1.

Sets

✅ Definition:

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, called elements or members.

Sets are usually represented by capital letters, and their elements are listed within curly
brackets.

✅ Examples:

 A={1,2,3}A = \{1, 2, 3\}A={1,2,3} → a set of numbers.

 B={apple,banana,mango}B = \{\text{apple}, \text{banana}, \

text{mango}\}B={apple,banana,mango} → a set of fruits.

🔹 2. Finite and Infinite Sets

✅ Finite Set:

A set that has a countable number of elements.

 Example:
A={2,4,6,8,10}A = \{2, 4, 6, 8, 10\}A={2,4,6,8,10} has 5 elements, so it is finite.

✅ Infinite Set:

A set that has uncountably many elements; it goes on forever.

 Example:
N={1,2,3,4,5,… }N = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \dots\}N={1,2,3,4,5,…} → the set of natural
numbers is infinite.

🔹 3. Equality of Sets

✅ Definition:

Two sets AAA and BBB are equal if they contain exactly the same elements, regardless of
order or repetition.

✅ Mathematically:

A=BA = BA=B if:

 Every element of AAA is in BBB, and

 Every element of BBB is in AAA

✅ Example:

Let A={1,2,3}A = \{1, 2, 3\}A={1,2,3} and B={3,2,1}B = \{3, 2, 1\}B={3,2,1}

Then A=BA = BA=B, because they have the same elements.
Note: Repeated elements don't count in sets.
So, {1,1,2}={1,2}\{1, 1, 2\} = \{1, 2\}{1,1,2}={1,2}

🔹 4. Subsets

✅ Definition:

A set AAA is a subset of set BBB if every element of AAA is also an element of BBB.
We write A⊆BA \subseteq BA⊆B

✅ Proper Subset:

If A⊆BA \subseteq BA⊆B and A≠BA \ne BA=B, then AAA is a proper subset, denoted A⊂BA
\subset BA⊂B

✅ Example:

Let A={1,2}A = \{1, 2\}A={1,2}, B={1,2,3}B = \{1, 2, 3\}B={1,2,3}

Then A⊆BA \subseteq BA⊆B

🔹 5. Power Set

✅ Definition:

The power set of a set AAA, denoted P(A)\mathcal{P}(A)P(A), is the set of all possible
subsets of AAA, including:

 The empty set ∅\emptyset∅

 The set AAA itself

✅ Formula:

If AAA has nnn elements, then P(A)\mathcal{P}(A)P(A) has 2n2^n2n elements.

✅ Example:

Let A={1,2}A = \{1, 2\}A={1,2}

Then P(A)={∅,{1},{2},{1,2}}\mathcal{P}(A) = \{\emptyset, \{1\}, \{2\}, \{1, 2\}\}P(A)={∅,{1},{2},
{1,2}}
Total subsets = 22=42^2 = 422=4

🔹 6. Universal Set

✅ Definition:

The universal set UUU is the set that contains all elements under consideration, usually
depending on the context.

All other sets are subsets of the universal set.

✅ Example:
If we are working with numbers from 1 to 10,
Then the universal set can be:
U={1,2,3,...,10}U = \{1, 2, 3, ..., 10\}U={1,2,3,...,10}

If A={2,4,6}A = \{2, 4, 6\}A={2,4,6}, then clearly A⊆UA \subseteq UA⊆U

🔹 7. Union and Intersection of Sets

✅ Union (A∪BA \cup BA∪B):

The union of sets AAA and BBB is the set of all elements that are in AAA, or BBB, or both.

 Symbol: A∪BA \cup BA∪B

 Example:
A={1,2,3},B={3,4,5}A = \{1, 2, 3\}, B = \{3, 4, 5\}A={1,2,3},B={3,4,5}
A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}A \cup B = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}

✅ Intersection (A∩BA \cap BA∩B):

The intersection is the set of elements common to both AAA and BBB.

 Symbol: A∩BA \cap BA∩B

 Example:
A={1,2,3},B={2,3,4}A = \{1, 2, 3\}, B = \{2, 3, 4\}A={1,2,3},B={2,3,4}
A∩B={2,3}A \cap B = \{2, 3\}A∩B={2,3}

🔹 8. Relations

✅ Definition:

A relation from a set AAA to a set BBB is a subset of the Cartesian product A×BA \times
BA×B.

 A×B={(a,b)∣a∈A,b∈B}A \times B = \{(a, b) \mid a \in A, b \in B\}A×B={(a,b)∣a∈A,b∈B}

 A relation is any collection of ordered pairs from A×BA \times BA×B

✅ Example:

Let A={1,2},B={a,b}A = \{1, 2\}, B = \{a, b\}A={1,2},B={a,b}

Then A×B={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}A \times B = \{(1,a), (1,b), (2,a), (2,b)\}A×B={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),

(2,b)}

A relation R⊆A×BR \subseteq A \times BR⊆A×B could be:

R={(1,a),(2,b)}R = \{(1,a), (2,b)\}R={(1,a),(2,b)}

✅ Types of Relations on a Set:

When a relation is defined on a single set AAA (i.e., R⊆A×AR \subseteq A \times AR⊆A×A),
we can classify it based on its properties.

🔹 9. Equivalence Relations

✅ Definition:

A relation RRR on a set AAA is an equivalence relation if it satisfies all three properties:

1. Reflexive:
(a,a)∈R(a, a) \in R(a,a)∈R for all a∈Aa \in Aa∈A

2. Symmetric:
If (a,b)∈R(a, b) \in R(a,b)∈R, then (b,a)∈R(b, a) \in R(b,a)∈R

3. Transitive:
If (a,b)∈R(a, b) \in R(a,b)∈R and (b,c)∈R(b, c) \in R(b,c)∈R, then (a,c)∈R(a, c) \in
R(a,c)∈R

✅ Example 1: Congruence modulo nnn

aRb ⟺ a≡bmod na R b \iff a \equiv b \mod naRb⟺a≡bmodn (i.e., nnn divides a−ba -
Define relation RRR on integers:

ba−b)

Let n=3n = 3n=3, a=4,b=1,c=7a = 4, b = 1, c = 7a=4,b=1,c=7

 4≡1mod 34 \equiv 1 \mod 34≡1mod3 (because 4−1=34 - 1 = 34−1=3)

 1≡7mod 31 \equiv 7 \mod 31≡7mod3 (since 7−1=67 - 1 = 67−1=6)

 So 4≡7mod 34 \equiv 7 \mod 34≡7mod3 (since 4−7=−34 - 7 = -34−7=−3)

✅ This relation is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, so it's an equivalence relation.

✅ Example 2: Equality of strings of same length

w1Rw2 ⟺ length(w1)=length(w2)w_1 R w_2 \iff \text{length}(w_1) = \text{length}

Let AAA be the set of all words. Define relation RRR on AAA:

(w_2)w1Rw2⟺length(w1)=length(w2)

 Reflexive: length of word equals itself

 Symmetric: if len(w1)=len(w2)\text{len}(w_1) = \text{len}(w_2)len(w1)=len(w2), then

vice versa

 Transitive: if len(w1)=len(w2)\text{len}(w_1) = \text{len}(w_2)len(w1)=len(w2), and

len(w2)=len(w3)\text{len}(w_2) = \text{len}(w_3)len(w2)=len(w3), then
len(w1)=len(w3)\text{len}(w_1) = \text{len}(w_3)len(w1)=len(w3)

✅ Hence, this is also an equivalence relation.

🔷 What is a Surd?

✅ Definition:

A surd is an irrational number that can be expressed in the form of a root which cannot be
simplified into a rational number.

✅ Examples of Surds:

 2,3,5,73\sqrt{2}, \sqrt{3}, \sqrt{5}, \sqrt[3]{7}2,3,5,37

These cannot be simplified to exact decimals or fractions.

❌ Not Surds:

 4=2\sqrt{4} = 24=2 → Rational

 9=3\sqrt{9} = 39=3 → Rational

So, only irrational roots are considered surds.\

🔹 1. Pure Surds

✅ Definition:

A pure surd is a single root term that cannot be simplified further and does not contain any
rational number multiplied with it.

✅ Examples:

 2,3,53\sqrt{2}, \sqrt{3}, \sqrt[3]{5}2,3,35

🔹 2. Mixed Surds

✅ Definition:

A mixed surd is a product of a rational number and a pure surd.

✅ Form:

aba\sqrt{b}ab, where:

 aaa is rational

 b\sqrt{b}b is a pure surd

✅ Examples:

 32,53,1273\sqrt{2}, 5\sqrt{3}, \dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{7}32,53,217

🔹 3. Similar Surds

✅ Definition:
Two or more surds are called similar (or like surds) if their radical parts (the part under the
root) are the same.

They can be added or subtracted just like like terms in algebra.

✅ Examples:

 23,53,−32\sqrt{3}, 5\sqrt{3}, -\sqrt{3}23,53,−3 are similar surds

 222\sqrt{2}22 and 353\sqrt{5}35 are not similar surds

✅ Addition Example:

 25+35=(2+3)5=552\sqrt{5} + 3\sqrt{5} = (2+3)\sqrt{5} = 5\sqrt{5}25+35=(2+3)5=55

🔹 4. Monomial Surds

✅ Definition:

A monomial surd is a single term that involves a surd, i.e., a single expression containing a
root.

✅ Examples:

 5,32,147\sqrt{5}, 3\sqrt{2}, \dfrac{1}{4}\sqrt{7}5,32,417

🔹 5. Binomial Surds

✅ Definition:

A binomial surd is an expression that contains two terms, at least one of which is a surd.

✅ Form:

 a+ba + \sqrt{b}a+b

 a+b\sqrt{a} + \sqrt{b}a+b

 3+22,3−23 + 2\sqrt{2}, \sqrt{3} - \sqrt{2}3+22,3−2

✅ Examples:

 2+32 + \sqrt{3}2+3

 5−2\sqrt{5} - \sqrt{2}5−2

These are binomial surds because they consist of two terms involving at least one surd.

🔹 6. Rationalisation

✅ Definition:

Rationalisation is the process of removing the surd from the denominator of a fraction.
There are two common cases:

🔸 Case 1: Rationalising Monomial Denominators

If the denominator is a single surd:

✅ Example:

13×33=33\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \times \frac{\sqrt{3}}{\sqrt{3}} = \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}31×33=33

So, the denominator becomes rational.

🔸 Case 2: Rationalising Binomial Denominators

If the denominator is a binomial surd like a+ba + \sqrt{b}a+b, we multiply by the conjugate:

Conjugate of a+b is a−b\text{Conjugate of } a + \sqrt{b} \text{ is } a - \

sqrt{b}Conjugate of a+b is a−b

✅ Example:

12+3×2−32−3=2−3(2+3)(2−3)\frac{1}{2 + \sqrt{3}} \times \frac{2 - \sqrt{3}}{2 - \sqrt{3}} = \

frac{2 - \sqrt{3}}{(2 + \sqrt{3})(2 - \sqrt{3})}2+31×2−32−3=(2+3)(2−3)2−3

Simplify Denominator:

(2+3)(2−3)=22−(3)2=4−3=1(2 + \sqrt{3})(2 - \sqrt{3}) = 2^2 - (\sqrt{3})^2 = 4 - 3 = 1(2+3)(2−3

)=22−(3)2=4−3=1

Final Answer:

2−31=2−3\frac{2 - \sqrt{3}}{1} = 2 - \sqrt{3}12−3=2−3

So the expression is rationalised.

🔷 Logarithms

🔹 1. Definition of a Logarithm

✅ Definition:

A logarithm is the inverse operation of exponentiation.

If:

ax=ba^x = bax=b

Then:
log⁡ab=x\log_a b = xlogab=x

✅ Interpretation:

"Log base aaa of bbb is xxx"

It means: how many times must you multiply aaa by itself to get bbb?

✅ Example 1:

log⁡28=x⇒2x=8⇒x=3\log_2 8 = x \Rightarrow 2^x = 8 \Rightarrow x = 3log28=x⇒2x=8⇒x=3

✅ Example 2:

log⁡101000=x⇒10x=1000⇒x=3\log_{10} 1000 = x \Rightarrow 10^x = 1000 \Rightarrow x =

3log101000=x⇒10x=1000⇒x=3

❗ Important Conditions:

 a>0a > 0a>0, a≠1a \ne 1a=1

 b>0b > 0b>0

 Logarithms are not defined for negative or zero values.

🔹 2. Properties of Logarithms

These rules help simplify and solve logarithmic expressions.

🔸 1. Product Rule

log⁡a(mn)=log⁡am+log⁡an\log_a (mn) = \log_a m + \log_a nloga(mn)=logam+logan

Multiplication inside the log becomes addition.

Example:

log⁡2(4×8)=log⁡24+log⁡28=2+3=5\log_2 (4 \times 8) = \log_2 4 + \log_2 8 = 2 + 3 = 5log2

(4×8)=log24+log28=2+3=5

🔸 2. Quotient Rule
log⁡a(mn)=log⁡am−log⁡an\log_a \left(\frac{m}{n}\right) = \log_a m - \log_a nloga(nm)=loga
m−logan

Division inside the log becomes subtraction.

Example:

log⁡2(82)=log⁡28−log⁡22=3−1=2\log_2 \left(\frac{8}{2}\right) = \log_2 8 - \log_2 2 = 3 - 1 =

2log2(28)=log28−log22=3−1=2

🔸 3. Power Rule

log⁡a(mn)=n⋅log⁡am\log_a (m^n) = n \cdot \log_a mloga(mn)=n⋅logam

Exponents inside the log come out as a multiplier.

Example:

log⁡3(92)=2⋅log⁡39=2⋅2=4\log_3 (9^2) = 2 \cdot \log_3 9 = 2 \cdot 2 = 4log3(92)=2⋅log3

9=2⋅2=4

🔸 4. Log of 1

log⁡a1=0\log_a 1 = 0loga1=0

Because a0=1a^0 = 1a0=1

Example:

log⁡51=0\log_5 1 = 0log51=0

🔸 5. Log of the Base

log⁡aa=1\log_a a = 1logaa=1

Because a1=aa^1 = aa1=a

Example:

log⁡77=1\log_7 7 = 1log77=1

🔸 6. Change of Base Formula

log⁡ab=log⁡cblog⁡ca\log_a b = \frac{\log_c b}{\log_c a}logab=logcalogcb

You can change the base of a logarithm using this formula (usually to base 10 or base eee).
Example:

log⁡28=log⁡108log⁡102=0.90310.3010=3\log_2 8 = \frac{\log_{10} 8}{\log_{10} 2} = \

frac{0.9031}{0.3010} = 3log28=log102log108=0.30100.9031=3

🔹 3. Common Logarithms

✅ Definition:

Common logarithms are logarithms with base 10.

 Written as:

log⁡10x=log⁡x\log_{10} x = \log xlog10x=logx

In many contexts, if no base is written, base 10 is assumed.

✅ Examples:

 log⁡100=log⁡10100=2\log 100 = \log_{10} 100 = 2log100=log10100=2 because

102=10010^2 = 100102=100

 log⁡1000=3\log 1000 = 3log1000=3

✅ Use in Calculations:

Common logs are used in:

 Scientific calculations

 Calculators (most have a log button for base 10)

 Engineering and physics problems

🔹 4. Antilogarithms

✅ Definition:

The antilog is the inverse of a logarithm.

If:

log⁡10x=y\log_{10} x = ylog10x=y

Then:

x=antilog10y=10yx = \text{antilog}_{10} y = 10^yx=antilog10y=10y

Example:
  If log⁡x=2.5\log x = 2.5logx=2.5, then x=antilog(2.5)=102.5≈316.23x = \text{antilog}
(2.5) = 10^{2.5} \approx 316.23x=antilog(2.5)=102.5≈316.23

Coordinate Geometry (Co-ordinate System)

Coordinate geometry is the branch of mathematics in which geometrical figures (like points,
lines, and shapes) are studied using a coordinate system, usually the Cartesian coordinate
system.

🔹 1. Distance Between Two Points

✅ Formula:

If you have two points:

 A(x1,y1)A(x_1, y_1)A(x1,y1)

 B(x2,y2)B(x_2, y_2)B(x2,y2)

Then the distance between them is:

AB=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2AB = \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2}AB=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2

✅ Explanation:

It comes from the Pythagorean theorem — the line segment AB forms the hypotenuse of a
right triangle.

✅ Example:

Find the distance between A(2,3)A(2, 3)A(2,3) and B(7,11)B(7, 11)B(7,11)

AB=(7−2)2+(11−3)2=52+82=25+64=89AB = \sqrt{(7 - 2)^2 + (11 - 3)^2} = \sqrt{5^2 + 8^2} = \

sqrt{25 + 64} = \sqrt{89}AB=(7−2)2+(11−3)2=52+82=25+64=89

🔹 2. Section Formula (Division Formula)

✅ Definition:

If a point PPP divides the line joining A(x1,y1)A(x_1, y_1)A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)B(x_2,
y_2)B(x2,y2) in the ratio m:nm : nm:n, then coordinates of point PPP are:

P=(mx2+nx1m+n,my2+ny1m+n)P = \left( \frac{mx_2 + nx_1}{m+n}, \frac{my_2 + ny_1}{m+n}

\right)P=(m+nmx2+nx1,m+nmy2+ny1)

This is called the Section Formula.

🔸 Special Case: Midpoint Formula

If m=n=1m = n = 1m=n=1, then PPP is the midpoint:

P=(x1+x22,y1+y22)P = \left( \frac{x_1 + x_2}{2}, \frac{y_1 + y_2}{2} \right)P=(2x1+x2,2y1+y2)

✅ Example:

Find the coordinates of the point dividing the line joining

A(2,4)A(2, 4)A(2,4) and B(10,12)B(10, 12)B(10,12) in the ratio 3:13 : 13:1

P=(3⋅10+1⋅23+1,3⋅12+1⋅43+1)=(30+24,36+44)=(8,10)P = \left( \frac{3 \cdot 10 + 1 \cdot 2}{3

+ 1}, \frac{3 \cdot 12 + 1 \cdot 4}{3 + 1} \right) = \left( \frac{30 + 2}{4}, \frac{36 + 4}{4} \right)
= (8, 10)P=(3+13⋅10+1⋅2,3+13⋅12+1⋅4)=(430+2,436+4)=(8,10)

🔹 3. Centroid of a Triangle

✅ Definition:

The centroid of a triangle is the point where its three medians intersect. It is also the center
of mass of the triangle.

If the triangle has vertices:

 A(x1,y1)A(x_1, y_1)A(x1,y1)

 B(x2,y2)B(x_2, y_2)B(x2,y2)

 C(x3,y3)C(x_3, y_3)C(x3,y3)

Then the coordinates of the centroid GGG are:

G=(x1+x2+x33,y1+y2+y33)G = \left( \frac{x_1 + x_2 + x_3}{3}, \frac{y_1 + y_2 + y_3}{3} \

right)G=(3x1+x2+x3,3y1+y2+y3)

✅ Example:

Find the centroid of triangle with vertices

A(1,2),B(4,5),C(7,1)A(1, 2), B(4, 5), C(7, 1)A(1,2),B(4,5),C(7,1)

G=(1+4+73,2+5+13)=(123,83)=(4,83)G = \left( \frac{1 + 4 + 7}{3}, \frac{2 + 5 + 1}{3} \right) = \

left( \frac{12}{3}, \frac{8}{3} \right) = (4, \frac{8}{3})G=(31+4+7,32+5+1)=(312,38)=(4,38)

🔹 4. Area of a Triangle (using coordinates)

✅ Formula:

If the triangle has vertices:

 A(x1,y1)A(x_1, y_1)A(x1,y1)

 B(x2,y2)B(x_2, y_2)B(x2,y2)

 C(x3,y3)C(x_3, y_3)C(x3,y3)

Then the area is:

Area=12∣x1(y2−y3)+x2(y3−y1)+x3(y1−y2)∣\text{Area} = \frac{1}{2} \left| x_1(y_2 - y_3) +

x_2(y_3 - y_1) + x_3(y_1 - y_2) \right|Area=21∣x1(y2−y3)+x2(y3−y1)+x3(y1−y2)∣

✅ Example:

Find the area of triangle with vertices

A(1,2),B(4,6),C(5,3)A(1, 2), B(4, 6), C(5, 3)A(1,2),B(4,6),C(5,3)

Area=12∣1(6−3)+4(3−2)+5(2−6)∣=12∣1(3)+4(1)+5(−4)∣\text{Area} = \frac{1}{2} \left| 1(6 - 3) +

∣1(6−3)+4(3−2)+5(2−6)∣=21∣1(3)+4(1)+5(−4)∣ =12∣3+4−20∣=12∣−13∣=132= \frac{1}{2} \left| 3 +

4(3 - 2) + 5(2 - 6) \right| = \frac{1}{2} \left| 1(3) + 4(1) + 5(-4) \right| Area=21

4 - 20 \right| = \frac{1}{2} \left| -13 \right| = \frac{13}{2}=21∣3+4−20∣=21∣−13∣=213

So, the area = 6.5 square units

🔹 5. Area of a Quadrilateral (using coordinates)

A quadrilateral is made of two triangles, so we can split it into two triangles and use the
triangle area formula twice.

✅ Formula:

If the quadrilateral has vertices A(x1,y1),B(x2,y2),C(x3,y3),D(x4,y4)A(x_1, y_1), B(x_2, y_2),

C(x_3, y_3), D(x_4, y_4)A(x1,y1),B(x2,y2),C(x3,y3),D(x4,y4), then:

Area=Area of △ABC+Area of △ACD\text{Area} = \text{Area of } \triangle ABC + \text{Area of

} \triangle ACDArea=Area of △ABC+Area of △ACD

Use the triangle area formula for each.

✅ Shortcut Formula:
Area=12∣x1y2+x2y3+x3y4+x4y1−(y1x2+y2x3+y3x4+y4x1)∣\text{Area} = \frac{1}{2} \left|

∣x1y2+x2y3+x3y4+x4y1−(y1x2+y2x3+y3x4+y4x1)∣
x_1y_2 + x_2y_3 + x_3y_4 + x_4y_1 - (y_1x_2 + y_2x_3 + y_3x_4 + y_4x_1) \right|Area=21

✅ Example:

Find the area of quadrilateral with vertices:

A(0,0),B(4,0),C(4,3),D(0,3)A(0, 0), B(4, 0), C(4, 3), D(0, 3)A(0,0),B(4,0),C(4,3),D(0,3)

It’s a rectangle, so you can use either method.

Using shortcut formula:

Area=12∣0⋅0+4⋅3+4⋅3+0⋅0−(0⋅4+0⋅4+3⋅0+3⋅0)∣\text{Area} = \frac{1}{2} | 0\cdot0 + 4\cdot3 +

∣0⋅0+4⋅3+4⋅3+0⋅0−(0⋅4+0⋅4+3⋅0+3⋅0)∣ =12∣0+12+12+0−(0+0+0+0)∣=12⋅24=12= \frac{1}{2} | 0

4\cdot3 + 0\cdot0 - (0\cdot4 + 0\cdot4 + 3\cdot0 + 3\cdot0) |Area=21

⋅24=12
+ 12 + 12 + 0 - (0 + 0 + 0 + 0) | = \frac{1}{2} \cdot 24 = 12=21∣0+12+12+0−(0+0+0+0)∣=21

✅ Area = 12 square units

1. Locus

🔹 Definition of Locus

✅ Definition:

A locus is the set of all points that satisfy a particular geometric condition or equation.

In coordinate geometry, the equation of a locus represents a path traced by a point moving
under given conditions.

✅ Example 1:

Find the locus of a point that moves so that it is always at a distance 5 units from the origin.

Let the moving point be P(x,y)P(x, y)P(x,y)

Distance from origin O(0,0)O(0, 0)O(0,0) is 5:

(x−0)2+(y−0)2=5⇒x2+y2=25\sqrt{(x - 0)^2 + (y - 0)^2} = 5 \Rightarrow x^2 + y^2 = 25(x−0)2+

(y−0)2=5⇒x2+y2=25

🔹 So, the locus is a circle with radius 5 centered at the origin.

🔹 How to Find Equation of a Locus

✅ General Steps:

1. Assume the moving point as P(x,y)P(x, y)P(x,y)

2. Use the geometric condition

3. Apply the condition mathematically

4. Eliminate constants if required

5. Final result: Equation of the locus

✅ Example 2:

Find the locus of a point equidistant from two fixed points

A(2,0)A(2, 0)A(2,0) and B(−2,0)B(-2, 0)B(−2,0)

Let moving point be P(x,y)P(x, y)P(x,y)

Condition:

PA=PB⇒(x−2)2+y2=(x+2)2+y2PA = PB \Rightarrow \sqrt{(x - 2)^2 + y^2} = \sqrt{(x + 2)^2 +

y^2}PA=PB⇒(x−2)2+y2=(x+2)2+y2

Now square both sides:

(x−2)2+y2=(x+2)2+y2⇒x2−4x+4=x2+4x+4⇒−4x=4x⇒x=0(x - 2)^2 + y^2 = (x + 2)^2 + y^2 \

Rightarrow x^2 - 4x + 4 = x^2 + 4x + 4 \Rightarrow -4x = 4x \Rightarrow x =
0(x−2)2+y2=(x+2)2+y2⇒x2−4x+4=x2+4x+4⇒−4x=4x⇒x=0

🔹 So, the locus is the line x=0x = 0x=0

📈 2. Straight Line

🔹 Different Forms of Equation of a Straight Line

A straight line in coordinate geometry can be written in many forms, depending on given
data.

✅ 1. General Form

Ax+By+C=0Ax + By + C = 0Ax+By+C=0

Where A,BA, BA,B are not both zero.

✅ 2. Slope-Intercept Form

y=mx+cy = mx + cy=mx+c

Where:

 mmm = slope of the line

 ccc = y-intercept (point where line cuts y-axis)

Example:
y=2x+3y = 2x + 3y=2x+3 → slope = 2, y-intercept = 3

✅ 3. Point-Slope Form

y−y1=m(x−x1)y - y_1 = m(x - x_1)y−y1=m(x−x1)

Where:

 (x1,y1)(x_1, y_1)(x1,y1) is a point on the line

 mmm is the slope

✅ 4. Two-Point Form

y−y1=y2−y1x2−x1(x−x1)y - y_1 = \frac{y_2 - y_1}{x_2 - x_1}(x - x_1)y−y1=x2−x1y2−y1(x−x1)

Used when two points on the line are given: (x1,y1)(x_1, y_1)(x1,y1), (x2,y2)(x_2, y_2)(x2,y2)

✅ 5. Intercept Form

xa+yb=1\frac{x}{a} + \frac{y}{b} = 1ax+by=1

Where:

 aaa = x-intercept (where the line cuts x-axis)

 bbb = y-intercept

🔹 Reduction of General Equation into Other Forms

Given:

Ax+By+C=0Ax + By + C = 0Ax+By+C=0
You can convert it into slope-intercept form y=mx+cy = mx + cy=mx+c

✅ Example:

Convert 2x+3y−6=02x + 3y - 6 = 02x+3y−6=0 into slope-intercept form.

3y=−2x+6⇒y=−23x+23y = -2x + 6 \Rightarrow y = -\frac{2}{3}x + 23y=−2x+6⇒y=−32x+2

🔹 Slope m=−23m = -\frac{2}{3}m=−32, y-intercept c=2c = 2c=2

🔹 Point of Intersection of Two Straight Lines

To find where two lines intersect, solve their equations simultaneously.

✅ Example:

Find the point of intersection of:

 L1:y=2x+1L_1: y = 2x + 1L1:y=2x+1

 L2:y=−x+4L_2: y = -x + 4L2:y=−x+4

Step 1: Equate both equations

2x+1=−x+4⇒3x=3⇒x=12x + 1 = -x + 4 \Rightarrow 3x = 3 \Rightarrow x =

12x+1=−x+4⇒3x=3⇒x=1

Step 2: Substitute in any equation to find yyy

y=2(1)+1=3y = 2(1) + 1 = 3y=2(1)+1=3

🔹 So, the point of intersection is (1,3)(1, 3)(1,3)

✅ Example (General Form):

Find the intersection of:

 2x+y=52x + y = 52x+y=5

 x−y=1x - y = 1x−y=1

Use substitution or elimination:

Step 1: Solve second equation:

x=y+1x = y + 1x=y+1

Substitute in first:
2(y+1)+y=5⇒2y+2+y=5⇒3y=3⇒y=12(y + 1) + y = 5 \Rightarrow 2y + 2 + y = 5 \Rightarrow
3y = 3 \Rightarrow y = 12(y+1)+y=5⇒2y+2+y=5⇒3y=3⇒y=1

Then:

x=y+1=2x = y + 1 = 2x=y+1=2

🔹 So, intersection point is (2,1)(2, 1)(2,1)

1. Matrix: Definition

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (real or complex) arranged in rows and columns.
It is usually denoted by a capital letter (e.g., A,B,CA, B, CA,B,C) and its elements are written
inside brackets.

Example:

A=[123456]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 \end{bmatrix}A=[142536]

Here, AAA is a 2×32 \times 32×3 (2 rows, 3 columns) matrix.

2. Types of Matrices

(a) Row Matrix

A matrix with one row.

R=[1234]R = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix}R=[1234]

(b) Column Matrix

A matrix with one column.

C=[579]C = \begin{bmatrix} 5 \\ 7 \\ 9 \end{bmatrix}C=579

(c) Square Matrix

Number of rows = number of columns.

S=[1234](2×2)S = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} \quad (2 \times 2)S=[1324]

(2×2)

(d) Zero/Null Matrix

All elements are zero.

O=[0000]O = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}O=[0000]

(e) Diagonal Matrix

Square matrix with all non-diagonal elements = 0.

D=[500070009]D = \begin{bmatrix} 5 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 7 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 9 \end{bmatrix}D=500
070009

(f) Scalar Matrix

A diagonal matrix where all diagonal entries are equal.

M=[3003]M = \begin{bmatrix} 3 & 0 \\ 0 & 3 \end{bmatrix}M=[3003]

(g) Identity Matrix

Diagonal matrix with diagonal entries = 1.

I=[100010001]I = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}I=100010

001

(h) Upper Triangular Matrix

All elements below the main diagonal are zero.

U=[123056009]U = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 0 & 5 & 6 \\ 0 & 0 & 9 \end{bmatrix}U=100

250369

(i) Lower Triangular Matrix

All elements above the main diagonal are zero.

L=[400750289]L = \begin{bmatrix} 4 & 0 & 0 \\ 7 & 5 & 0 \\ 2 & 8 & 9 \end{bmatrix}L=472

058009

(j) Symmetric Matrix

If AT=AA^T = AAT=A.

A=[2334]A = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 3 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix}A=[2334]

(k) Skew-Symmetric Matrix

If AT=−AA^T = -AAT=−A.

A=[0−220]A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -2 \\ 2 & 0 \end{bmatrix}A=[02−20]

3. Addition of Matrices

 Defined only if both matrices have the same order.

 Add corresponding elements.

Example:

A=[1234], B=[5678]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix}, \; B = \begin{bmatrix}

5 & 6 \\ 7 & 8 \end{bmatrix}A=[1324],B=[5768] A+B=[1+52+63+74+8]=[681012]A + B = \
begin{bmatrix} 1+5 & 2+6 \\ 3+7 & 4+8 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 6 & 8 \\ 10 & 12 \
end{bmatrix}A+B=[1+53+72+64+8]=[610812]

4. Subtraction of Matrices

Subtract corresponding elements.

A−B=[1−52−63−74−8]=[−4−4−4−4]A - B = \begin{bmatrix} 1-5 & 2-6 \\ 3-7 & 4-8 \

end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -4 & -4 \\ -4 & -4 \end{bmatrix}A−B=[1−53−72−64−8]=[−4−4
−4−4]

5. Scalar Multiplication

Multiply each element by the scalar.

3A=3×[1234]=[36912]3A = 3 \times \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} = \

begin{bmatrix} 3 & 6 \\ 9 & 12 \end{bmatrix}3A=3×[1324]=[39612]

6. Multiplication of Matrices

 Possible only if columns of A = rows of B.

 Multiply row × column and sum.

Example:

A=[1234],B=[2012]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix}, \quad B = \

begin{bmatrix} 2 & 0 \\ 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}A=[1324],B=[2102] AB=[(1⋅2+2⋅1)(1⋅0+2⋅2)
(3⋅2+4⋅1)(3⋅0+4⋅2)]=[44108]AB = \begin{bmatrix} (1\cdot 2+2\cdot 1) & (1\cdot 0+2\cdot
2) \\ (3\cdot 2+4\cdot 1) & (3\cdot 0+4\cdot 2) \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 4 & 4 \\ 10
& 8 \end{bmatrix}AB=[(1⋅2+2⋅1)(3⋅2+4⋅1)(1⋅0+2⋅2)(3⋅0+4⋅2)]=[41048]

7. Transpose of a Matrix

 Denoted by ATA^TAT.

 Rows become columns.

A=[123456],AT=[142536]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 \end{bmatrix}, \quad

A^T = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ 2 & 5 \\ 3 & 6 \end{bmatrix}A=[142536],AT=123456

8. Determinants
  Defined only for square matrices.

 For 2×22 \times 22×2:

det⁡[abcd]=ad−bc\det\begin{bmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{bmatrix} = ad - bcdet[acbd]=ad−bc

Example:

det⁡[1234]=(1)(4)−(2)(3)=−2\det\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} = (1)(4) - (2)(3)

= -2det[1324]=(1)(4)−(2)(3)=−2

For 3×33 \times 33×3: expand along row/column.

9. Minors and Cofactors

 Minor MijM_{ij}Mij: determinant obtained by deleting iii-th row and jjj-th column.

 Cofactor CijC_{ij}Cij:

Cij=(−1)i+jMijC_{ij} = (-1)^{i+j} M_{ij}Cij=(−1)i+jMij

Example: For

A=[123456789]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 \\ 7 & 8 & 9 \end{bmatrix}A=147

258369

Minor of element a11=1a_{11} = 1a11=1:

M11=det⁡[5689]=(5)(9)−(6)(8)=−3M_{11} = \det\begin{bmatrix} 5 & 6 \\ 8 & 9 \end{bmatrix}

= (5)(9)-(6)(8) = -3M11=det[5869]=(5)(9)−(6)(8)=−3

Cofactor: C11=(−1)1+1(−3)=−3C_{11} = (-1)^{1+1}(-3) = -3C11=(−1)1+1(−3)=−3.

10. Adjoint of a Matrix

The adjoint of AAA, denoted adj(A)\text{adj}(A)adj(A), is the transpose of the cofactor

matrix.

Example: If

C=[−36−3⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅]C = \begin{bmatrix} -3 & 6 & -3 \\ \cdot & \cdot & \cdot \\ \cdot & \cdot & \
cdot \end{bmatrix}C=−3⋅⋅6⋅⋅−3⋅⋅

then

adj(A)=CT\text{adj}(A) = C^Tadj(A)=CT

11. Inverse of a Matrix

  Defined only for non-singular square matrices (det⁡(A)≠0\det(A) \neq 0det(A)=0).

A−1=1det⁡(A) adj(A)A^{-1} = \frac{1}{\det(A)} \, \text{adj}(A)A−1=det(A)1adj(A)

Example:

A=[4726],det⁡(A)=(4)(6)−(7)(2)=10A = \begin{bmatrix} 4 & 7 \\ 2 & 6 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \

det(A) = (4)(6) - (7)(2) = 10A=[4276],det(A)=(4)(6)−(7)(2)=10 adj(A)=[6−7−24]\text{adj}(A) = \
begin{bmatrix} 6 & -7 \\ -2 & 4 \end{bmatrix}adj(A)=[6−2−74] A−1=110[6−7−24]A^{-1} = \
frac{1}{10} \begin{bmatrix} 6 & -7 \\ -2 & 4 \end{bmatrix}A−1=101[6−2−74]

12. Rank of a Matrix

The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows (or columns).

 It equals the order of the largest non-zero determinant (submatrix).

Example:

A=[1224]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 4 \end{bmatrix}A=[1224]

Here, det⁡(A)=0\det(A) = 0det(A)=0, so full rank is not possible. But the first row [1 2][1 \; 2]
[12] is non-zero, hence rank(A)=1\text{rank}(A) = 1rank(A)=1.