into account the
size of discontinuity (in form of crack, porosity or inclusions), applied stresses and weld
material properties (yield strength and fracture toughness) in design of weld joints.
Factors affecting the performance of the weld joints It is important to note that the
mechanical performance of the weld joints is governed by not only mechanical properties
of the weld metal and its load resisting cross sectional area (as mentioned above) but also
on the welding procedure used for developing a weld joint which includes the edge
preparation, weld joint design, and type of weld, number of passes, preheat and post weld
heat treatment, if any, welding process and welding parameters (welding current, arc
length, welding speed) and method used for protecting the weld contamination from
atmospheric gases. As most of the above mentioned steps of welding procedure influence
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 metallurgical properties and residual stresses in weld joint which in turn affect the
mechanical (tensile and fatigue) performance of the weld joint.
Design of weld joints and loading conditions

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Design of weld joints for static and dynamic loads needs different approaches because in case of
static loads the direction and magnitude become either constant or changes very slowly while in
case of dynamic loads such as impact and fatigue conditions, the rate of loading is usually high. In
case of fatigue loading both magnitude and direction of load may fluctuate. Under the static load
condition, low rate of loading increases the time available for localized yielding to occur in area
of high stress concentration which in turn causes stress relaxation by redistribution of stresses
through-out the cross section while under dynamic loading conditions, due to lack of availability
of time, yielding across the section of weld doesn’t take place and only localized excessive
deformation occurs near the site of a high concentration stress which eventually provide an easy
site for nucleation and growth of cracks as in case of fatigue loading.
Need of welding symbols It is important to communicate information about welding
procedure without any ambiguity to all those who are involved in various steps of
fabrication of successful weld joints ranging from edge preparation to final inspection
and testing of welds. To assist in this regard, standard symbols and methodology for
representing the welding procedure and other conditions have been developed. Symbols
used for showing the type of weld to be made are called weld symbols. Some common
weld symbols are shown below in Fig. 22.1.

Basic Weld Symbols

Symbols which are used to show not only the type of weld but all relevant aspects related with
welding like size & location of weld, welding process, edge preparation, bead geometry and weld
inspection process and location of the weld to be fabricated and method of weld testing etc. are
called welding symbols. Following sections present standard terminologies and joints used in field
of welding engineering. 22.7 Types of weld Joints the classification of weld joints is based on the
orientation of plates/members to be welded. Common types of weld joints and their schematics
are shown in Fig. 22.2 (a-e). Butt joint: plates are in same horizontal plane and aligned with
maximum deviation of 50. Lap joint: plates overlapping each other and the overlap can just one
side or both the sides of plates being welded Corner joint: joint is made by melting corners of two
plates being welded and therefore plates are approximately perpendicular (750 - 900) to each other
at one side of the plates being welded Edge joint: joint is made by melting the edges of two plates
to be welded and therefore the plates are almost parallel (00 - 50)
T joint: one plate is approximately perpendicular to another plate (850 - 900)

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Schematic of different types of weld joints a) Butt b) Lap c) Corner d) Edge and e) T- Joint
3.0 Types of weld This classification in based on the combined factors like “how weld is made”
and “orientation of plates” to be welded. Common types of weld joints and their schematics are
shown in Fig. 22.3 (a-e).

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Schematic of different types of welds a) Groove b) Fillet c) Plug and d) Bead on Plate

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is the process in which arc is struck between bare wire electrode
and workpiece. The arc is shielded by a shielding gas and if this is inert gas such as argon or helium
then it is termed as metal inert gas (MIG) and if shielding gas is active gas such as CO2 or mixture
of inert and active gases then process is termed as metal active gas (MAG) welding. Figure 9.1
illustrates the process of GMA welding.

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 Schematic Diagram of GMA Welding

Direct current flat characteristic power source is the requirement of GMAW process. The electrode
wire passing through the contact tube is to be connected to positive terminal of power source so
that stable arc is achieved. If the electrode wire is connected to negative terminal then it shall result
into unstable spattery arc leading to poor weld bead. Flat characteristic leads to self adjusting or
self regulating arc leading to constant arc length due to relatively thinner electrode wires.

GMA welding requires consumables such as filler wire electrode and shielding gas. Solid filler
electrode wires are normally employed and are available in sizes 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6 mm diameter.
Similar to submerged arc welding electrode wires of mild steel and low alloyed steel, are coated
with copper to avoid atmospheric corrosion, increase current carrying capacity and for smooth
movement through contact tube. The electrode wire feeding system is shown in Figure 9.2.

Electrode Wire Feeding System

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Pressure adjusting screw is used to apply required pressure on the electrode wire during its feeding
to avoid any slip. Depending on the size and material of the wire, different pressures are required
for the smooth feeding of wire with minimum deformation of the wire. Further, wire feeding rolls
have grooves of different sizes and are to be changed for a particular wire size.

The range of welding current and voltage vary and is dependent on material to be welded, electrode
size and mode of metal transfer i.e. mode of molten drop formed at the tip of electrode and its
transfer to the weld pool. This process exhibits most of the metal transfer modes depending on
welding parameters.

The range of current and voltage for a particular size of electrode wire, shall change if material of
electrode wire is changed. With lower currents normally lower voltages are employed while higher
voltages are associated with higher currents during welding. Thin sheets and plates in all positions
or root runs in medium plates are welded with low currents while medium and heavy plates in flat
position are welded with high currents and high voltages. Welding of medium thickness plates in
horizontal and vertical positions are welded with medium current and voltage levels.

Table 9.1 gives the total range of currents and voltages for different sizes of structural steel i.e.
mild steel electrodes of different sizes.
Electrode Wire Diameter Current Range (A) Voltage Range (V)
(mm)
0.8 50-180 14-24
1.0 70-250 16-26
1.2 120-320 17-30
1.6 150-380 18-34

Table 9.1: Welding Current and Voltage Ranges for Mild Steel Electrodes

Both inert gases like argon and helium and active gases like CO2 and N2 are being used for
shielding depending upon the metal to be welded. Mixtures of inert and active gases like CO 2 and
O2 are also being used in GMA welding process. For mild steel carbon dioxide is normally used
which gives high quality, low current out of position welding i.e. also in welding positions other
than flat position. Low alloyed and stainless steels require argon plus oxygen mixtures for better
fluidity of molten metal and improved arc stability. The percentage of oxygen varies from 1-5%
and remaining is argon in argon and oxygen mixtures. However, low alloy steels are also welded
with 80% argon and 20% CO2 mixture.

Nickel, monel, inconel, aluminum alloys, magnesium, titanium, aluminum bronze and silicon
bronze are welded with pure argon. Nickel and nickel alloys may sometimes be welded with
mixture of argon and hydrogen (upto 5%). Copper and aluminum are also welded with 75% helium
and 25% argon mixture to encounter their thermal conductivity. Nitrogen may be used for welding

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of copper and some of its alloys, but nitrogen and argon mixtures are preferred over pure nitrogen
for relatively improved arc stability.

The process is extremely versatile over a wide range of thicknesses and all welding positions for
both ferrous and nonferrous metals, provided suitable welding parameters and shielding gases are
selected. High quality welds are produced without the problem of slag removal. The process can
be easily mechanized / automated as continuous welding is possible.

However, process is costly and less portable than manual metal arc welding. Further, arc shall be
disturbed and poor quality of weld shall be produced if air draught exists in working area.

GMA welding has high deposition rate and is indispensable for welding of ferrous and specially
for nonferrous metals like aluminum and copper based alloys in shipbuilding, chemical plants,
automobile and electrical industries. It is also used for building structures.

This chapter presents the basic principle of arc welding processes with focus on shielded metal arc
welding. Further, the influence of welding parameters on performance of weld joint and the role
of coating on electrode have been described. Keywords: Arc welding, shielded metal arc welding,
shielding in SMAW, electrode coating, welding current, electrode size

Arc Welding Process All arc welding processes apply heat generated by an electric arc
for melting the faying surfaces of the base metal to develop a weld joint (Fig. 11.1).
Common arc welding processes are manual metal or shielded metal arc welding (MMA
or SMA), metal inert gas arc (MIG), tungsten inert gas (TIG), submerged arc (SA),
plasma arc (PA), carbon arc (CA) selding etc.

Schematic diagram showing various elements of SMA welding system

Forge Welding
Principle
As we discussed, forge welding is a solid state welding process in which both the plates are heated
quite below its melting temperature. This heating deforms the work pieces plastically. Now a
repeated hammering or high pressurize load is applied on these plates together. Due to this high
pressure and temperature, inter-molecular diffusion takes place at the interface surface of the plates
which make a strong weld joint. This is basic principle of forge welding. One of the basic

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requirement of this types of welding, is clean interface surface which should be free from oxide
or other contaminant particles. To prevent the welding surface from oxidation, flux is used which
mixes with the oxide and lower down its melting temperature and viscosity. This allow to flow out
the oxide layer during heating and hammering process.
Working
Forge welding was one of the most applied welding method in ancient time. This is a fundamental
welding process of all solid state welding. Its working can be summarized as follow.

 First both the work plates heated together. The heating temperature is about 50 to 90% of its
melting temperature. Both the plates are coated with flux.
 Now manual hammering is done by a blacksmith hammer for making a joint. This process
is repeated until a proper joint is created.
 For welding large work pieces, mechanical hammering is used which is either driven by
electric motor or by using hydraulic mean. Sometime dies are used which provides finished
surface.

Application
 It is used to join steel or iron.
 It is used to manufacture gates, prison cells etc.
 It is widely used in cookware.
 It was used to join boiler plates before introduction of other welding process.
 It was used to weld weapon like sword etc.
 Used to weld shotgun barrels.

Advantages
 It is simple and easy.
 It does not require any costly equipment for weld small pieces.

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  It can weld both similar and dissimilar metals.
 Properties of weld joint is similar to base material.
 No filler material required.
Disadvantages
 Only small objects can be weld. Larger objects required large press and heating furnaces,
which are not economical.
 High skill required because excessive hammering can damage the welding plates.
 High Welding defects involve.
 It cannot use as mass production.
 Mostly suitable for iron and steel.
 It is a slow welding process.

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding processes are pressure welding processes in which heavy current is passed for
short time through the area of interface of metals to be joined. These processes differ from other
welding processes in the respect that no fluxes are used, and filler metal rarely used. All resistance
welding operations are automatic and, therefore, all process variables are preset and maintained
constant. Heat is generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal to sufficient
temperature, so that the parts can be joined with the application of pressure. Pressure is applied
through the electrodes.

The heat generated during resistance welding is given by following expression:

H = I 2R T

Where, H is heat generated

I is current in amperes

R is resistance of area being welded

T is time for the flow of current.

The process employs currents of the order of few KA, voltages range from 2 to 12 volts and times
vary from few ms to few seconds. Force is normally applied before, during and after the flow of
current to avoid arcing between the surfaces and to forge the weld metal during post heating. The
necessary pressure shall vary from 30 to 60 N mm-2 depending upon material to be welded and
other welding conditions. For good quality welds these parameters may be properly selected which
shall depend mainly on material of components, their thicknesses, type and size of electrodes.

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Apart from proper setting of welding parameters, component should be properly cleaned so that
surfaces to be welded are free from rust, dust, oil and grease. For this purpose components may be
given pickling treatment i.e. dipping in diluted acid bath and then washing in hot water bath and
then in the cold water bath. After that components may be dried through the jet of compressed air.
If surfaces are rust free then pickling is not required but surface cleaning can be done through some
solvent such as acetone to remove oil and grease.

The current may be obtained from a single phase step down transformer supplying alternating
current. However, when high amperage is required then three phase rectifier may be used to obtain
DC supply and to balance the load on three phase power lines.
The material of electrode should have higher electrical and thermal conductivities with sufficient
strength to sustain high pressure at elevated temperatures. Commonly used electrode materials are
pure copper and copper base alloys. Copper base alloys may consist of copper as base and alloying
elements such as cadmium or silver or chromium or nickel or beryllium or cobalt or zirconium or
tungsten. Pure tungsten or tungsten-silver or tungsten-copper or pure molybdenum may also be
used as electrode material. To reduce wear, tear and deformation of electrodes, cooling through
water circulation is required. Figure 11.1 shows the water cooling system of electrodes.

Water Cooling Electrodes a)Spot Welding b) Seam Welding

Commonly used resistance welding processes are spot, seam and projection welding which
produce lap joints except in case of production of welded tubes by seam welding where edges are
in butting position. In butt and flash welding, components are in butting position and butt joints
are produced.

1. Spot Welding
In resistance spot welding, two or more sheets of metal are held between electrodes through which
welding current is supplied for a definite time and also force is exerted on work pieces. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 11.2.

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The welding cycle starts with the upper electrode moving and contacting the work pieces resting
on lower electrode which is stationary. The work pieces are held under pressure and only then
heavy current is passed between the electrodes for preset time. The area of metals in contact shall
be rapidly raised to welding temperature, due to the flow of current through the contacting surfaces
of work pieces. The pressure between electrodes, squeezes the hot metal together thus completing
the weld. The weld nugget formed is allowed to cool under pressure and then pressure is released.
This total cycle is known as resistance spot welding cycle and illustrated in Figure 11.3

Spot welding electrodes of different shapes are used. Pointed tip or truncated cones with an angle
of 120° - 140° are used for ferrous metal but with continuous use they may wear at the tip. Domed
electrodes are capable of withstanding heavier loads and severe heating without damage and are
normally useful for welding of nonferrous metals. The radius of dome generally varies from 50-
100 mm. A flat tip electrode is used where minimum indentation or invisible welds are desired.

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Fig 11.4: Electrode Shapes for Spot Welding

Most of the industrial metal can be welded by spot welding, however, it is applicable only for
limited thickness of components. Ease of mechanism, high speed of operation and dissimilar metal
combination welding, has made is widely applicable and acceptable process. It is widely being
used in electronic, electrical, aircraft, automobile and home appliances industries.

2. Seam Welding:

In seam welding overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes and
current is passed to obtain either the continuous seam i.e. overlapping weld nuggets or intermittent
seam i.e. weld nuggets are equally spaced. Welding current may be continuous or in pulses. The
process of welding is illustrated in Figure 11.5.

Process of Seam Welding

Types of Seam Welds

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 Electrodes shapes of Seam Welding

Overlapping of weld nuggets may vary from 10 to 50 %. When it is approaching around 50 % then
it is termed as continuous weld. Overlap welds are used for air or water tightness.

It is the method of welding which is completely mechanized and used for making petrol tanks for
automobiles, seam welded tubes, drums and other components of domestic applications.

Seam welding is relatively fast method of welding producing quality welds. However, equipment
is costly and maintenance is expensive. Further, the process is limited to components of thickness
less than 3 mm.

3. Projection Welding:

Projections are little projected raised points which offer resistance during passage of current and
thus generating heat at those points. These projections collapse under heated conditions and
pressure leading to the welding of two parts on cooling. The operation is performed on a press
welding machine and components are put between water cooled copper platens under pressure.
Figures 11.8 and 11.9 illustrate the principle of resistance projection welding.

Fig 11.8: Resistance Projection Welding Machine

These projections can be generated by press working or machining on one part or by putting some
external member between two parts. Members such as wire, wire ring, washer or nut can be put
between two parts to generate natural projection.

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Insert electrodes are used on copper platen so that with continuous use only insert electrodes are
damaged and copper platen is safe. Relatively cheaper electrode inserts can be easily replaced
whenever these are damaged.

Fig 11.9: Formation of Welds from Projections on Components

Projection welding may be carried out with one projection or more than one projections
simultaneously.

No consumables are required in projection welding. It is widely being used for fastening
attachments like brackets and nuts etc to sheet metal which may be required in electronic, electrical
and domestic equipment.

Production of seam welded Tubes:

Welded tubes are produced by resistance seam welding. Tubes are produced from strips which are
wrapped on spool with trimmed edges. The width of strip should be slightly bigger than the
periphery of the tube to be produced to take care for the loss of metal in flashout. The strip is fed
through set of forming rollers to form first the shape of the tube and then it is passed under the
seam welding rolls. Under seam welding rolls the edges are butt welded with some flash out on
the joint. This flash out is trimmed and then tubes are cut to required size. The process is shown in
Figures 11.10 & 11.11.

Fig 11.10: Forming of Tube from Strip

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Fig 11.11: Seam Welding of Tube
Thermit Welding:
After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Process of Thermit Welding 2. Operation of
Thermit Welding 3. Application and Uses 4. Advantages 5. Disadvantages.
Process of Thermit Welding:
Thermit welding is a chemical welding process in which an exothermic chemical reaction is used
to supply the essential heat energy. That reaction involves the burning of Thermit, which is a
mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide in the ratio of about 1:3 by weight.
Although a temperature of 3000°C may be attained as a result of the reaction, preheating of the
Thermit mixture up to about 1300°C is essential in order to start the reaction.
The mixture reacts according to the chemical reaction:
8 Al + 3 Fe3O4 → 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + heat (3000˚C, 35 kJ/kg of mixture).

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Aluminum has greater affinity to react with oxygen; it reacts with ferric oxide to liberate pure iron
and slag of aluminum oxide. Aluminum oxide floats on top of molten metal pool in the form of
slag and pure iron (steel) settled below, because of large difference in densities.
Operation of Thermit Welding:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Thermit welding process is essentially a casting and foundry process, where the metal obtained by
the Thermit reaction is poured into the refractory cavity made around the joint.
The various steps involved in Thermit welding are:
1. The two pieces of metal to be joined are properly cleaned and the edge is prepared.
2. Then the wax is poured into the joint so that a wax pattern is formed where the weld is to be
obtained.
3. A moulding box is kept around the joint and refractory sand is packed carefully around the wax
pattern as shown in Fig. 7.40, providing the necessary pouring basin, sprue, and riser and gating
system.
4. A bottom opening is provided to run off the molten wax. The wax is melted through this opening
which is also used to preheat the joint. This makes it ready for welding.
5. The Thermit is mixed in a crucible which is made of refractory material that can withstand the
extreme high heat and pressure, produced during the chemical reaction.
6. The igniter (normally barium peroxide or magnesium) is placed on top of the mixture and is
lighted with a red hot metal rod or magnesium ribbon.
7. The reaction takes about 30 seconds and highly super-heated molten iron is allowed to flow into
the prepared mould cavity around the part to be welded.
8. The super-heated molten metal fuses the parent metal and solidifies into a strong homogeneous
weld.
9. The weld joint is allowed to cool slowly.
There are different Thermit mixtures available for welding different metals, such as copper and
chromium. They use different metal oxides in place of ferrous oxide. Some typical Thermit
mixture reactions with their temperature obtained are given below:
3 CuO + 2 Al → 3Cu + Al2O3 + Heat (4860°C, 275 Kcal)
Cr2O3 + 2Al → 2Cr + Al2O3 + Heat (3000°C, 540 Kcal)
Application and Uses of Thermit Welding:
Thermit welding is a very old process and now-a-days, in most cases, it is replaced by electro-slag
welding. However, this process is still in use.
Some applications are:
(i) Thermit welding is traditionally used for the welding of very thick and heavy plates.
(ii) Thermit welding is used in joining rail roads, pipes and thick steel sections.
(iii) Thermit welding is also used in repairing heavy castings and gears.
(iv) Thermit welding is suitable to weld large sections such as locomotive rails, ship hulls etc.
(v) Thermit welding is used for welding cables made of copper.

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Advantages of Thermit Welding:
1. Thermit welding is a simple and fast process of joining similar or dissimilar metals.
2. This process is cheap, as no costly power supply is required.
3. This process can be used at the places where power supply is not available.
Disadvantages of Thermit Welding:
1. Thermit welding is essentially used for ferrous metal parts of heavy sections.
2. It is uneconomical for welding cheap metals and light parts.

Plasma Arc Welding

Introduction The plasma arc welding (PAW) can be considered as an advanced version of
TIG welding. Like TIGW, PAW also uses the tungsten electrode and inert gases for
shielding of the molten metal. Low velocity plasma and diffused arc is generated in the
TIG welding while in case of PAW very high velocity and coherent plasma is generated.
Large surface area of the arc exposed to ambient air and base metal in case of TIG welding
causes greater heat losses than PAW and lowers the energy density. Therefore, TIG arc
burns at temperature lower than plasma arc.
Principle of PAW In plasma arc welding, arc is forced to pass through nozzle (water
cooled copper) which causes the constriction of the arc (Fig. 16.5). Constriction of arc
results in (a) reduction in cross-sectional area of arc, (b) increases (d) increases energy
density and (c) increases to velocity of plasma approaching to the sound velocity and
temperature to about 25000 0 C. these factors together make PAW, a high energy density
and low heat input welding process therefore; it poses fewer which in turn reduces
problems associated with weld thermal cycle.

Constriction of arc increases the penetration and reduces the width of weld bead. Energy associated
with plasma depends on plasma current, size of nozzle, plasma gas (Fig. 16.6). A coherent,
calumniated and stiff plasma is formed due to constriction therefore it doesn’t get deflected and
diffused. Hence, heat is transferred to the base metal over a very small area which in turns results
in high energy density and deep of penetration and small width of the weld pool / key hole / cut.
Further, stiff and coherent plasma makes it possible to work having stable arc with very low current
levels (<15A) which inturn has led to micro-plasma system.

Energy density and penetration capability of plasma jet is determined by the various process
parameters namely plasma current, nozzle orifice diameter and shape, plasma forming gas (Air,
He, Ar) and flow rate of plasma carrying. Increasing plasma current, flow rate, thermal
conductivity of plasma forming gas and reducing nozzle orifice diameter increases together result
in the energy density and penetration capability of plasma jet. In general, the plasma cutting uses
high energy density in combination with high plasma velocity and high flow rate of high thermal
conductivity plasma forming gas. A combination of such characteristics for plasma cutting is
achieved by controlling above process parameters. Further, thermal conductivity of plasma
forming gas must be high enough for cutting operation so that heat can be effectively transferred
54
rapidly to the base metal. Plasma welding needs comparatively low energy density and low
velocity plasma to avoid melt through or blowing away tendency of molten metal.

Schematic of plasma arc welding system showing important components

Schematic of constriction of arc in PAW

High energy density associated with plasma arc produces a temperature of order of 25,000 0 C.
This process uses the heat transferred by plasma (high temperature charged gas column) produced
by a gas (Ar, Ar-H2 mixture) passing through an electric arc, for melting of faying surfaces. Inert
gas (Ar, He) is used to protect the molten weld pool from the atmospheric gases. Charged particles
(electrons and ions) formed as a result of ionization of plasma gas tends to reunite when they strike
to the surface of work piece. Recombination of charged particles liberates heat which is also used
in melting of base metal. Electric arc can be produced between nonconsumable electrode and
work-piece or non-consumable electrode and nozzle. As discussed above, plasma arc welding uses
two types of gases one is called plasma gas and other is inert gas primarily for shielding the weld
pool from the contamination by atmospheric gases. Plasma gas is primarily used to develop plasma
by passing through arc zone and transfer the heat to the weld pool.

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PAW uses the constant current type power source with DCEN polarity. The DCEN polarity is
invariable used in PAW because tungsten electrode is used for developing the arc through which
plasma forming gas is passed. Tungsten electrode has good electron emitting capability therefore
it is made cathode. Further, DCEN polarity causes less thermal damage to the electrode during
welding as about one third of total heat is generated at the cathode and balance two-third of arc
heat is generated at the anode side i.e. work-piece. DCEP polarity does not help the process in
either way. Current can vary from 2-200 A.
The plasma arc in PAW is not initiated by the conventional touch start method but it heavily
depend on use of high frequency unit. Plasma is generated using two cycles approach a) producing
very small high-intensity spark (pilot arc) within the torch body by imposing pulses of high
voltage, high frequency and low current about 50A (from HF unit) between the electrode and
nozzle which in turn generates a small pocket of plasma gas and then as soon as torch approaches
the work-piece main current starts flowing between electrode and job leading to the ignition of the
transferred arc. At this stage pilot is extinguished and taken off the circuit.

Types of PAW Plasma generated due to the arc between the non-consumable electrode and
workpiece is called transferred plasma whereas that due to arc between non-consumable electrode
and nozzle is called non-transferred plasma. Non-transferred plasma system to a large extent
becomes independent of nozzle to work piece distance.
Transferred plasma offers higher energy density than non-transferred plasma and therefore it is
preferred for welding and cutting of high speed steel, ceramic, aluminium etc. Non-transferred
plasma is usually applied for welding and thermal spray application of steel and other common
metals. Depending upon the current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter following
variants of PAW has been developed such as:

Micro-plasma (< 15 Amperes) 

Melt-in mode (15–400 Amperes) plasma arc 
Keyhole mode (>400 Amperes) plasma arc
Micro-plasma welding systems work with very low plasma forming current (generally lower than
15 A) which in turn results in comparatively low energy density and low plasma velocity. These
conditions become good enough to melt thin sheet for plasma welding.
Plasma for melt-in mode uses somewhat higher current and greater plasma velocity than micro-
plasma system for welding applications. This is generally used up to 2.4 mm thickness sheet. For
thickness of sheet greater than 2.5 mm normally welding is performed using key-hole technique.
The key hole technique uses high current and high pressure plasma gas to ensure key-hole
formation. High energy density of plasma melts the faying surfaces of base metal and high pressure
plasma jet pushes the molten metal against vertical wall created by melting of base metal and
developing key-hole. Plasma velocity should be such that it doesn’t push molten metal out of the
hole. The key is formed under certain combination of plasma current, orifice gas flow rate and
velocity of plasma welding torch and any disturbance to above parameters will cause loss of key-

56
hole. For key-holing, flow rate is very crucial and therefore is controlled accurately + 0.14
liter/min. Nozzles are specified with current and flow rate.

Advantage of PAW
With regard to energy density, PAW stands between GTAW/GMAW and EBW/LBW accordingly
it can be used using melt-in mode and key-hole mode. Melt-in mode results in greater heat input
and higher width to depth of weld ratio than key-hole mode. Higher energy density associated with
PAW than GTAW produces narrow heat affected zone and lowers residual stress and distortion
related problems. High depth to width ratio of weld produced by PAW reduces the angular
distortion. It generally uses about one tenth of welding current as compared to GTAW for same
thickness therefore it can be effectively applied for joining of the thin sheets. Further, non-
transferred plasma offers flexibility of variation in standoff distance between nozzle and work-
piece without extinction of the arc.

Limitation of PAW
Infrared and ultra-violet rays generated during the PA welding are found harmful to human being.
High noise (100dB) associated with PAW is another undesirable factor. PAW is a more complex,
costlier, difficult to operate than GTAW besides generating high noise level during welding.
Narrow width of the PAW weld can be problematic from alignment and fit-up point of view.
Productivity of the PAW in respect of welding speed is found lower than LBW.

Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting:

This is the most frequently employed thermal cutting process used for low carbon and low alloy
steel plates and often referred to as ‘flame cutting’ or ‘gas cutting’. It can be used to cut steel upto
2 m thick.

Oxy-fuel gas process involves preheating a small zone, wherefrom the cut is to be started, to the
kindling temperature of the material. Compressed oxygen is then made to impinge upon the hot
metal resulting in very high rate of oxidation which is often accompanied by evolution of heat due
to exothermic nature of the reaction.

The fuel gas employed is generally acetylene but propane, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), natural
gas, or methylacetylene propadiene stabilised (MAPP or MPS) may also be employed depending
upon availability and cost considerations.

The torch employed for oxy-acetylene cutting is shown in Fig. 19.2. It has a mixing chamber for
oxygen and acetylene as in a welding torch. But after mixing the gas mixture flows out of the torch
nozzle through a number of small holes placed in a circle around the central hole through which a
stream of high pressure pure oxygen can be made to flow by pressing a lever on the torch handle.
The diameter of these holes vary and increases with increase in thickness of the material to be cut.

57
When the material to be cut is raised to its kindling temperature* (which is 870 to 950°C for low
carbon steels, depending upon the carbon content) and high pressure pure oxygen reacts with it,
the following reactions are possible in the case of ferrous materials.

1. Fe + O → FeO + heat (267 KJ)… .................... (19.1)

2. 2Fe +1.5O2 →Fe2O3+heat (825 KJ)… ............. (19.2)
3. 3Fe + 2O2 →Fe3O4 + heat (1120KJ)… ............ (19.3)
Mainly third reaction takes place with tremendous release of heat. Second reaction occurs to some
extent in cutting of heavier sections only. Theoretically 0.29 m3 of O2 will oxidise 1 kg of iron to
form Fe3O4. However, in practice the consumption of oxygen is higher than this value for plate
thickness less than 40 mm and it is lower for higher thicknesses, being the least for the thickness
range of 100 to 125 mm.
The exothermic reaction between O2 and Fe generates enough heat to continue the thermal cutting
process without the use of preheating flame using only oxygen but in practice it is not possible
because a lot of heat is used up in burning dirt, paint, scale, etc., and a considerable amount is lost
by radiation. Also, the high speed jet impinging upon the surface causes cooling action which
needs to be compensated by preheating.
The chemical reaction between ferrous and oxygen is rarely complete and the analysis of the blown
out material (or slag) often indicates that 30% to 40% of the slag is parent material.

Steel and some other metals can be cut by oxy-acetylene flame if they fulfill the following
conditions:
(1) The melting point of the metal should be higher than its kindling temperature.

58
(2) The metal oxide formed by reaction with oxygen should have lower melting point than the
melting point of the parent material and it should be fluid in molten state so as to blow out easily.

(3) It should have low thermal conductivity so that the material can be rapidly raised to its kindling
temperature.

When a workpiece is cut by a thermal cutting process, the width of the cut is referred to as KERF,
which in oxy-fuel gas process is a function of oxygen hole size in the nozzle tip, flowrate of oxygen
and preheating gases, speed of cutting and the nature of the material being cut.

Cutting of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals:

Metal Powder Cutting:
It is an oxygen cutting process in which metal powder (iron or aluminum) is employed to facilitate
cutting. This process is used for cutting cast iron, chromium-nickel, stainless steel and some high
alloy steels. The working principle of powder cutting is lite injection of metal powder into the
oxygen stream well before it strikes the metal to be cut.

The powder is heated by its passage through the oxy-acetylene preheat flames and almost
immediately ignites in the stream of cutting oxygen. The powder from a powder dispenser is
carried to the lip of the cutting torch by the use of compressed air or nitrogen as shown in Fig.
19.7.

The ignited powder provides much higher temperature in the stream and that helps in culling the
metal in almost the same manner as cutting of low carbon steel. Preheating is not essential for
powder cutting.

Cutting speeds and cutting oxygen pressures are similar to those for cutting mild steel; however
for cutting material thicker than 25 mm a nozzle one size larger should be used. Flow rates are
generally kept at 010 to 0-25 kg of iron powder per minute of cutting. Powder cutting usually
leaves a scale on the cut surface which can be easily removed on cooling.

Metal powder culling was initially introduced for cutting stainless steel but has been successfully
used for cutting alloy steels, cast iron, bronze, nickel, aluminium, steel mill ladle spills, certain

59
refractories, and concrete. The same basic process can also be used for gouging and scarfing to
condition billets, blooms, and slabs in steel mills.

Powder cutting is also useful for stack cutting wherein preheat from an ordinary flame culling is
not sufficient on the lower plate(s) either due to large depth or separation between plates. By means
of the metal powder and its reaction in the oxygen the cut is completed even across separations.
However, powder cutting generates quite a bit of smoke that needs to be removed to safeguard the
health of the operator and to avoid interference with other operations in the area.

Process # 3. Chemical Flux Cutting:

In the oxygen-cutting process a chemical flux is injected into the oxygen stream as metal powder
is injected in powder cutting. The flux combines with the refractory oxides and makes them a
soluble compound. The chemical fluxes may be salts of sodium such as sodium carbonate.

Fig. 19.8 shows one of the setups used for flux cutting. In this method oxygen sucks flux from a
hopper at the rate of 0 06 to 0-30 kg per minute and flows through the jet of cutting oxygen.

The procedure for flux cutting involves heating the initiating point of cut to white heat, the cutting
oxygen valve is then opened half-turn and the flux in oxygen stream is led to the torch. As the
molten metal reaches the lower edge of the work, the torch is made to move along the line of the
cut and the cutting oxygen valve is fully opened. To halt the operation first flux-supply valve is
closed and then the other torch valves are shut-off.

It is advisable to position the flux-supply 10 m away from the cutting area. It should also be ensured
that the hoses through which the flux-oxygen mixture is passed have no sharp bends otherwise it
may lead to clogging.

This process can be used for cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper,
brass and bronze. However, it is not recommended for cutting steels of high-nickel type, for
example, 15 Cr 35Ni steel. Chemical flux cutting, however, is slowly losing its industrial
importance because of the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting.

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Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding (also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding [GMAW]) is an arc
welding technique in which a consumable electrode is used to weld two or more workpieces. A
diagrammatic representation of metal inert gas welding is shown below:

Components used in Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding):

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding) makes use of the following components:

1. Consumable Electrode
2. Inert Gas Supply
3. Welding Head
4. A.C or D.C Power Supply
5. Electrode Feeding Mechanism
Working:
The workpiece to be welded and the consumable electrode (in the form of wire) are connected to
the Power Supply (D.C or A.C). Whenever the consumable electrode is brought near the workpiece

61
(with a small air gap), an arc is produced. This arc melts the electrode. The melted electrode fills
uniformly over the required regions of the workpiece.
An inert gas supply is provided around the electrode (hence the name ‘Metal Inert Gas Welding’)
during the welding process. It forms a gas shield around the arc and the weld (See the diagram
above). This is intended to protect the weld from the external atmosphere.
The type of electrode used and the shielding gas used primary depends on the material to be
welded. In many cases the shielding gas used is a mixture of many gases.

If many workpieces are to be welded continuously an electrode spool (in the form of coil) is used.
Consumable electrode is continuously supplied from this spool by a suitable feeding mechanism.
Commonly, servo mechanisms are used for feeding long electrodes.

In MIG Welding, consumable electrode itself acts as filler metal. So, no seperate filler rod or filler
wire is needed.

Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding):

1. Consumable electrodes are easy to feed.
2. No filler rod is needed.
3. Welding is simple.
4. Inert gas shield protects the weld automatically.
Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG Welding):
1. Improper welding may lead to the floating of solid impurities over the liquid weld.
2. If not handled properly, weld may become porous.
3. MIG Welding exposes welders to hazardous gases.
4. Care must be taken to avoid the formation of less ductile welds.
5. Work pieces and Electrodes should be kept clean before welding.

TIG Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding process in
which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and workpiece. The tungsten
electrode and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures 10.1
& 10.2 show the principle of tungsten inert gas welding process.

62
 Fig 10.1: Principle of TIG Welding.

Fig 10.2: Schematic Diagram of TIG Welding System.

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of critical
components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source provided by the
tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material. Since the electrode is not
consumed during the process, as with the MIG or MMA welding processes, welding without filler
material can be done without the need for continual compromise between the heat input from the
arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when required, can be added directly to
the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or manually, all aspects of the process can be
precisely and independently controlled i.e. the degree of melting of the parent metal is determined
by the welding current with respect to the welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead
reinforcement is determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the weld pool.
In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The arc is ignited by high
voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the electrode to the workpiece and
withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of current.
Selection of electrode composition and size is not completely independent and must be considered
in relation to the operating mode and the current level. Electrodes for DC welding are pure
tungsten or tungsten with 1 or 2% thoria, the thoria being added to improve electron emission
which facilitates easy arc ignition. In AC welding, where the electrode must operate at a higher
temperature, a pure tungsten or tungsten-zirconia electrode is preferred as the rate of tungsten loss

63
is somewhat lesser than with thoriated electrodes and the zirconia aids retention of the ‘balled'
tip.
Table 10.1 gives chemical composition of tungsten electrodes as per American Welding Society
(AWS) classification.
AWS Tungsten, min. Thoria, percent Zirconia, Total other
Classification percent percent elements, max.
percent
EWP 99.5 - - 0.5
EWTh-1 98.5 0.8 to 1.2 - 0.5
EWTh-2 97.5 1.7 to 2.2 - 0.5
EWZr 99.2 - 0.15 to 0.40 0.5
Table 10.1: Chemical Composition of TIG Electrodes.
Tungsten electrodes are commonly available from 0.5 mm to 6.4 mm diameter and 150 - 200 mm
length. The current carrying capacity of each size of electrode depends on whether it is connected
to negative or positive terminal of DC power source. AC is used only in case of welding of
aluminum and magnesium and their alloys. Table 10.2 gives typical current ranges for TIG
electrodes when electrode is connected to negative terminal (DCEN) or to positive terminal
(DCEP).
DCEN DCEP
Electrode
Pure and Thoriated Pure and Thoriated
Dia. (mm)
Tungsten Tungsten
0.5 5-20 -
1.0 15-80 -
1.6 70-150 10-20
2.4 150-250 15-30
3.2 250-400 25-40
4.0 400-500 40-55
4.8 500-750 55-80
6.4 750-1000 80-125
Table 10.2: Typical Current Ranges for TIG Electrodes
The power source required to maintain the TIG arc has a drooping or constant current
characteristic which provides an essentially constant current output when the arc length is varied
over several millimeters. Hence, the natural variations in the arc length which occur in manual
welding have little effect on welding current. The capacity to limit the current to the set value is
equally crucial when the electrode is short circuited to the workpiece, otherwise excessively high
current shall flow, damaging the electrode. Open circuit voltage of power source ranges from 60
to 80 V.

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 Argon or helium may be used successfully for most applications, with the possible exception of
the welding of extremely thin material for which argon is essential. Argon generally provides an
arc which operates more smoothly and quietly, is handled more easily and is less penetrating than
the arc obtained by the use of helium. For these reasons argon is usually preferred for most
applications, except where the higher heat and penetration characteristic of helium is required for
welding metals of high heat conductivity in larger thicknesses. Aluminum and copper are metals
of high heat conductivity and are examples of the type of material for which helium is
advantageous in welding relatively thick sections.
Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels, stainless steels,
aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen mixture is used for welding of some
grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure helium may be used for aluminum and copper.
Helium argon mixtures may be used for low alloy steels, aluminum and copper.
TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root pass(es) during welding of
thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes and tubes. This process can
be easily mechanised i.e. movement of torch and feeding of filler wire, so it can be used for
precision welding in nuclear, aircraft, chemical, petroleum, automobile and space craft industries.
Aircraft frames and its skin, rocket body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding
is very popular.
Friction Welding:
Principle:
Friction welding works on basic principle of friction. In this welding process, the friction is used
to generate heat at the interference surface. This heat is further used to join two work pieces by
applying external pressure at the surface of work piece. In this welding process, the friction is
applied until the plastic forming temperature is achieved. It is normally 900-1300 degree
centigrade for steel. After this heating phase, a uniformly increasing pressure force applied until
the both metal work pieces makes a permanent joint. This joint is created due to thermo mechanical
treatment at the contact surface.

Working:
There are many types of friction welding processes which works differently. But all different these
processes involves common a working principle which can be summarize as follow.

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  First both the work pieces are prepared for smooth square surface. One of them is mounted
on a rotor driven chuck and other one remains stationary.
 The rotor allows rotating at high speed thus it makes rotate mounted work piece. A little
pressure force is applied on the stationary work piece which permits cleaning the surface by
burnishing action.
 Now a high pressure force applied to the stationary work piece which forces it toward rotating
work piece and generates a high friction force. This friction generates heat at the contact
surface. It is applied until the plastic forming temperature is achieved.
 When the temperature is reached the desire limit, the rotor is stopped and the pressure force
is applied increasingly until the whole weld is formed.
 This welding is used to weld those metals and alloys which cannot be welded by other
method.
Types:
Continuous induce friction welding:
This welding is same as we discussed above. In this welding process, the rotor is connected with
a band brake. When the friction crosses the limit of plastic temperature, the band brake comes
into action which stops the rotor but the pressure applied on the work piece increasingly until the
weld is formed.

Inertia friction welding:

66
 In this type of friction welding the band brake is replaced by the engine flywheel and shaft
flywheel. These flywheels connect chuck to the motor. In the starting of the welding, both
flywheels are connected with one another. When the speed or friction reaches its limit, the
engine flywheel separated from the shaft flywheel. Shaft flywheel has low moment of inertia
which stops without brake. The pressure force is continuously applied to the work piece until the
weld is formed.

Application:
 For welding tubes and shafts.
 It is mostly used in aerospace, automobile, marine and oil industries.
 Gears, axle tube, valves, drive line etc. components are friction welded.
 It is used to replace forging or casting assembly.
 Hydraulic piston rod, truck rollers bushes etc. are join by friction welding.
 Used in electrical industries for welding copper and aluminum equipment’s.
 Used in pump for welding pump shaft (stainless steel to carbon steels).
 Gear levers, drill bits, connecting rod etc. are welded by friction welding.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 It is environment friendly process without generation smoke etc.
 Narrow heat affected zone so no change in properties of heat sensitive material.
 No filler metal required.
 Welding strength is strong in most cases.
 Easily automated.
 High welding speed.
 High efficiency of weld.
 Wide variety of metal can be weld by this process.
Disadvantages:
 This is mostly used only for round bars of same cross section.
 Non-forgeable material cannot be weld.
 Preparation of work piece is more critical
 High setup cost.
 Joint design is limited.

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 This is all about friction welding principle, working, types, application, advantages and
disadvantages. If you have any query regarding this article, ask by commenting. If you like this
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articles.

Explosive Welding:
Principle:
This welding process works on basic principle of metallurgical bonding. In this process, a
controlled detonation of explosive is used on the welding surface. This explosion generates a high
pressure force, which deform the work plates plastically at the interface. This deformation forms
a metallurgical bond between these plates. This metallurgical bond is stronger than the parent
materials. The detonation process occurs for a very short period of time which cannot damage the
parent material. This is basic principle of explosion welding. This welding is highly depend on
welding parameters like standoff distance, velocity of detonation, surface preparation, explosive
etc. This welding is capable to join large area due to high energy available in explosive.

Basic terminology:
Base Plate: This is one of the welding plate which is kept stationary on a avail. It involves a backer
which supports the base plate and minimizes the distortion during the explosion.

Flyer Plate: This is another welding plate which is going to be weld on base plate. It has lowest
density and tensile yield strength compare to base plate. It is situated parallel or at an angle on the
base plate.

Buffer Plate: Buffer plate is situated on the flyer plate. This plate is used to minimize the effect
or explosion on upper surface of flyer plate. This protects the flyer plate from any damage due to
explosion.

Standoff distance: Stand-off distance plays a vital role in explosion welding. It is distance
between flyer plate and base plate. Generally it is taken double of thickness of flyer plate for thin
plates and equal to thickness of flyer plate for thick plates.

Explosive: Explosive is placed over the flyer plate. This explosive is situated in a box structure.
This box placed on the flyer plate. Mostly RDX, TNT, Lead azide, PETN etc. used as explosive.

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 Velocity of detonation: It is the rate at which the explosive detonate. This velocity should be kept
less than 120% of sonic velocity. It is directly proportional to explosive type and its density.

Types:
This welding can be classified into two types according to the setup configuration.

Oblique Explosion Welding:

In this type of welding process base plate is fixed on an anvil and filler plate makes an angle with
the base plate. This welding configuration is used to join thin and small plates.

Parallel Explosion Welding:

As the name implies, in this welding configuration filler plate is parallel to the base plate. There is
some standoff distance between base plate and flyer plate. This configuration is used to weld thick
and large plates.

Working:
We have discussed about working principle of explosion welding. Its working can be summarized
as follow.

 First both the flyer plate and the base plate interface surface are cleaned and prepared for
good weld.
 Now the base plate fixed on the avail and the flyer plate place at the top surface of it at a pre-
define distance (stand-off distance). The flyer plate may be inclined or parallel according to
the welding configuration.
 The buffer plate is set over the flyer plate. This plate protects the upper surface of flyer place
from damage due to high impact force of explosion.

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  The prepared explosive is place into a box of same size of welding surface. This box is placed
over buffer plate. There is a detonator at one side of the explosive. This is used to start
explosion.
 Now the detonator ignited the explosive which create a high pressure wave. These waves
deforms the interface surface plastically and form a metallurgical bond between base plate
and flyer plate. This bond is stronger than parent material.
Application:
 Used to weld large structure sheets of aluminum to stainless steel.
 It is used to weld cylindrical component like pipe, concentric cylinder, tube etc.
 Weld clad sheet with steel in a heat exchanger.
 Join dissimilar metals which cannot be weld by other welding process.
 For joining cooling fan etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 It can join both similar and dissimilar material.
 Simple in operation and handling.
 Large surface can be weld in single pass.
 High metal joining rate. Mostly time is used in preparation of the welding.
 It does not effect on properties of welding material.
 It is solid state process so does not involve any filler material, flux etc.

Disadvantages:
 It can weld only ductile metal with high toughness.
 It creates a large noise which produces noise Pollution.
 Welding is highly depends on process parameters.
 Higher safety precautions involved due to explosive.
 Designs of joints are limited.
This is all about explosion welding principle, working, types, application, advantages and
disadvantages. If you have any query regarding this article, ask by commenting. If you like this
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articles.

Welding Defects

The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld metal produced due to
incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding procedures or wrong combination of filler metal
and parent metal.
Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld bead shape, size and
desired quality. Defects may be on the surface or inside the weld metal. Certain defects such as
cracks are never tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible limits. Welding

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defects may result into the failure of components under service condition, leading to serious
accidents and causing the loss of property and sometimes also life.
Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as cracks, porosity, solid inclusions,
lack of fusion and inadequate penetration, imperfect shape and miscellaneous defects.
1. Cracks
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or base metal or base
metal and weld metal boundary. Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse
cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in the weld crater. Cracks occur when localized
stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses are developed due to
shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.

Fig 13.1: Various Types of Cracks in Welds

Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher and carbon contents,
high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld bead and high hydrogen
contents in the weld metal.
2. Porosity
Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal. These gases are
generated from the flux or coating constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used during
welding or from absorbed moisture in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the
surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity may be
easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and [Link],
porosity can also be controlled if excessively high welding currents, faster welding speeds and
long arc lengths are avoided flux and coated electrodes are properly baked.

Fig 13.2: Different Forms of Porosities

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3. Solid Inclusion
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic material entrapped in the
weld metal as these may not able to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal. During arc
welding flux either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the molten weld
metal removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the surface of
weld metal due to its low density. However, if the molten weld metal has high viscosity or too
low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be released from the weld pool and may
cause inclusion.
Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the slag from the previously
deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents and long arcs are avoided.

Fig 13.3: Slag Inclusion in Weldments

4. Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration:
Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld metal or subsequent
beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise the temperature of base metal or
previously deposited weld layer to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion can be avoided
by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper welding technique
and correct size of electrode.

Fig 13.4: Types of Lack of Fusion

Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired level or root faces have
not reached to melting point in a groove joint. If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large
root face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are used then it results into poor
penetration.

Fig 13.5: Examples of Inadequate Penetration

5. Imperfect Shape
Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of the weld bead.
During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the weld bead or both sides in which
stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the early failure of the joint. Main reasons for
undercutting are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths and fast travel speeds.

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Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size of electrodes. Overlap
may occur due to low currents, longer arc lengths and slower welding speeds.

Fig 13.6: Various Imperfect Shapes of Welds

Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages, slow travel speeds and large
size electrodes are used. Excessive root penetration and sag occur if excessive high currents and
slow travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input during welding.

Miscellaneous Defects
Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc strikes are one behind
the other, spatter, grinding and chipping marks, tack weld defects, oxidized surface in the region
of weld, unremoved slag and misalignment of weld beads if welded from both sides in butt
welds.

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