1.

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Data communications and networks are changing the way we do business and the way we
live. The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and television,
means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for “far”).
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. The effectiveness of a data communications
system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Jitter: jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival time.

1.1FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER NETWORK

A data communications system is comprised of five components.
1. Message – the data to be communicated. Popular forms of data include text, numbers,
pictures, audio and video.
2. Sender – the device that sends the data. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, e.t.c.
3. Receiver – the device that receives the data. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, e.t.c.
4. Transmission medium – the physical path by which the message travels form sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission medium include twisted pair, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic, and radio waves.
5. Protocol – the set of rules that govern data communications.
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria with the most important being
performance, reliability and security.
Performance – Performance can be measured in a number of ways including transmit time
and response time. The performance depends on a number of factors including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated using throughput and delay.
Reliability – in addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes for a link to recover from failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security – it includes protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage
and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

 1.2DATA TRANSMISSION CONCEPTS
1.2.1 Analogue and Digital Signals
In a computer network, data is transmitted in the form of signals. A signal can be defined as a
quantity that varies with time or any other independent variable. These signals can either be
analogue or digital. Digital signals involve discrete values, and analog signals involve
continuous values.

Characteristics of digital and analogue signals

A digital signal is made up of a finite number of discrete states {either high (1) or low (0)}.
In practical applications the two states are associated with two voltage intervals instead of
exact voltage levels. This minimizes the distortion of the signal’s meaning by
electromagnetic noise and interference. An analogue signal varies continuous with time (e.g.
voltage, current, sound waves etc.).

V V

0 time 0 time

Fig. 1a: Analogue signal Fig. 1b: Digital signal

Advantages of digital systems:

 They have high immunity to noise (virtually no loss of information due to noise).
Each digital component behaves as a filter eliminating the noise on its inputs
(although it sometimes produces its own little noise on the output).
 They are simple, inexpensive and enable safe implementation of complex data
processing algorithms. (in analogue systems noise is transmitted from component to
another and it increases with the number of interconnected hardware elements
between the inputs and outputs. This requires careful design and manufacture
procedures which in turn increases the cost of the product)
 They use simple design and implementation procedures.

Disadvantages compared to analogue systems:

 They require large numbers of transistors to perform some operations that can be
implemented using simpler analogue hardware e.g. additions and multiplications by
constants can be easily done using circuits based on operational amplifiers.
 In some cases, the operation speed is lower than the speed offered by equivalent
analogue circuits.

Generally digital systems have more advantages over the analogue systems and this gives rise
to the need to convert analogue signals to digital signals through the analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter in order to exploit these advantages. The reverse conversion is also necessary in
some cases and it will be achieved by means of a digital-to-analog (DAC) converter.

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1.2.2 Frequency – it refers to the number of periods in a second, that is,
1
f = 𝑇 and the unit of measurement is Hertz(Hz)

1.2.3 Bandwidth
This is a characteristic that measures network performance. However, the term can be used in
two different contexts: bandwidth in Hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.

Bandwidth in Hertz
It refers to the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass. It is given by the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies that are contained in the signal.

Bandwidth in bits per second

It refers to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can
transmit.

1.2.4 Throughput – it is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
1.2.5 Data rate – it is also referred to as the transmission rate. It is the number of bits sent
each second and is measured in bits per second (bps). Multiples of bps exist which
include (Mbps, Gbps, etc)
1.2.6 Simplex transmission mode
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on the link can transmit, the other can only receive. Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The entire capacity of the channel is
used to send data in one direction.

1.2.7 Half-duplex transmission mode

In half-duplex mode, each device on the link can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. CB (Citizens Band) radios are examples of half-duplex devices. The entire
capacity of the channel can be used for each direction.

1.2.8 Full-duplex/Duplex transmission mode

In full-duplex (also called duplex) mode, both devices on the link can transmit and receive
simultaneously. The entire capacity of the channel is shared by the signals going in opposite
directions. The sharing can be achieved either by having a link with two physically separate
paths with one for sending and the other for receiving or dividing the capacity between
signals travelling in both directions. The telephone network is an example of full-duplex
communication.
1.2.9 Synchronous transmission
The transmission of data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with
each clock tick. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses
of serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous and isochronous.

With synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer frames which may
contain multiple bytes. Each byte is introduced onto the link without a gap between it and the
next one. It is the receiver’s responsibility to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding
purposes. There is no start, stop bit and gaps. If the sender wishes to send the information in

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bursts, the gaps are filled in by a special sequence of 1’s and 0’s which mean idle. The
receiving device uses a timer to keep track of the bits.

An advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. A typical application of synchronous

transmission is from one computer to another. Byte synchronization is achieved in the data
link layer.

However, it is important to note that even though there a no gaps between characters in
synchronous transmission, there may be uneven gaps between the frames.

1.2.10 Asynchronous transmission

In asynchronous transmission, the timing of the signal is unimportant, information is received
and translated by agreed upon patterns. The patterns are achieved by grouping the bits mostly
as bytes (8-bit group). Each byte is sent along the link as a unit. The sending system handles
each group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready, without regard to a timer.
To alert the receiver of the start and end of a group, start and stop bits are added to the group
and in the case of an 8-bit group, the resultant group will be at least 10-bit comprising 8 data
bits and 2 bits (indicating start and stop). The transmission can be followed by a gap of
varying duration and this gap can be represented by an idle channel or by a stream of
additional stop bits.

However, it is important to note that as soon as the receiver detects the start bit, it sets a timer
and begins counting bits as they come in (meaning that there is synchronization with the
incoming) bits and as soon as the stop bit is detected, the synchronization ends. Therefore, at
byte level there is no synchronization but at bit level there is synchronization.

The start and stop bits, and the gaps make asynchronous transmission slower but cheap and
effective at the same time. Connection of a keyboard and a computer is an example of
asynchronous transmission.

1.2.11 Isochronous transmission

This type of transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate in addition to
properties of synchronous transmission. The common area of application is real-time audio
and video.

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

 1.3 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1.3.1 Introduction:
Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are controlled by the physical
layer.
A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material substance (solid, liquid, gas,
or plasma) which can propagate energy waves. For example, the transmission medium for
sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids may also act as transmission
media for sound.
Transmission media are the physical pathways that connect computers, other devices,
and people on a network. Each transmission medium requires specialized network hardware
that is compatible with that medium, and most networks need to use combination of
transmission media types selected based on the network's needs and prevailing conditions.

The term transmission medium can also refer to the technical device which employs
the material substance to transmit or guide the waves. Thus an optical fiber or a copper cable
can be referred to as a transmission medium

The absence of a material medium (the vacuum of empty space) can also be thought of
as a transmission medium for electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. While
material substance is not required for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such waves are
usually affected by the transmission media through which they pass, for instance by absorption
or by reflection or refraction at the interfaces between media.

A transmission medium can be classified as a:

 Linear medium, if different waves at any particular point in the medium can be
superposed;
 Bounded medium, if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbounded medium;
 Uniform medium or homogeneous medium, if its physical properties are unchanged at
different points;
 Isotropic medium, if its physical properties are the same in different directions.

Types of Transmission media:

The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission
or communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.

 GUIDED MEDIA

 UNGUIDED MEDIA

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1.3.2 GUIDED MEDIA:
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called guided media. Bounded media are made up of an external conductor (Usually
Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer
high speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission.
These are:

 Coaxial Cable.

 Twisted pair cable.

 Fibre optics

[Link] COAXIAL CABLE:

Coaxial cable is very common & widely used communication media. For example TV wire is
usually coaxial. Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel
to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a
solid wire or stranded martial. Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It
is usually white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer
Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the
cable form EMI. Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. The actual data travels
through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh.
There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance.

Fig.: Cross-section of a coaxial cable

Here the most common coaxial standards

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

CHARACTERISTICS :

 Low cost
 Easy to install
 Up to 10Mbps capacity
 Medium immunity form EMI
 Medium attenuation

ADVANTAGES :

 Inexpensive

 Easy to wire

 Easy to expand

 Moderate level of EMI immunity

DISADVANTAGE :

 Single cable failure can take down an entire network

[Link] TWISTED PAIR CABLE :

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive
and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 Mbps. Twisted
pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The number
of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as
measured on the American wire gauge standard.

Interference (noise) and crosstalk can affect the transmitted signal and create unwanted signals.
The twists are there to handle the crosstalk and the number of twists per unit distance has a
bearing on the quality of the cable.

Fig.: Twisted pair wire

There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition.
UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily
available. The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify UTP
cables into seven categories. Each category is suitable for specific uses.

Categories of UTP cable

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and
4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector. The RJ connectors are keyed connectors, meaning that the
connectors can only be inserted in only one way.

UTP

Performance

One way to measure performance of twisted pair cable is to compare attenuation versus
frequency and distance. A twisted pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies, however,
the attenuation increases with increasing frequencies above 100kHz.

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Easy to install
 High speed capacity
 High attenuation
 100 meter limit

ADVANTAGES :

 Easy installation
 Capable of high speed for LAN
 Low cost

DISADVANTAGES :

 Short distance due to attenuation

 Susceptible to EMI

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI (Electromagnetic
Interference) which allows for higher transmission rate though it results in a bulkier cable. IBM
has defined category for STP cable.

Type 1: STP features two pairs of 22-AWG

Type 2: This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs

Type 3: This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 4: This type of STP consists of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 5: This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Medium cost
 Easy to install
 Higher capacity than UTP
 Attenuation

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

 Medium immunity from EMI
 100 meter limit

ADVANTAGES :

 Faster than UTP and coaxial

 Medium immunity to EMI

DISADVANTAGES :

 More expensive than UTP and coaxial

 More difficult installation
 100 meter limit

[Link] FIBER OPTICS :

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable
light only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection
must be made between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is
responsible for one direction of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light
through this cable to other device. These pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this
glass to the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as
CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding. Fiber optic
cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second).

1. Core: 8 µm diameter.
2. Cladding: 125 µm diameter.
3. Buffer: 250 µm diameter.
4. Jacket: 400 µm diameter.

Fig.: Structure of fiber optic cable

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Expensive
 Very hard to install
 Capable of extremely high speed
 Extremely low attenuation
 No EMI interference

ADVANTAGES :

 Fast
 Low attenuation
 No EMI interference
 Resistive to corrosive material
 Light weight
 Greater immunity to tapping

DISADVANTAGES :

 Very costly
 Hard to install
 Unidirectional propagation of light

1.3.3 UNBOUNDED MEDIA:

Unguided transmission media are methods that allow the transmission of data without the use
of physical means to define the path it takes. Unguided media provide a means for
transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them; examples are propagation through
air, vacuum and seawater. For unguided media, the bandwidth of signal produced by the
transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in determining transmission
characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality.

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The section of electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided
into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities like the Post and
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ).

Bands

Examples of Unguided media are:

 microwave
 radio waves
 infrared waves

[Link] Microwave (1 to 300GHz):

Electromagnetic radiation beyond the frequency range of radio and television can be used to
transport information. Microwave transmission is unidirectional and usually point-to-point
using unidirectional antennae with a clear path between transmitter and receiver. Use of
certain portions of the band requires permission from the authorities. Microwaves find their
application in cellular telephones, satellite networks and wireless LANs were unicast
transmission is needed between sender and receiver.

ADVANTAGES :

 No cables needed
 Multiple channels available
 Wide bandwidth

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo

DISADVANTAGES:

 Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.

 Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way
 Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to
atmospheric conditions.
 Towers are expensive to build

[Link] Radio (3 kHz to 1 GHz)

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with

frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of
oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space.
Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated
waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an
electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This
can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information. For the
most part, radio waves are omnidirectional and they would need omnidirectional antennae.
Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities. Radio waves find their application in radio
and television, and paging systems were multicast communication is required.

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Directed Waves
 Noise Concurrency
 Radio Wave's Directness
 Unlimited Range
 Interference

ADVANTAGES :

 Can carry a message instantaneously over a wide area.

 Aerials to receive them are simpler than for microwaves.
 Wires are not needed as they travel through air, thus, a cheaper form of
communication.

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DISADVANTAGES:

 The range of frequencies that can be accessed by existing technology is limited, so

there is a lot of competition amongst companies for the use of the frequencies.
 Travel in a straight line, so repeater stations may be needed.

[Link] Infrared (300 GHz – 400 THz)

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300
micrometers, which equates to a frequency range between approximately 1 and 430 THz.
IR wavelengths are longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of terahertz radiation
microwaves. Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at
sea level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is visible light, and 32
watts is ultraviolet radiation. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards
for use of IR signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs and
printers. IR uses line of sight. Remote controls make use of IR waves.

ADVANTAGES :

 Many things are controlled by infrared.

 Sensors are invisible to the naked eye.
 They are very reliable.
 Very high frequency IR waves cannot penetrate walls resulting in reduced
interference.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Most infrared sensors must be lined up or they will not work
 Cannot be used for long range communication.

1.4 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are
devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the
switch. The three available switching methods include: circuit switching, packet switching
and message switching. However, circuit switching and packet switching are commonly used
today. Therefore, networks can be divided into circuit-switched networks, packet-switched
networks and message-switched networks. Packet-switched networks can be further divided
into virtual-circuit networks and datagram networks.

1.4.1 Circuit-Switched Networks

A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which
each link is divided into n channels using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) or Time
Division Multiplexing(TDM). Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.

Circuit switching is a physical layer functionality.

Circuit switching follows three phases of connection setup, data transfer, and connection
teardown phase.
Before starting communication, the end devices must make a reservation of the resources to
be used during the communication (the setup phase). These resources, such as channels

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(bandwidth in FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and
switch input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration of the data
transfer until the tear down phase.

The data are a continuous flow sent by the source station to the destination station although
there may be periods of silence. There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The
data is routed basing on the occupied band (FDM) or time-slot(TDM). However, it is
important to note that addressing is used during the connection setup phase.

Connection Setup Phase

During connection setup, the source sends a setup request to the destination. The destination
responds with an acknowledgement if it is ready to communicate with the source and
resources are available. When the source receives the acknowledgement, that is when the
connection is setup and data transmission commences.

Data Transfer Phase

After establishment of the dedicated circuit (channel), the source and the destination can now
transfer data.

Connection Teardown Phase

When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release
resources.

Evaluation
Circuit-switched networks are not efficient since once resources are dedicated they cannot be
used by other devices. In a telephone network the individuals terminate the connection when
done but in computer networks a connection can exist for a long time without any
communication.

However, circuit switching is fast once a connection has been setup since resources will be
dedicated for the duration of the transmission.

Telephone companies have previously favoured circuit-switching but are slowly shifting
towards other switching techniques like Signaling System number 7 (SS7).

1.4.2 Packet-Switched Networks

[Link] Datagram Networks
If a message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into
packets of fixed or variable sizes. The size of the packet is determined by the network and the
governing protocols. There is no pre-allocation of resources for the packet but the resources
are allocated on-demand. The allocation is done on a first-come first-served basis which
results in delay of other transmissions.

Each packet is treated independently of others and each packet can follow a different path
even if the packets are from the same message. Packets in this approach are referred to as
datagrams.
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer. The switches in a datagram
network are traditionally referred to as routers.

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Some of the packets can be delayed and the packets can arrive out-of-order. Packets may also
be lost or dropped due to lack of resources. In most protocols, the responsibility of ordering
packets and requesting lost packets, is left to upper-layer protocols.

Datagram networks are normally referred to as connectionless networks. Routing tables

which are dynamic and updated periodically are used to route the packets to their
destinations. Every packet contains, among other information, the destination address which
remains unchanged through the entire journey of the packet.

Evaluation
A datagram-network is more efficient than a circuit switched network since no resources are
tied to any communication.

There can be more delay in a datagram network compared to a virtual-circuit network.

Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet switching at the
network layer.

[Link] Virtual-circuit networks

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between circuit-switched network and datagram network.
It has some characteristics of both.

As in a circuit-switched network there are three phases of connection setup, data transfer, and
connection teardown phase.
Resources can be allocated during setup as in a circuit switched network or on demand as in a
datagram network.
As in a datagram network, data can be packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be
the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end to end
jurisdiction.
As with circuit-switched network, all the packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
A virtual circuit is normally implemented in the data link layer, while circuit switched
network is implemented in the physical layer, and a datagram network in the network layer.

Two types of addresses are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier)

Global Addressing
The global address is used only to create a virtual-circuit identifier.

Virtual-circuit identifier
It is used for data transfer and unlike a global address, it is a small number that has only
switch scope. It is used by a frame between two switches.
When a frame arrives at a switch it has a VCI; when it leaves it has a different VCI.

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The three phases

Connection Setup
The source and destination use their global addresses to help switches make table entries for
the connection. There are two steps: the setup request and the acknowledgement.
Incoming VCI are established on switches during the request step and Outgoing VCI are
established during the acknowledgement phase.

Switch table in a virtual-circuit network (example)

Incoming Outgoing
Port VCI Port VCI
1 14 3 66

Data transfer phase

Switches use virtual-circuit table entries in order to forward data. The data transfer phase is
active until the source sends all its frames to the destination.

Teardown phase

In this phase, the source, after sending all the frames, sends a special type of frame called a
teardown request and the destination responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All the
switches deletes the corresponding entries from their tables.

Evaluation
Packets may arrive at different times if resources are allocated on demand.

Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN (such as Frame Relay and ATM) is
normally implemented by using virtual circuit techniques.

1.4.3 Message-Switched Networks

In message switching, each switch stores the whole message and forwards it to the next
switch. It is still used in some applications like electronic-mail (e-mail).

Data Communications and Networks 553/18/S02 : By Bernard Towindo