Introducing Science
Chapter Notes — Key Concepts, Short & Long Questions with Answers
1. Science and Scientists
Science is the study of the natural world through observation and investigation. It is divided into four
main branches:
• Biology — the study of living things.
• Chemistry — the study of substances (matter) that things are made of.
• Physics — the study of how matter and energy interact.
• Earth and space — the study of the structure and changes in the Earth and the universe.
Some careers linked to each branch:
Branch Example Careers
Biology Botanist (studies plants), Marine zoologist (studies sea animals)
Chemistry Geochemist (studies rocks/minerals/oil), Chemical engineer (makes substances, designs chem
Physics Nuclear physicist (studies how matter is made)
Earth & Space Geologist, Astronomer, Vulcanologist (studies volcanoes)
2. Laboratory Safety and Rules
• There are fewer accidents in labs than other parts of a school because people follow the teacher's
advice and posted rules carefully.
• Entering/leaving: Do not run in or out; store bags safely; put stools under the bench; leave the
benchtop clean and dry.
• General behaviour: Do not run; do not eat or drink; work quietly.
• Preparing for practical work: Tie back long hair; wear buttoned lab coats; wear safety eyewear
when heating or using hazardous chemicals.
• During experiments: Never point a test tube at anyone; report breakages/spillages immediately;
check procedure with the teacher if unsure; use gas, water and electricity sensibly.
Hazard symbols (Figure 10):
• Corrosive
• Acutely toxic
• Flammable
• Hazardous to the environment
• Moderate hazard
• Health hazards
3. Scientific Equipment (Apparatus)
Scientific equipment is called apparatus. Much of it is made of glass because glass is transparent
(easy to see inside) and easy to clean. Apparatus that needs to be heated is made from borosilicate
glass (Pyrex), which can withstand heat.
Common apparatus: test tube, round-bottomed flask, flat-bottomed flask, separating funnel, clamp and
stand, filter funnel, beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze, conical flask with delivery tube.
4. The Bunsen Burner
The gas commonly used in a Bunsen burner is methane. As methane burns, it reacts with oxygen in
the air, producing carbon dioxide and water, both of which escape as gases.
Parts: chimney, air regulator (collar), air hole, base, rubber tubing (to gas tap).
How to light and use it:
• Fully close the air hole using the collar before lighting.
• Light the match/splint and hold it to one side of the top of the chimney, then turn on the gas tap.
• With the air hole closed, the flame is yellow, silent and luminous (gives out light) — not all carbon
burns, so soot can form.
• Opening the air hole fully mixes air with the gas, producing a blue cone with a roaring sound — this
is the hotter, non-luminous flame.
• Flame size is controlled using the gas tap: fully open = large flame; partially closed = smaller flame.
Luminous flame = gives out light (yellow, silent, cooler, produces soot). Non-luminous flame = does
not give out light in the same way (blue, roaring sound, hotter, hottest point is a few millimetres above
the tip of the blue cone).
The spirit burner is used where there is no gas supply. It has a fuel reservoir and a wick; fuel soaks up
the wick and burns at the top.
5. Scientific Models and Representations
A model in science is used to make something easier to understand. Models can be:
• 3-D models — e.g. a model car/aeroplane (length, width, height); living things such as fruit flies
used as biological models (short life cycle helps study inheritance quickly); an aquarium tank used
as a living model of a pond habitat.
• 2-D models — visual models made on paper or screens, e.g. drawings, diagrams, photographs,
charts, graphs, and chemical equations (e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium
chloride + water).
Every model has strengths and weaknesses/limitations, and these should be evaluated (e.g. an
aquarium is easier to observe than a real pond, but it is not identical to the real habitat).
6. Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an idea a scientist has to explain what has been observed. An untestable hypothesis
is one that is not specific (e.g. uses vague terms like 'it could be this or that'), uses a matter of opinion
(e.g. 'better'), or involves something unnatural/impossible to test.
7. The Three Stages of a Scientific Enquiry
Stage 1 — Setting up an enquiry (Purpose and planning):
• Look at a hypothesis and decide whether it can be tested.
• Consider how evidence gathered can support or contradict the hypothesis.
• Use scientific knowledge to make a prediction.
• Know the meaning of hazard symbols and take them into account when planning.
• Select from a range of investigation types (not all are fair tests) and consider the variables
involved.
Stage 2 — Carrying out the enquiry and recording data:
• Use classification skills to test/observe organisms, materials and processes; use/make keys.
• Select equipment and use each piece properly and safely.
• Decide how many observations/measurements are needed for reliable data.
• Use measuring instruments accurately and precisely.
• Work safely at all times.
• Use secondary sources (books, internet) but evaluate them for relevance and bias.
• Collect enough data and record it clearly.
Stage 3 — Examining results and drawing conclusions (Analysis, evaluation and conclusions):
• Compare predictions with results and assess accuracy.
• Look for patterns/trends, and note anomalous results that do not fit.
• Interpret the results and draw a conclusion, explaining its limitations.
• Review the investigation and suggest improvements, explaining why they would give more reliable
data.
• Communicate observations and measurements clearly with a clear interpretation.
8. Variables in a Fair Test
• Independent variable — the variable that the scientist changes.
• Dependent variable — the variable that changes as a result of changing the independent variable.
• Control variables (constant variables) — variables the scientist keeps the same throughout the
investigation.
• Extraneous variable — a fourth type of variable, not considered important to the investigation
(e.g. colour of laboratory walls, wind direction outside).
9. Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy means how close a measurement is to the true value of something. Precision means how
close a number of repeated measurements are to each other. A good measurement should aim to be
both accurate and precise.
Short Questions and Answers
Q: What are the four branches of science?
A: Biology, chemistry, physics, and Earth and space science.
Q: What is apparatus?
A: Apparatus is the name given to scientific equipment used in investigations.
Q: Why is glass commonly used for laboratory apparatus?
A: Because it is transparent (easy to see what's happening inside) and easy to clean.
Q: What type of glass is used for apparatus that will be heated?
A: Borosilicate glass, also known as Pyrex.
Q: What gas is commonly used in a Bunsen burner?
A: Methane.
Q: What is a luminous flame?
A: A yellow, silent flame produced when the air hole of the Bunsen burner is closed; it is cooler and
can produce soot.
Q: What is a non-luminous flame?
A: A blue, roaring flame produced when the air hole is fully open; it is hotter than the luminous flame.
Q: Why should safety eyewear be worn in the laboratory?
A: To protect the eyes when heating substances or using hazardous chemicals.
Q: What is a hypothesis?
A: An idea a scientist has to explain what has been observed.
Q: What makes a hypothesis untestable?
A: If it is not specific, is a matter of opinion (e.g. uses the word 'better'), or involves something
unnatural or impossible to test.
Q: What is the independent variable?
A: The variable that is changed by the scientist in the investigation.
Q: What is the dependent variable?
A: The variable that changes as a result of changing the independent variable.
Q: What are control variables?
A: The variables that the scientist keeps the same throughout the investigation, also called constant
variables.
Q: What is an extraneous variable?
A: A fourth type of variable that is not considered important to the investigation, e.g. the colour of the
laboratory walls.
Q: What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
A: Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true value; precision is how close repeated
measurements are to each other.
Q: What is a model in science?
A: Something used to make an idea, object or process easier to understand; models can be 3-D or
2-D.
Q: Give an example of a living thing used as a 3-D model.
A: The fruit fly, because it has a short life cycle and many generations can be studied quickly.
Q: What is a chemical equation an example of?
A: A 2-D scientific model/representation.
Q: What are the three basic stages of a scientific enquiry?
A: Purpose and planning; carrying out the enquiry and recording data; and analysis, evaluation and
conclusions.
Q: What is an anomalous result?
A: A result that does not fit in with the overall pattern or trend of the data.
Long Questions and Answers
Q: Explain the three stages of a scientific enquiry, describing what happens at each stage.
A: A scientific enquiry has three basic stages. Stage 1 (Purpose and planning): the scientist looks
at a hypothesis and considers whether it can be tested, thinks about how evidence could support or
contradict it, uses scientific knowledge to make a prediction, checks the meaning of hazard symbols,
and plans the investigation while considering the variables involved (not every investigation is a fair
test). Stage 2 (Carrying out the enquiry and recording data): the scientist selects and safely uses
equipment, decides how many measurements are needed for reliable data, uses instruments
accurately and precisely, works safely, may use evaluated secondary sources, and records enough
data in an easy-to-examine form. Stage 3 (Analysis, evaluation and conclusions): the scientist
compares predictions with results, looks for patterns/trends and anomalous results, draws a
conclusion while explaining its limitations, reviews the investigation to suggest improvements, and
communicates the findings clearly.
Q: Describe the three types of variables in a fair test, using an example to illustrate each.
A: In a fair test there are three main types of variables. The independent variable is the one that the
scientist deliberately changes, for example the amount of fertiliser given to plants. The dependent
variable is the one that changes as a result, such as the height the plants grow to. The control
variables are all the other factors that must be kept the same for the test to be fair, such as the type
of plant, amount of water, light and temperature. There is also a fourth type, the extraneous
variable, which is not considered important to the investigation, such as the colour of the laboratory
walls or the direction of the wind outside — these are not deliberately controlled because they are not
expected to affect the result.
Q: Explain how to safely light and operate a Bunsen burner, and describe the two types of flame
it can produce.
A: To light a Bunsen burner safely: first fully close the air hole using the collar. Light a match or splint
and hold it to one side of the top of the chimney, then turn on the gas tap. This produces a luminous
flame — yellow, silent and cooler — because not all the carbon in the gas combines with oxygen
straight away; glowing carbon particles make the flame yellow and can form soot on apparatus.
Turning the collar to fully open the air hole lets air mix with the gas, producing a non-luminous flame
— a roaring blue cone of unburnt gas with methane completely burning above it. This flame is hotter,
with its hottest point a few millimetres above the tip of the blue cone. The size of the flame is
controlled using the gas tap on the bench: fully open gives a large flame, partially closed gives a
smaller one. Safety precautions include wearing eye protection, tying back long hair, taking care not
to bump into others while carrying a lit splint, and never leaving a lit burner unattended with the air
hole in the wrong position.
Q: What is meant by a scientific model? Describe the different types of models with examples,
and explain why models are evaluated.
A: In science, a model is used to make something easier to understand; it represents observations
scientists have made about a real object or phenomenon. Some models are 3-D, such as a model
car or aeroplane showing length, width and height, or a 3-D model used to explain how the Earth
orbits the Sun. Living things can also act as 3-D models — for example, fruit flies are used to study
inheritance because they have short life cycles and many generations can be studied quickly, and an
aquarium tank stocked with pond plants and animals acts as a living model of a pond habitat. Most
scientific models, however, are 2-D — visual models made on paper or a screen, such as drawings,
diagrams, photographs, charts, graphs, and chemical equations (e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium
hydroxide → sodium chloride + water). Every type of model has strengths and weaknesses: for
instance, an aquarium tank habitat is easier to observe than a real pond, but it is not identical to the
real habitat, since conditions inside it are controlled rather than natural. Because of this, models
should always be evaluated to identify their strengths and limitations.
Q: Explain what is meant by a hypothesis and an untestable hypothesis, and describe how a
hypothesis is used within a scientific enquiry.
A: A hypothesis is an idea that a scientist has to explain what has been observed. In the first stage
of a scientific enquiry, the scientist looks at the hypothesis and considers whether it can actually be
tested, and thinks about how the evidence gathered during the enquiry might support or contradict it.
Some hypotheses are untestable. This happens if the hypothesis is not specific — for example,
saying 'it could be this or that' — or if it relies on a word like 'better', which is a matter of opinion rather
than something that can be measured. A hypothesis may also be untestable if it involves the
influence of something unnatural or impossible to investigate scientifically, such as the effect of flying
dragons on the world. Only a testable hypothesis can be properly investigated through planning,
carrying out an enquiry, and analysing results to reach a conclusion.
Q: Discuss the laboratory rules and safety measures described for working in a science
laboratory, and explain why they are important.
A: School laboratories are busy places, sometimes with around 30 people working at once, using
gas, water, electricity, a wide range of equipment, and some hazardous chemicals. Despite this,
there are fewer accidents in laboratories than in most other parts of a school because people
generally follow the teacher's advice and the safety rules posted on the laboratory wall. Rules for
entering and leaving include not running in or out, storing bags safely, putting stools under the bench
when not in use, and leaving the benchtop clean and dry. General behaviour rules include not
running, not eating or drinking, and working quietly. Before starting practical work, long hair should be
tied back, lab coats worn and buttoned, and safety eyewear worn whenever heating or hazardous
chemicals are involved. During experiments, a test tube containing chemicals should never be
pointed at anyone, breakages or spillages must be reported immediately, only teacher-approved
investigations should be carried out, and gas, water and electricity supplies must be used sensibly.
Hazard symbols, such as corrosive, acutely toxic, flammable, hazardous to the environment,
moderate hazard and health hazard symbols, are used to label dangerous substances so they can be
identified and handled properly. These rules are important because following them reduces the risk of
accidents and keeps everyone in the laboratory safe.