STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

LABORATORY MANUAL

Division of Structural Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering
CEGC, Anna University
Chennai – 600 025.
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

VISION:

Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, shall strive hard to develop and impart
technical knowledge and professional skills required for Civil Engineering practice through
excellence in teaching, research and consultancy to address sustainable infrastructure development
needs at local, national and international levels.

MISSION:

Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University shall contribute to technological and

development by

1. Providing a firm scientific and technological base in Civil Engineering to achieve self-
reliance.
2. Providing quality education through innovation in teaching practices at par with global
standards.
3. Nurturing leadership and entrepreneurship qualities with ethical values.
4. Developing and disseminating latest knowledge and technologies in emerging areas of
Civil Engineering.
5. Sharing intellectual resources and infrastructure facilities through collaborative partnership.
6. Ensuring supporting conditions for enhancing the employability skills.
 B.E CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Graduates of the programme B.E Civil Engineering will

PEO1 gain knowledge and skills in Civil engineering which will enable them to have a career
and professional accomplishment in the public or private sector organizations.
become consultants on complex real life Civil Engineering problems related to
PEO2
Infrastructure development especially housing, construction, water supply, sewerage,
transport, spatial planning.
become entrepreneurs and develop processes and technologies to meet desired
PEO3
infrastructure needs of society and formulate solutions that are technically sound,
economically feasible, and socially acceptable.
PEO4 perform investigation for solving Civil Engineering problems by conducting research
using modern equipment and software tools.
PEO5 function in multi-disciplinary teams and advocate policies, systems, processes and
equipment to support civil engineering

Programme Outcomes

Graduates of the programme B.E Civil Engineering will be able to

Engineering Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering

PO1 Knowledge fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO2 Problem analysis Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering
sciences.
Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
Design /
systems, components or processes that meet specified needs with
PO3 development of
appropriate consideration for public health and safety,
solutions cultural, societal and environmental considerations.
Conduct Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
Investigation of design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
PO4 synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions for complex
Complex
Problems problems that cannot be solved by straightforward application of
knowledge, theories and techniques applicable to the engineering
discipline as against problems given at the end of chapters in a typical
text book that can be solved using simple engineering theories and
techniques; that may not have a unique solution. For example, a
design problem can be solved in many ways and lead to multiple
possible solutions, that require consideration of appropriate
constraints /requirements not explicitly given in the problem
statement such as cost, power requirement, durability, product life,
etc. which need to be defined (modelled) within appropriate
mathematical framework; and that often require use of modern
computational concepts and tools, for example, in the design of an
antenna or a DSP filter.
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
Modern Tool
PO5 modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling
Usage
to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
 Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
The Engineer societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
PO6 responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
and Society
Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
PO7 Environment and societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
Sustainability knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
Ethics responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO8
Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
Individual
PO9 diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
and Team
Work
Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
Communication
PO10 engineering community and with society at large, such as, being
able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
Project
PO11 management principles and apply these to one's own work, as a
Management
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
and Finance
multidisciplinary environments.
Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
Life-Long
PO12 engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context
Learning
of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

Graduates of the programme B.E Civil Engineering will be able to

Knowledge of Civil Demonstrate in-depth knowledge of Civil Engineering discipline, with

PSO1 Engineering an ability to evaluate, analyze and synthesize existing and new
discipline knowledge.
Critical analysis of Critically analyze complex Civil Engineering problems, apply
Civil Engineering independent judgment for synthesizing information and make
PSO2
problems and innovative advances in a theoretical, practical and policy context.
innovation
Conceptualization Conceptualize and solve Civil Engineering problems, evaluate
and evaluation of potential solutions and arrive at technically feasible, economically
engineering viable and environmentally sound solutions with due consideration of
PSO3
solutions to Civil health, safety, and socio-cultural factors
Engineering
Issues
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY LTPC
0042

OBJECTIVES:
• To impart knowledge and skill relevant to the mechanical properties of materials
subjected to different types of loading on wood and steel.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Compression test on wood
2. Double shear test on metal
3. Torsion test on mild steel rod
4. Impact test on metal specimen (Izod and Charpy)
5. Hardness test on metals (Rockwell and Brinell Hardness Tests)
6. Deflection test on metal beam
7. Compression test on helical spring
8. Deflection test on carriage spring
9. Tension test on mild steel rod

OUTCOMES:
• On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to

CO1 Evaluate the tension and torsional behaviour of mild steel rod.
CO2 Interpret the hardness of different metals.
CO3 Conduct compression and deflection test to determine elastic constants.
CO4 Determine the impact resistance of metals.

CO5 Assess the performance of metal beam under deflection and metal rod under
double shear.

REFERENCES:
1. Strength of Materials Laboratory Manual, Anna University, Chennai-600 025.
2. IS 432(Part I ) -1992 – Specification for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars
and hard drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement
3. Rajput.R.K. Strength of Materials, [Link]& Company Ltd., New Delhi 2014.
 CO – PO Mapping - STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

Course Outcome Overall

PO/PSO CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 Correlation of
CO s to POs
PO1 Engineering Knowledge 3 3 3 3 3 3

PO2 Problem analysis 2 2 2 2 2 2

PO3 Design / development of
solutions
PO4 Conduct Investigation on 3 3 3 3 3 3
Complex Problems
PO5 Modern Tool Usage 3 3 3 3 3 3
PO6 The Engineer and Society 3 3 3 3 3 3
PO7 Environment and Sustainability
PO8 Ethics
PO9 Individual and Team work 3 3 3 3 3 3
PO10 Communication 2 2 2 2 2 2
PO11 Project Management and
Finance
PO12 Life Long Learning 2 2 2 2 2 2
PSO1 Knowledge of Civil 3 3 3 3 3 3
engineering discipline
PSO2 Civil Engineering Performance 3 3 3 3 3 3
Evaluation and coordination
PSO3 Conceptualization of Civil 3 3 3 3 3 3
Engineering Systems
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

Contents

S. Details Page
No No.
1 Tension Test on Mild Steel Rod

2 Compression Test on Helical Spring

3 Compression Test on Wood

4 Deflection Test on Metal Beams

5 Torsion Test on Mild Steel Rod

6 Deflection Test on Carriage Spring

7 Determination of Brinell Hardness Number

8 Determination of Rockwell Hardness Number

9 Double Shear Test on Metals

10 Izod / Charpy Impact Test

 1. TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

AIM:
To conduct a tension test on the given mild steel rod and to determine
the following:
1. Modulus of Elasticity.
2. Yield stress.
3. Ultimate stress
4. Breaking stress.
5. Percentage elongation over gauge length.
6. Percentage reduction in area.

APPARATUS USED:
Extensometer, Vernier calipers, Scale.

THEORY:
The test consists of straining a test piece by tensile stress to fracture and
to determine the mechanical properties. The cross section of the test piece may
be circular, square, rectangular, or in special cases of any other form. For test
pieces of rectangular section, the ratio of length to thickness should not exceed
8:1. The length of the test piece between the grips of the testing machine should
not be less than 9d in case of bars for which the diameter does not exceed
25mm. For other cross sections, the equivalent diameter of a circular bar may
be calculated based upon gross cross sectional area. For bars whose d is more
than 25mm, the distance between the grips should not be less than 4.5d. The
gripped ends may be of any shape to suit the holders of testing machine. For
ductile materials, plain ends and for brittle materials screwed ends may be used
for the gripping.
MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : FSA Universal Testing Machine.
Type : Vertical.
Capacity : 400 kN
Load application : Hydraulic.

EXTENSOMETER DETAILS:
Least count :

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE:

This is a vertical type of Universal Testing Machine. The loading is
effected hydraulically and the load measurement is by pendulum dynamometer.

The loading unit is housed separately from the measuring unit and the
pumps. A number of safety devices and a constant pressure-maintaining device
are the special features of this machine.

The load application is done by pumping oil under pressure into a

cylinder in which a ram is working. The ram moves upwards and along with it
the bending platform, fixed to the ram through two long columns, also moves.
Specimen placed between the cylinder bottom and the bending platform is
subjected to compression or bending stresses. Specimen gripped between the
bottom cross head and the bending platform is subjected to tension. The bottom
cross head known as the fixed crosshead can be moved up or down to adjust
initially for the length of tension specimen. Two electrical contacts are available
at a fixed distance, which limit the movement of fixed crosshead. An electric
motor rotates a nut and the fixed cross head is provided with threads and hence
the movement upwards or downwards.
Figure 1.1 - FSA Universal Testing Machine
PROCEDURE:
The diameter of the rod is measured using a vernier caliper. The
calculated gauge length is punched on the surface of the test specimen.

Assuming the average ultimate tensile stress to be 500 N/mm2, the

maximum load that the specimen can take is calculated. A range is chosen to
accommodate the calculated load.

Keeping the main switch pressed with one finger, the oil is pumped using
the ‘ball lever’ until the movable cross head goes up by 10mm. The ball lever is
moved to the neutral position.

The upper end of the specimen is firmly gripped to the movable

crosshead of the machine. The extensometer is firmly clamped to the
specimen. The zero error in the extensometer and the load dial is eliminated.
Then the lower end of the specimen is gripped after adjusting the bottom
crosshead of the machine for the correct height.

Load is gradually increased by opening the inlet valve. The loads in the
corresponding extensometer readings are entered in a tabular form. After
entering six or more set of readings, the extensometer is removed and the
loading is continued to find the yield load.
The yield load is clearly indicated by the load indicating pointer coming
to a stand still. Now the dummy pointer is placed along the neutral pointer and
the ultimate and breaking loads are found by destructing of the sample.
The broken specimen is removed from the machine. The broken parts
are placed together. The reduced diameter in the neck and the increase in
length over the gauge length are measured.
Stresses and strains are calculated for each of the readings and entered
in the tabulation.
OBSERVATION:
Determination of original diameter of the specimen

Least count of the vernier caliper =

Diameter = M.S.R +(V.S.C × L.C) in

[Link] M.S.R in mm V.S.C
mm
1
2
3
Mean original diameter d =
Mean original diameter of the specimen d = mm
Original area of cross section of the specimen A =
= mm2
Gauge length of the specimen, ‘l’ = 5.65 A1/2

= mm
Gauge length of the specimen at the fracture, l1 = mm

Find diameter of the specimen (at neck), df = mm

Find area of cross section of the specimen (at neck) = Af =  × df 2/4
= mm2

TABULATION:
Extensometer reading Stress
Load in Extension
[Link] in Strain
kN Initial Final Difference in mm
N/mm2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2
3
4
5
6
7
 8
9
10
11
12
13

Yield load = kN
Ultimate load = kN
Breaking load = kN

RESULT:
1. Modulus of elasticity, E = Nmm2
2. Yield stress = N/mm2
3. Ultimate stress = N/mm2
4. Breaking stress (theoretical) = N/mm2
5 Breaking stress (nominal) = N/mm2
6 Percentage elongation over the gauge length =
7 Percentage reduction in area =

MODEL CALCULATION:
For serial number =
Applied load, P = kN
Original area of cross-section
of the specimen, A = mm2
Nominal stress = P
------
A
= N/mm2
Original extensometer reading ` =
Final extensometer reading =
Difference in extensometer reading =
Extension = Difference in extensometer
reading × least count of
extensometer
= mm
Gauge length of extensometer = mm

Extension
Normal strain = --------------------------------------
Gauge length of extensometer

Yield load in Newton

Yield stress = ------------------------------------ = N/mm2
Original area of cross section

Ultimate load in Newton

Ultimate stress = ----------------------------------- = N/mm2
Original area of cross section

Breaking load in Newton

Normal breaking stress = ----------------------------------- = N/mm2
Original area of cross section

Breaking load in Newton

Actual breaking stress = --------------------------------- = N/mm2
Area of cross section at neck

(l1 - l) x 100
Percentage elongation = ------------------ = %
l

(A –Af) x 100
Percentage reduction in area = ------------------- = %
A
Questions
1. Define gauge length.
2. Differentiate between ductile and brittle fracture.
3. Define ultimate stress, yield stress, nominal breaking stress, and actual
breaking stress.
4. Why the machine is named as UTM?
5. Define the term “strain hardening”.
6. Explain the terms ‘range’ and ‘capacity’ of the machine.
 2. COMPRESSION TEST ON HELICAL SPRING

AIM:
The aim of the experiment is to conduct a compression test on the given
helical spring and to determine the following.

1. Shear modulus.
2. Stiffness of the spring.
3. Proof load.
4. Shear stress at proof load.
5. Strain energy stored at proof load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Avery’s Compression Spring testing machine, Vernier calipers and,
scale.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Avery’s Compression Spring Testing Machine
Type : Vertical.
Capacity : 500 kg.
Load Application : Mechanical Gear System.
Load Measurement : Lever Type Dynamometer

DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE:

The Avery’s type spring testing machine consists of a platform mounted

on a system of weighing levers and any vertical load applied to the platform is
transmitted to the load indicating pointer by means of this lever system. The
staining unit for the spring consists of a straining platen capable of being moved
upwards or downward by means of a rack and pinion arrangement operated by
a large hand wheel. A pointer attached to the compression platen moves along
a graduated scale and this facilitates the necessary strain measurement being
made. A small lever with sliding weight enables elimination of zero error if any.

PROCEDURE:

The dimension of the given spring as given in specimen details are

measured and recorded. The spring is kept on the bottom circular base of the
testing machine. The indicator of the load circular base of the testing machine
is adjusted to read zero by moving the sliding weight. The pointer of the vertical
scale is adjusted to read a convenient value. The value is entered in the tabular
statement against zero load. The vertical circular hand wheel is rotated and the
compression load is applied on the spring to deform the spring to a specific
value, say [Link] corresponding load is read from the load dial. The loading
process is repeated and the values are entered in the tabular form. After taking
sufficient number of readings in the ascending order, the hand wheel is rotated
in the opposite direction. So that the loads are noted for every 4mm decrease
in deformation i.e. the readings are taken in the descending order.

A graph is drawn between applied load (P) and the actual deflection ( ).
Figure 2.1 - Avery’s Compression Spring Testing Machine
SPECIMEN DIMENSIONS:
Outer diameter of the spring Do = mm.
Inner diameter of the spring Di = mm.
(𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 )
Diameter of the spring wire d =
2

= mm.
(𝐷𝑜 + 𝐷𝑖 )
Mean radius of the spring R =
4

= mm.
Number of turns, n =
Free height of the spring, H = mm.
Air gap = (H-nd)
= mm.

CALCULATION:
1. Stiffness of the spring or spring constant

K = slope of Load Vs Deflection curve.

= N/mm.

2. Shear modulus of the material of the spring

(64 R3 n) (W/ )
G =
d4

(64 R3 n)∗ K
=
d4

= N/mm2
3. Proof load (Wp):

The maximum load that a spring can carry without suffering any permanent
deformation is called proof load or the load at which there is no air gap between
the coils.

Proof load Wp = K × (H –nd)

= ……….. N
= kN

Wp
(16 Wp R)
4. Shear stress at proof load =
 𝑑3

= ………. N/mm2

5. Strain energy at proof load = UWp

(Wp)2

= -------- * volume
4G

(16 Wp R) 2 * (d 2) * (Dn)

= -----------------------------------
(( d 3) 2 * 4G) * 4

= ……………kN
TABULATION:
Vertical scale reading Deflection Applied load in Mean
S.
(cm) in mm Kg load W in
No.
Initial Final difference Loading unloading kg N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

RESULTS:

Stiffness of the spring = N/mm

Shear modulus of the material of the spring = N/mm2

Proof load = kN

Shear stress at proof load = kN/mm2

Strain energy stored at proof load = kN.m

Questions
1. Differentiate between close coiled and open coiled spring.
2. Define the terms stiffness, shear stress, modulus of rigidity and proof
resilience.
3 Mention some practical applications of springs.
4. What is leaf spring and mention its applications?
 3. COMPRESSION TEST ON WOOD

AIM:
The aim of the experiment is to find the Young’s Modulus of wood by
conducting a compression test on wood parallel to the wood grains.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Olsen’s Universal Testing Machine.
Type : Vertical.
Capacity : 50,000 lbs.
Range available : 50,000 lbs.
Load application : By screw gear.
Load measurement : Multiple lever system.
Speeds available : 0.015’’/min.,0.024’’/min.,0.1’’/[Link]
0.25’’/min.
Speeds used : 0.015’’/min.

SPECIMEN DETAILS:
Specimen : Wood
Size : …….mm x…….mm x……mm
Cross sectional area : ……...mm2

STRAIN GAUGE DETAILS:

Strain gauge : Compressor
Type : Mechanical
Least count : 0.01mm.
Gauge length : 100mm.
Figure 3.1 Olsen’s Universal Testing Machine
TEST PROCEDURE:
The movable head is first adjusted to the required height and the rotating
shaft is adjusted such that the minimum speed of 0.015in./mm. is attained. The
compressor is fixed to the specimen and the specimen is fixed in between the
movable and fixed head. The weighing beam is made horizontal by adjusting
the counter poise. the operating levers are checked for their neutral position.
Then the required load is kept on the weighing beam by rotating the circular
disc. By this, the horizontality of the weighing beam is disturbed and is made
horizontal by applying the load through the lever. Different loads are applied
and the corresponding reading in the compressometer is noted. Thus, about six
readings are taken. Stresses and strains are calculated for all the six readings.
A graph is drawn between stress along the y-axis and strain along the x-axis.
The slope of the stress-strain curve diagram gives the modulus of elasticity of
the given wooden specimen.

CALCULATION:
load
Stress = ---------------------
area of cross-section

= N/mm2

Compression = (Diff. × L.C) of compressometer

Gauge length over compression = mm

Compression
Strain = -----------------
Gauge length

Stress
From the graph Young’s Modulus E = ---------
Strain

= N/mm2
TABULATION:
Load in Compressometer readings
[Link]. Stress Strain
Lbs N Initial Final Difference

1
2
3
4
5
6

RESULTS:
Young’s modulus of wood = N/mm2

INFERENCE:
The Modulus of Elasticity of teak wood as found by the
experiment is ……... than the standard value of 1.02 × 104 N/mm2

Questions
1. Compare the modulus of elasticity of wood and mild steel
2. Compare the stresses when loading parallel to grains and
perpendicular to the grains.
 4. DEFLECTION TEST ON METAL BEAMS

AIM:
To conduct a deflection test on the given metal beam in the simply
supported condition and to find the Young’s Modulus of the material of the
beam.

APPARATUS USED:
Cusson’s deflection testing apparatus, Vernier calipers scale.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a horizontal beam with two movable supports
on it. The supports can be fixed to the horizontal beam at any place by
tightening the nuts provided for this purpose. Self-aligning spherical seating
arrangements are provided on top of the supports to accommodate the rotation
of the beam at the support. Grooves are provided on the seating arrangements
for placing circular bars.

PROCEDURE:
The size of the given beam is measured. The supports are arranged to
the Required span and the beam is placed over the supports. The deflectometer
is kept at ‘x’ distance from the left support and the weight hanger is kept at ‘a’
distance from the same support. The initial reading to the deflectometer is
noted. The load is increased at 2 lb. Interval up to a maximum of 12 lb. The
corresponding readings in the deflectometer are observed.
Figure 4.1 - Cusson’s deflection testing apparatus
FORMULA
The general expression for deflection at any point “x” is given by:

W b x (l2 - b2 - x2)

Deflection (x) = ----------------------------- for ‘x’  a, where l = a + b.

6EIl

OBSERVATIONS:
Span of the beam, l = mm.

Width of the beam, B = mm.

Depth of the beam, D = mm.
or diameter of the rod D = mm.
Position of load, a = mm.
Position of deflectometer, x = mm.

CALCULATION:
Moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis.
For rectangular section, I = BD3
--------
12

For circular section, I =  D3

---------
12
I = mm4

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam E= W b x (l 2 – b2 - x 2)

---------------------------
6I l

= mm4
TABULATION:
Deflectometer reading
Load
Load in While While Deflection
[Link]. in
Newton increasing the decreasing the Average in mm.
lbs.
load load

GRAPH:
A graph is drawn connecting load (in the y-axis) and the deflection (in the x-
axis)

RESULT:
Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam = N/mm2

INFERENCE:
The load vs. deflection graph exhibits a linear relationship. The value of
the Modulus of Elasticity obtained for the given beam is ___________ than the
standard value.

Questions
1. Explain the terms pure bending, slope, and deflection.
2. Derive the relation connecting M, E, I., and .
3. Compare deflection test and compression test.
 5. TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

AIM:
To conduct a torsion test on the given mild steel rod and to find the
Modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : FSA Digital Torsion Testing Machine
Type : Horizontal
Capacity : 1000 Nm
Load application : Electric

DESCRIPTION:
The machine consists of one fixed cross head and another crosshead,
which can be moved along the horizontal bars. The movable crosshead is
attached to a heavy weight pendulum dynamometer. The dial indicator is
operated by rack and pinion arrangement such that the shift of the pendulum is
directly calibrated to give the applied torque. The cross head fixed in position
can be axially rotated by gear system either manually or by electrical motors.
Two bars trophometers, which can read upto an accuracy of 3 minutes, are also
available to read the angular twist of the required points.

T G fs
--- = ---- = ---
J L R

Where , T - Torsional moment in [Link]

J - Polar moment of inertia
( d4 )
=
(32)

d - Diameter of the rod in mm.

𝑑
R -
2
  - Angle of twist in radians.
L - Length of shaft
fs - Shear stress at the extreme fibre
G - Modulus of rigidity

PROCEDURE:
1. The diameter of the given mild steel rod is measured accurately.
Using a special type of gauge marking tool, a pair of diametrically
opposite gauge marks is punched on the test specimen.

2. The rod is fixed in the grips attached to the crosshead.

3. Specified values of torque, is applied and the angle of twisting

reading is entered.

4. These values are entered in the tabular statement. The angle of twist
in radians per increment of the applied torque is entered in the same
tabulation.

5. A graph is plotted connecting the angle of twist and the applied

torque.
OBSERVATIONS:
Determination of original diameter of the specimen
Least count of the vernier caliper = 0.02mm.

M.S.R in Diameter = M.S.R +(V.S.C *L.C) in

[Link] V.S.C
mm mm
1
2
3
Mean original diameter d =

Mean original diameter of the specimen d = mm.

Applied Torque Twist  in

[Link]
N.m Degree Radians

CALCULATIONS:

For [Link]. ……...

Applied torque T = ………Nm

= ………[Link]
Radius of the specimen R = ……… mm.
 d4
Polar moments of inertia of the specimen =
32
𝑇
Maximum shear stress for the torque T,max = R
𝐽
Gauge length, L =
A graph is plotted for applied torque along y axis and angle of along x- axis.
The slope T/  is measured.

J = d4
-------
32
= mm4
𝑇 𝐿
G = Modulus of rigidity = ( )
𝜃 𝐽

G = N/mm2

RESULT:
The Value of Modulus of Rigidity for Given Specimen is
____________

INFERENCE:
The value of the Modulus of Rigidity obtained for the given test sample
is ………... than the standard value for mild steel. (The torque Vs twist graph
exhibits a typical linear relationship)

Questions
1. What do you mean by pure torsion?
2. Draw the stress distribution on the cross section of the material
subjected to
pure torsion
3. Define polar moment of inertia
 6. DEFLECTION TEST ON CARRIAGE SPRING USING
AVERYS SPRING TESTING MACHINE

AIM:
Aim of this experiment is to conduct deflection test on the given carriage
spring and to determine the following:
(i) Modulus of elasticity ‘E’
(ii) Stiffness of the spring ‘K’
(iii) Proof load ‘Wp’
(iv) Extreme fibre stress at proof load ‘ wp’
(v) Strain energy stored in the spring at proof load ‘U wp’

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(i) Avery’s Spring Testing Machine.
(ii) Vernier calipers and scale.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Averys Spring Testing Machine
Type : Vertical
Capacity : 500 kg.
Load application : Mechanical Gear System
Load measurement : Lever Type Dynamometer

DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE:
The Avery’s type spring testing machine consists of a platform mounted
on system of weighing levers and any vertical load applied to the platform is
transmitted to the load indicating pointer by means of a lever system. The
straining unit of the spring consists of a compression plate capable of being
moved upwards or downwards by means of a rack and pinion arrangement
operated by a large hand wheel. A pointer attached to the compression platen
moves along a graduated scale and this facilitates the necessary strain
measurements being made. A small lever with a sliding weight enables
Figure 6.1 - Averys Spring Testing Machine
elimination of zero error, if any.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMEN:
The carriage spring also named as laminated spring, semi- elliptical
spring or leaf spring or leaf spring consists of number of thin curved plates of
uniform cross section but of varying lengths at intermediate points.

PROCEDURE:
The dimensions of the given carriage spring are measured accurately.
The carriage spring is kept over the special roller supports provided in the
testing machine such that the load is applied gradually and centrally. The sliding
weight is adjusted to move the load dial to read zero. The pointer of the vertical
scale is adjusted to read a convenient value. The value is entered in the tabular
statement against zero load. The vertical circular handwheel is rotated and the
load is applied on the spring to deform the spring to a specific value.

The corresponding load is read from the load dial. The loading process
is repeated till sufficient number of readings is obtained and these values are
entered in the table.
OBSEVATIONS:
APPLIED
VERTICAL SCALE READING
DEFLECTION LOAD
[Link]. (cm)
IN mm ‘W’ IN
INITIAL FINAL DIFFERENCE Kg N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

DETERMINATION OF BREADTH OF SPRING

Least Count of Vernier Caliper, LC =
[Link] M.S.R V.S.R [M.S.R + (V.S.R X L.C)]
1
2
3
MEAN BREADTH

DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF SPRING

[Link]. M.S.R V.S.R [M.S.R + ( V.S.R X L.C)]
1
2
3
MEAN THICKNESS
SPECIMEN DETAILS:
Average width of the spring ‘b’ =
Overall length of the spring Lo =
Diameter of the roller at one end d1 =
Diameter of the roller at other end d2 =
Thickness of spring =
(d1 + d2 )
Average diameter of the rollers ‘d’ =
2
=
Effective length of the spring ‘L’ = (Overall length) – (Average
diameter of rollers.)
=
Number of plates, n =

Thickness of each plate ‘t’ = thickness of spring

-----------------------
number of plates

=
Air gap = (H - nt – d)
=

CALCULATION:
1. Stiffness of the spring ‘k’
Stiffness of the spring is the load required to cause
W
unit deformation (from graph) “k” =

=
2. Modulus of Elasticity ‘E’ = 3WL3
-----------
8 n b t3
3. Proof load ‘wp ‘ = K [Air gap]
=

4. Extreme fibre stress at Proof Load ‘wp’ = 3 x Wp x L

---------------
2 x n b t2

5. Strain energy at Proof Load ‘Uwp’ =

(wp )2
x volume
6E

Uwp = (wp)2 btnL

------- x --------
6E 2

RESULTS:
1. Stiffness of the spring ‘k’ =
2. Modulus of Elasticity of the material
of the spring ‘E’ =
3. Proof Load, Wp =
4. Extreme fibre stress at proof load (wp) =
5. Strain energy at proof load (Uwp) =
 HARDNESS TEST ON METALS

INTRODUCTION:
Hardness is an important physical property of a material. Hardness can
be varyingly defined as the resistance to scratching, resistance to abrasion,
ability to cut other materials, resistance to plastic deformation etc. Of the various
tests of hardness an indentation test is performed in this experiment. The
indentation method of determining hardness has been applied in three ways.

1. By testing the material with itself.

[Link] pressing (statically) a harder material into the material under test
load and

3. By producing the indentation by dropping a ball or cone pointed.

Both the Brinell hardness and Rockwell test fall under the second
category.
For finding the hardness using these methods, materials are classified
as

1. Ferrous 2. Non-Ferrous

The size of the indentator, time of load application, the applied

load etc. differ for them. This is because of the fact that the material may
be

1. soft 2. Medium 3. Hard

Hardness tests are generally employed for
1. Rapid control of chemical composition and carbon content during
iron and steel smelting.
2. Testing finished articles without damaging the same.
3. Testing the effectiveness of heat treatment processes/.

An empirical relation between the strength and hardness of ferrous

metals seems to exist. If the Brinell hardness tester is used, the test sample will
be left with a distinct mark. Also, the observation will be followed by a calculation
to find the stress per unit of curved area of indentation.

However, the calculation is reduced in Rockwell hardness tester by

providing graduated circular disc from which depth of penetration of the
indentator which gives a measure of the hardness of the sample can be directly
read.
 7. DETERMINATION OF BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER

AIM:

The aim of the experiment is to find the Brinell Hardness number of the
given specimen using Saroj's hand operated hardness testing machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Hand operated hardness testing machine, Brinell microscope, Stop

watch, emery paper.

SPECIMEN:

Brass, Copper, Aluminium and Mild Steel.

MACHINE DETAILS:

Name : Saroj's Hand Operated Hardness Testing

Machine

Capacity : 3000 kgm

Ranges : 250 to 3000 kgm in stages of 250 kgm

Load application : Directing loading by weights

Load measurement : Direct measurement

Indentor size : 10 mm diameter steel ball.

Figure 7.1 – Hand Operated Hardness Testing Machine (Side View)
Figure 7.2 – Hardness Testing Machine (Front View)
DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE:

The machine is capable of applying either a 3000 kgm or 500 kgm load
on the specimen (3000 kgm for hard materials and 500 kgm for soft materials).
The indentor for all materials is mm diameter steel ball. The load is applied by
means of a vertical spindle which carries indentor at the lower end and that can
be moved upwards or downwards by rotating the vertical hand wheel on the
right side of the machine. The specimen is kept on the plate resting on system
of levers. Loading hangers are suspended at the back of the machine.

PROCEDURE:

The surface of the given specimen is polished using a 0-0 emery paper.
The specimen is kept on the worktable. The horizontal hand wheel is rotated
till the indentor just touches the surface of the specimen. The required weight
(3000 kgm for mild steel, 500 kgm for aluminum and 1000 kgm for brass and
copper) is placed on the load hangers. The vertical handle is rotated at a steady
rate so as to bring the straining screw down and start a stop watch. At the end
of the specified period of maintenance of maximum load (15 seconds for hard
materials and 30 seconds for soft materials), rotate the vertical hand wheel in
the opposite direction so as to raise the straining screw. The specimen is
removed from the worktable and the diameter or the indentation is measured
correct to 0.1mm with the Brinell microscope. The above procedure to obtain
at least three indentations for each specimen taking care to see that each
impression is away from the edge of the specimen or another impression by at
least three times the diameter of the impression. The observations are entered
in the tabular form.
CALCULATION:

SPECIMEN:

Applied load P = kgm

Diameter of the indentor D = mm

Diameter of the indentation d = mm

𝜋
Surface area of the indentation As = 𝐷 [𝐷 − √(𝐷 2 − 𝑑 2 )]
2

𝑃
Brinell Hardness Number =
𝐴𝑠

RESULTS:

Brinell Hardness Number for

Mild Steel = 10/3000/15"

Copper = 10/1000/30"

Aluminium = 10/500/30"

Brass = 10/1000/30"

Questions

1. Give the IS specification for the specimen, and indentors.

2. Compare the Brinell hardness number for ferrous and nonferrous

materials.

3. Give the relation connecting load and diameter of ball indentor for hard
and soft materials.

4. Derive the equation for Brinell hardness number.

 8. DETERMINATION OF ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER

AIM:
The aim of the experiment is to find the Rockwell Hardness number of
the given specimen using Rockwell hardness testing machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Rockwell Hardness Tester (Avery type), emery paper, Indentors.

SPECIMEN:
Brass, Copper, Aluminium and Mild Steel.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
Capacity : 150 kg
Ranges : 60,100 and 150 kg.
Load application : Directing loading by weight.
Load measurement : Direct measurement.
Indentor size : Steel ball of 1.58 mm and Brate diamond.
Scales : ‘B’ and ‘C’

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE:

The machine consists of a main loading lever of 19 to 1 ratio, fulcrummed
at one end and having a hanger for loose weights at the other end. The
penetrator column is mounted near the main fulcrum. A secondary gauge lever
of 5 to 1 ratio is provided to indicate the movements of the penetrator on the
loading dial. The specimen under test is supported on a suitable work table
mounting on an elevating screw. Normally when the machine is idle, the loading
lever will be inclined, resting on the machine body. When the specimen is forced
in to the penetrator by rotating the elevating screw, the lever will be pushed
upwards and the lever comes to the horizontal position, the minor load of 10 kg.
will have been applied on the specimen. The position is indicated by a small
indicator in the dial reading its “set” position. Loose weights supplied with the
machine enable us to apply load of 60,100 and 150 kg on the specimen. Here
again, the weights will be resting on an annular ring and when this cup is
withdrawn by pressing the bell crank lever, the weights will descend on to the
loading lever, the rate of descend being effectively controlled by oil dashed pot.

PROCEDURE:
The surface of the given specimen is rubbed with emery paper to remove
all mill scale from the surface. Depending upon the probable hardness of the
specimen the scale to be employed is to be selected. (Hard metals like steel is
tested with “C” scale and soft metals like brass, copper and aluminium are
tested with ‘B’ scale). The penetrator and the major load are correspondingly
chosen. The specimen under test is kept on the worktable and the elevating
screw is raised by turning the handle till the small pointer on the dial reaches
the “set” position. The bezel of the bigger dial is rotated till the needle reads
“set” position corresponding to C-0 and B-30. Then the major load is applied by
pressing the bell crank lever forward. When the pointer on the dial comes to
rest, the bell crank lever is pulled backward. The reading indicated by the
pointer is noted on the appropriate scale. The above procedure is repeated for
at least three different sets of observations for each of the given specimen the
readings are entered in the tabular column shown below.
Figure 8.1 - Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine (Side View)
Figure 8.2 - Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine (Front View)
TABULATION:
Rockwell Hardness
S. No Material Load in kg Indentor
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

RESULTS:
The Rockwell Hardness Number for
Aluminium ranges from = ……B - ……..B
Copper ranges from = ……B - ……..B
Brass ranges from = ……B - ……..B
Mild steel ranges from = ……C - ……..C
 9. DOUBLE SHEAR TEST ON METALS
AIM:
The aim of the experiment is to find the maximum shear stress of metals.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Shear shackle, Vernier Calipers

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Oslen’s U.T.M.
Type : Vertical
Capacity : 50,000 lbs
Range used : 50,000 lbs
Load application : Screw Gear
Load measurement : Multiple Lever system.

TEST PROCEDURE:
The diameter of the specimen is measured accurately. The specimen is
inserted in shear shackle. Then the shear shackle is placed on the bending
bench of the machine. The movable cross head is lowered by operating the
slow motion lever till the top of the shear shackle touches the top cross head of
the machine. Load is applied on the specimen by operating the load application
lever till it fails by double shear. The maximum shear stress of the specimen is
calculated.

SPECIMEN:

MATERIAL -
Diameter of the specimen -
Area of cross section of specimen -
Shear Area -
Figure 9.1 - Oslen’s Universal Testing Machine
OBSERVATION:
Diameter of mild steel rod =
Diameter of aluminium rod =
Maximum shear load on mild steel rod =
Maximum shear load on aluminium rod =

CALCULATION:

MILD STEEL
Ultimate Shear Load =
Shear stress =
ALUMINIUM
Ultimate Shear Load =
Shear stress =

RESULT:
Ultimate shear stress for steel =
Ultimate shear stress for Aluminium =

Questions

1. Differentiate between single shear and double shear.

2. Define shear area and shear stress.
 10. IZOD / CHARPY IMPACT TEST
AIM:
To determine the impact resistance of the given specimen.

MACHINE DETAILS:
Name : Pendulum Impact Testing Machine
Capacity : 300 Joules.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE:

The pendulum impact testing machine consists of a robust frame, a
specimen support and measuring dial. The pendulum shaft in bearings. The
pendulum is clamped to the pendulum shaft. The pendulum consists of the
pendulum pipe and the pendulum hammer of U-shaped design, into this, the
striker is mounted in the inclined position for conducting Charpy impact test and
horizontally for conducting he Izod impact test. The range, within which the
pendulum is swinging, is partially protected by the guard. A latch is provided
which keeps the pendulum in elevated position. A lever is provided for operating
the latch and releasing the pendulum. There is a dial attached concentrically
with the pendulum shaft. The scale is designed such that the impact energy
absorbed in breaking the specimen can be read directly in joules.

SPECIMEN:
Mild Steel.

PROCEDURE:
For conducting Charpy/lzod test, a proper striker is to be secured firmly
to the bottom of the hammer with the help of clamping. Charpy/lzod test
hammer is to be firmly clamped to the bearing housings at the side. Before
proceeding to the actual test. the test for determining the frictional loss in the
machine is to be conducted. Adjust the reading pointer with pointer carrier to
300 J dial reading, when the pendulum is hanging freely in the vertical position.
For this, use socket head screw of carrier. Now raise the hammer and latch it
in position. Release the hammer using the operating lever. The pointer will then
indicate the energy loss due to friction. From this reading, confirm that the
friction loss does not exceed 0.5% of the initial potential energy. Place the given
specimen in the groove and release the hammer so as to strike the specimen.
The dial reading directly gives the energy absorbed by the specimen in joules.

Figure 10.1 - Pendulum Impact Testing Machine

CALCULATION:
Energy absorbed without specimen =

Energy absorbed with specimen =

Net energy absorbed by the specimen =

Area of the specimen under the notch =

Impact resistance = Energy absorbed

----------------------------
Are under the notch

RESULT:
The impact resistance of mild steel is = J/mm²