Pure Core 2

Revision Notes
 Pure Core 2
1 Algebra .................................................................................................................. 3
Polynomials ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Factorising ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Standard results .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Long division ..............................................................................................................................................3
Remainder theorem .......................................................................................................................... 4
Factor theorem .................................................................................................................................. 5
Choosing a suitable factor...........................................................................................................................6
Cubic equations ................................................................................................................................ 7

2 Trigonometry ......................................................................................................... 8
Radians ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Connection between radians and degrees .................................................................................................. 8
Arc length , area of a sector and area of a segment.................................................................................... 8
Trigonometric functions ................................................................................................................... 9
Basic results ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Exact values for 30o, 45o and 60o ............................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Sine and cosine rules and area of triangle......................................................................................... 9
Sine rule ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Ambiguous case ........................................................................................................................................10
Cosine rule ................................................................................................................................................10
Area of triangle .........................................................................................................................................10
Graphs of trigonometric functions .................................................................................................. 10
Graphs of y = sin nx, y = sin(–x), y = sin(x + n) etc. ..............................................................................11
Solving trigonometrical equations .................................................................................................. 12
Using identities ............................................................................................................................... 13

3 Coordinate Geometry .......................................................................................... 15

Mid point ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Distance between two points .......................................................................................................... 15
Perpendicular lines ......................................................................................................................... 15
Circle .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Centre at the origin ...................................................................................................................................15
General equation .......................................................................................................................................16
Equation of tangent ...................................................................................................................................17
Intersection of line and circle ....................................................................................................................17

4 Sequences and series ......................................................................................... 19

Geometric series ............................................................................................................................. 19
Finite geometric series ..............................................................................................................................19
Infinite geometric series............................................................................................................................20
Proof of the formula for the sum of a geometric series .............................................................................19
Binomial series for positive integral index ..................................................................................... 21
Pascal’s triangle ........................................................................................................................................21
Factorials...................................................................................................................................................22
Binomial coefficients or nCr or 𝒏𝒓........................................................................................................22

5 Exponentials and logarithms ............................................................................... 23

Graphs of exponentials and logarithms...........................................................................................23
Rules of logarithms .........................................................................................................................23
Changing the base of a logarithm ...................................................................................................24
A particular case ....................................................................................................................................... 24
Equations of the form ax = b .........................................................................................................24

6 Differentiation ...................................................................................................... 25
 Increasing and decreasing functions ...............................................................................................25
Stationary points and local maxima and minima (turning points) ..................................................25
Using second derivative ........................................................................................................................... 26
Using gradients before and after............................................................................................................... 27
Maximum and minimum problems.................................................................................................28

7 Integration ........................................................................................................... 29
Definite integrals ............................................................................................................................29
Area under curve ............................................................................................................................29
Numerical integration: the trapezium rule ......................................................................................30

8 Appendix ............................................................................................................. 31
Binomial coefficients, nCr .............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Choosing r objects from n ..................................................................................................................... 31
n
Cr = nCn – r...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
(a + b)n .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
Points of inflexion...........................................................................................................................32
To find a point of inflexion ...................................................................................................................... 32
Integration .......................................................................................................................................33
Area under graph – sum of rectangles ...................................................................................................... 33
Integration as ‘anti-differentiation’ ........................................................................................................... 33

Index ....................................................................................................................... 34
1 Algebra
Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression of the form
anxn + an –1 xn –1 + . . . a2x2 + a1x + a0
where all the powers of x are positive integers or 0.
Addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials are easy, division must be done by
long division.

Factorising
General examples of factorising:
2ab + 6ac2 = 2a(b + 3c2)
x2 – 5x + 6 = (x – 2)(x – 3)
x2 – 6x = x(x – 6)
6x2 – 11x – 10 = (3x + 2)(2x – 5)
2ax – 3by – 6ay + bx = 2ax – 6ay + bx – 3by
= 2a(x – 3y) + b(x – 3y)
= (2a + b)(x – 3y)

Standard results
x2 – y2 = (x – y)(x + y), difference of two squares
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2,
(x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2

Long division
Example:
3x2 – 5x + 9
3
2x2 + 3x – 1 6x4 – x + x – 3
6x4 + 9x3 – 3x2
–10x3 + 3x2 + x – 3
–10x3 – 15x2 + 5x
18x2 – 4x – 3
18x2 + 27x – 9
– 31x + 6

Þ when 6x4 – x3 + x – 3 is divided by 2x2 + 3x – 1,

the quotient is 3x2 – 5x + 9, and the remainder is –31x + 6.
Remainder theorem

If 627 is divided by 6 the quotient is 104 and the remainder is 3.

This can be written as 627 = 6 ´ 104 + 3.
In the same way, if a polynomial
P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... anxn is divided by (cx + d) to give a quotient, Q(x) with a
remainder r, then r will be a constant (since the divisor is of degree one) and we can write
P(x) = (cx + d) ´ Q(x) + r
If we now choose the value of x which makes (cx + d) = 0 Þ x = –d/c
then we have P (-d c ) = 0 ´ Q(x) + r

Þ P ( - d c ) = r.

Theorem: If we put x = –d/c in the polynomial we obtain r, the remainder that we would
have after dividing the polynomial by (cx + d).

Example: The remainder when P(x) = 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 9 is divided by (2x – 3) is –6, and
when P(x) is divided by (x + 2) the remainder is 1.
Find the values of a and b.

Solution: (2x – 3) = 0 when x = 3/2,

Þ dividing P(x) by (2x – 3) gives a remainder
P (3 2 ) = 2 ´ ( 3 2 ) 3 + a ´ ( 3 2 ) 2 + b ´ (3 2 ) + 9 = –6
Þ 3a + 2b = –29 I

and (x + 2) = 0 when x = –2,

Þ dividing P(x) by (x + 2) gives a remainder
P(–2) = 2 ´ (–2)3 + a ´ (–2)2 + b ´ (–2) + 9 = 1
Þ 4a – 2b = 8 II

I + II Þ 7a = 21
Þ a = –3
using I we get b = –10
Factor theorem

Theorem: If, in the remainder theorem, r = 0 then (cx + d) is a factor of P(x)

Þ P (-d c ) = 0 Û (cx + d) is a factor of P(x).

Example: A quadratic equation has solutions (roots) x = –1/2 and x = 3. Find the quadratic
equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0

Solution: The equation has roots x = – ½ and x = 3

Þ it must have factors (2x + 1) and (x – 3) by the factor theorem

Þ an equation is (2x + 1)(x – 3) = 0

Þ 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 0. or any multiple

Example: Show that (x – 2) is a factor of P(x) = 6x3 – 19x2 + 11x + 6 and hence factorise
the expression completely.

Solution: Choose the value of x which makes (x – 2) = 0, i.e. x = 2

Þ remainder = P(2) = 6 ´ 8 – 19 ´ 4 + 11 ´ 2 + 6 = 48 – 76 + 22 + 6 = 0
Þ (x – 2) is a factor by the factor theorem.
We have started with a cubic and so we the other factor must be a quadratic, which can
be found by long division or by ‘common sense’.
Þ 6x3 – 19x2 + 11x + 6 = (x – 2)(6x2 – 7x – 3)
= (x – 2)(2x – 3)(3x + 1)
which is now factorised completely.
Choosing a suitable factor
To choose a suitable factor we look at the coefficient of the highest power of x and the
constant (the term without an x).

Example: Factorise 2x3 + x2 – 13x + 6.

Solution: 2 is the coefficient of x3 and 2 has factors of 2 and 1.

6 is the constant term and 6 has factors of 1, 2, 3 and 6
Þ the possible linear factors of 2x3 + x2 – 13x + 6 are
(x ± 1), (x ± 2), (x ± 3), (x ± 6)
(2x ± 1), (2x ± 2), (2x ± 3), (2x ± 6)

But (2x ± 2) = 2(x ± 1) and (2x ± 6) = 2(x ± 3), so they are not new factors.

We now test the possible factors using the factor theorem until we find one that works.
Test (x – 1), put x = 1 giving 2 ´ 13 + 12 – 13 ´ 1 + 6 ¹ 0
Test (x + 1), put x = –1 giving 2 ´ (–1)3 + (–1)2 – 13 ´ (–1) + 6 ¹ 0
Test (x – 2), put x = 2 giving 2 ´ 23 + 22 – 13 ´ 2 + 6 = 16 + 4 – 26 + 6 = 0
and since the result is zero (x – 2) is a factor.

We now divide to give

2x3 + x2 – 13x + 6 = (x – 2)(2x2 + 5x – 3)
= (x – 2)(2x – 1)(x + 3).
Cubic equations

Factorise using the factor theorem then solve.

N.B. The quadratic factor might not factorise in which case you will need to use the
formula for this part.

Example: Solve the equation 2x3 + x2 – 3x + 1 = 0.

Solution: Possible factors are (x ± 1) and (2x ± 1).

Put x = 1 we have 2 ´ 13 + 12 – 3´1 + 1 = 1 ¹ 0
Þ (x – 1) is not a factor
Put x = –1 we have 2 ´ (–1)3 + (–1)2 – 3´(–1) + 1 = 3 ¹ 0
Þ (x + 1) is not a factor
Putting x = 1 we have 2 ´ 1 3 + 1 2 – 3´ 1 + 1 = 0
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2

Þ (2x – 1) is a factor
Þ 2x3 + x2 – 3x + 1 = (2x – 1)(x2 + x – 1) = 0

Þ x = 12 or x2 + x – 1 = 0 – this will not factorise so we use the formula

Þ x = 12 or x= = 0×618 or –1×618 to 3 D.P.

2 ´1
2 Trigonometry
Radians

r A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc

of length equal to the radius.
1 radian r

Connection between radians and degrees

180o = p c
Degrees 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
Radians p
/6 p
/4 p
/3 p
/2 2p
/3 3p
/4 5p
/6 p 3p
/2 2p

Arc length , area of a sector and area of a segment

r
Arc length s = rq
θ radians s = rθ Area of sector A = 1 r2q.
2

r
Area of segment
θ radians = area sector – area of triangle
= 1 r2 q – 1 r2sinq.
r 2 2
Trigonometric functions
Basic results
sin A
tan A= ; sin(–A) = –sin A; cos(–A) = cos A; tan(–A) = –tan A.
cos A

Exact values for 30o, 45o and 60o

From the equilateral triangle of side 2 we can see that

30o

sin 60o = Ö3
/2 sin 30o = ½ 2
Ö3
Ö3
cos 60o = ½ cos 30o = /2
tan 60o = Ö3 tan 30o = 1
/Ö3 60o

From the isosceles right–angled triangle with sides 1, 1, Ö2

we can see that
sin 45o = 1/Ö2 Ö2
1
cos 45o = 1/Ö2
tan 45o = 1 45o
1

Sine and cosine rules and area of triangle

b a

A B
c

Sine rule
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
be careful – the sine rule always gives you two answers for each angle,
so if possible do not use the sine rule to find the largest angle as it might be obtuse;
you may be able to use the cosine rule.
 Ambiguous case

Example: In a triangle PQR, PQ = 10, ÐQPR = 40o and QR = 8.

Find ÐPRQ. Q

Solution: If we draw PQ and an angle of

10
40o, there are two possible positions for 8 8
R, giving two values of ÐPRQ.
The sine rule gives 40o
P
sin 40 sin 𝑅 R1 R2
=
8 10
Þ sin R = 0×80348…
Þ R = 53×5o or 180 – 53×5 = 126×5o both answers are correct

Cosine rule

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA
You will always have unique answers with the cosine rule.

Area of triangle

Area of a triangle = 1
2 ab sin C = 1
2 bc sin A = 1
2 ac sin B .

Graphs of trigonometric functions

y y=tanx
y 2
1 y=sinx
1
x x
−90 90 180 270 360 −90 90 180 270 360
−1
−1
−2

y = sin x y = cos x y = tan x

Graphs of y = sin nx, y = sin(–x), y = sin(x + n) etc.

You should know the shapes of these graphs

y = sin 3x y
y=sin3x
1
x
90 180 270 360

−1

−2
y = sin 3x is like y = sin x
but repeats itself 3 times for 0o £ x £ 360o, or 0 £ x £ 2p c

y=tanx y=tan(−x)= −tanx

y=sinx

y=sin(−x)= −sinx

−2 −2

y = f (x) = sin x y = f (x) = tan x

Þ for a reflection in the y-axis, f(– Þ for a reflection in the y-axis,
x) = sin(–x) = –sinx, f(–x) = tan(–x) = –tanx,
and for a reflection in the x-axis, and for a reflection in the x-axis,
–f (x) = –sin x –f (x) = –tan x
Þ same graph for both reflections Þ same graph for both reflections

y = cos(–x) and –cos x

y = cos(–x) is the same as the graph of y = f (x) = cos x, since the graph of y = cos x
is symmetrical about the y-axis, and f (–x) = cos(–x) = cos x.

But y = –cos x = –f (x) is a reflection y=cosx

of y = f (x) = cos x in the x-axis.

y= −cosx

−2

y = sin(x + 30)
y = sin(x + 30) is the graph of
æ- 30ö
y = sin x translated through ç ÷.
è 0 ø
Solving trigonometrical equations

Examples: Solve (a) sin x = 0×453, (b) cos x = –0×769, (c) sin x = –0×876,
(d) tan x = 1×56, for 0 £ x < 360o.

Solutions:
(a) sin x = 0×453 y
y=sinx
1
Þ x = 26×9 y=0.453
x
using the graph we see that
90 180 270 360
x = 180 – 26×9 x=26.9 x=180−26.9
−1
Þ x = 26×9 or 153×1

(b) cos x = –0×769 y

y=cosx
1
Þ x = 140×3
x
using the graph we see that
90 180 270 360
y=−0.769
x = 360 – 140×3
−1
Þ x = 140×3 or 219×7 x=140.2 x=360−140.2

(c) sin x = – 0×876

y
Þ x = –61×2 1
y=sinx

using the graph we see that x

x = 180 + 61×2 −90 90 180 270 360

y=−0.876
or x = 360 – 61×2 −1
x=−61.2 x=180+61.2 x=360−61.2
Þ x = 241×2 or 298×8

(d) tan x = 1×56 2 y

Þ x = 57×3 y=1.56
1
using the graph we see that
x
y=tanx
x = 180 + 57×3 90 180 270 360
x=57.3 x=180+57.3
Þ x = 57×3 or 237×3 −1
 Example: Solve sin (x – 𝜋) = 0.5 for 0c £ x £ 2pc , giving your answers in radians in
4
terms of p.
Solution: First put X = x – 𝜋
4
sin X = 0×5 Þ X = or p – 𝜋 = 5𝜋
𝜋
6 6 6

𝜋 5𝜋
Þ X = x–𝜋 = 6
or
6
4
13𝜋
Þ x = 5𝜋 or .
12
12

Example: Solve cos 2x = 0×473 for 0o £ x £ 360o, giving your answers to the nearest
degree.
Solution: First put X = 2x and find all solutions of cos X = 0×473 for 0o £ X £ 720o
Þ X = 61×77..., or 360 – 61×77… = 298×22…
or 61×77… + 360 = 421.77…, or 298.22… + 360 = 658×22…
i.e. X = 61×77..., 298×22…, 421.77…, 658×22…
Þ x = 1𝑋 = 31o, 149o, 211o, 329o to the nearest degree.
2

Using identities
sin A
(i) using tan A º
cos A

Example: Solve 3 sin x = 4 cos x.

Solution: First divide both sides by cos x

sin x
Þ 3 =4 Þ 3 tan x = 4 Þ tan x = 4/3
cos x
Þ x = 53×1o, or 180 + 53×1 = 233×1o.
(ii) using sin2A + cos2A = 1

Example: Given that cos A = 5

and that 270o < A < 360o, find sin A and tan A.
13

Solution: We know that sin2A + cos2A º 1

Þ sin2A = 1 – cos2A
5 2
Þ sin2A = 1 − ( ) = 144
13 169

Þ sin A = ± 13
12
.

But 270o < A < 360o

Þ sin A is negative
Þ sin A = – 12.
13

Also tan A =
sin A *
cos A

Þ tan A = = –12= –2×4.

5

Example: Solve 2 sin2x + sin x – cos2x = 1

Solution: Rewriting cos2x in terms of sin x will make life easier

Using sin2x + cos2x º 1
Þ cos2x = 1 – sin2x y
y=sinx
2 2
2 sin x + sin x – cos x = 1 y=2/3 1

Þ 2 sin2x + sin x – (1 – sin2x) = 1 x

90 180 270 360
Þ 3 sin2x + sin x – 2 = 0 x=41.8 x=180−41.8

Þ (3 sin x – 2)(sin x + 1) = 0 x=270

Þ sin x = 23 Þ x = 41×8o,
138×2o,
or sin x = –1 Þ x = 270o.

N.B. If you are asked to give answers in radians, you are allowed to work in degrees as
above and then convert to radians by multiplying by 𝜋
180
So the answers in radians would be
x = 41×8103 ´ p/180 = 0×730, or 138×1897 ´ p/180 = 2×41, or 270 ´ p/180 = 3p
/2.

S A
Under no circumstances should you use the diagram.
T C

You need to understand the graphs and their symmetries, so get used to using them.
3 Coordinate Geometry
Mid point
The mid point, M, of the line joining P (a1, b1) and Q (a2, b2) is ( 1
2 (a1 + a2 ), 12 (b1 + b2 )) .

Distance between two points

Let P and Q be the points (a1 ,b1) and (a2 ,b2). Q (a2 ,b2)

M
Using Pythagoras’s theorem × b2 – b1

P (a1 ,b1) A
PQ = (𝑎2 − 𝑎1)2 + (𝑏2 − 𝑏1)2 a2 – a1

Perpendicular lines
Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular Û m1 ´ m2 = –1

Example: Find the equation of the line through (1, –5) which is perpendicular to the line
with equation y = 2x – 3

Solution: The gradient of y = 2x – 3 is 2

Þ Gradient of perpendicular line is – 1
2

Þ equation of perpendicular line is y – – 5 = – 1 (x – 1) using y – y 1 = m(x – x1)

2

Þ x + 2y + 9 = 0

Circles
Centre at the origin
Take any point, P, on a circle centre the origin
and radius 5. y
r
Suppose that P has coordinates (x, y) P (x, y)

Using Pythagoras’ Theorem we have r

y
x2 + y2 = 52 Þ x2 + y2 = 25
x
which is the equation of the circle. -r x r
and in general the equation of a
circle centre (0, 0) and radius r is
x2 + y2 = r2.
-r
General equation

In the circle shown the centre is C, (a, b), y

and the radius is r.
CQ = x – a and PQ = y – b P (x, y)
and, using Pythagoras
r
y–b
Þ CQ + PQ = r
2 2 2

Þ (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2, C x–a Q

which is the general equation of a circle. x

Example: Find the centre and radius of the circle whose equation is
x2 + y2 – 4x + 6y – 12 = 0.

Solution: First complete the square in both x and y to give

x2 – 4x + 4 + y2 + 6y + 9 = 12 + 4 + 9 = 25
Þ (x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 52
which is the equation of a circle with centre (2, –3) and radius 5.

Example: Find the equation of the circle which has diameter AB, where A is (3, 5), and
B is (8, –7).

Solution: The centre is the mid point of AB is ( 1

(3 + 8),
2
1
2
(5 - 7)) = (5½, –1)

and the radius is 1 𝐴𝐵 = (8 - 3)2 + (-7 - 5)2 = 6 ×5

2

Þ equation is (x – 5×5)2 + (y + 1)2 = 6×52.

 Equation of tangent

Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + 2x + y2 – 4y = 20 at the point
(– 4, 6).

Solution: First complete the square in x and in y

Þ x2 + 2x + 1 + y2 – 4y + 4 = 20 + 1 + 4
(x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 25. *
3x−4y+36=0
*
Second find the gradient of the radius from the
centre (–1, 2) to the point (– 4, 6)
4
gradient of radius = 6−2 = −
−4−−1 3

Þ gradient of the tangent at that point is 3, since

4
the tangent is perpendicular to the radius
4 3
and product of gradients of perpendicular lines is –1 = − ×
3 4

Þ equation of the tangent is y – 6 = 3 (x – –4)

4

Þ 3x – 4y + 36 = 0.

Intersection of line and circle

Example: Find the intersection of the line y = 2x + 4 with the circle x2 + y2 = 5.

Solution: Put y = 2x + 4 in x2 + y2 = 5 to give x2 + (2x + 4)2 = 5

Þ x2 + 4x2 + 16x + 16 = 5
Þ 5x2 + 16x + 11 = 0
Þ (5x + 11)(x + 1) = 0
Þ x = –2×2 or –1
Þ y = – 0×4 or 2
Þ the line and the circle intersect at (–2×2, – 0×4) and (–1, 2)
Showing a line is a tangent to a circle

If the two points of intersection are the same point then the line is a tangent.

Example: Show that the line 3x + 4y – 10 = 0 is a tangent to the circle

x2 + 2x + y2 + 6y = 15.

Solution: Find the intersection of the line and circle

3x + 4y – 10 = 0 Þ x = 10−4𝑦
3
Substituting in the equation of the circle
10−4𝑦 2 10−4𝑦
Þ ( ) + 2( ) + 𝑦2 + 6𝑦 = 15
3 3

Þ 100 – 80y + 16y2 + 60 – 24y + 9y2 + 54y = 135

Þ 25y2 – 50y + 25 = 0
Þ y2 – 2y + 1 = 0
Þ (y – 1)2 = 0
Þ y = 1 only, Þ x = 2
Þ line is a tangent at (2, 1), since there is only one point of intersection

Note. You should know that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle and that the
perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord (cuts it exactly in half).
4 Sequences and series
Geometric series
Finite geometric series
A geometric series is a series in which each term is a constant amount times the previous
term: this constant amount is called the common ratio.
The common ratio can be any non-zero real number.

Examples: 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, 486, . . . . . with common ratio 3,

40, 20, 10, 5, 2½, 1¼, . . . . . with common ratio ½,
½, –2, 8, –32, 128, –512, . . . . with common ratio –4.

Generally a geometric series can be written as

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + . . . . + arn –1, up to n terms
where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

The nth term is un = arn –1.

The sum of the first n terms of the above geometric series is

(1−𝑟𝑛) (𝑟𝑛−1)
Sn = 𝑎 = 𝑎 .
1−𝑟 𝑟−1

Proof of the formula for the sum of a geometric series

You must know this proof.

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + … arn – 2 + arn – 1 multiply through by r

Þ r ´ Sn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + … arn – 2 + arn – 1 + arn subtract

Þ Sn – r ´ Sn = a + 0 + 0 + 0 + … 0 + 0 – arn
Þ (1 – r) Sn = a – arn = a(1 – rn)
(1−𝑟𝑛) (𝑟𝑛−1)
Þ Sn = 𝑎 = 𝑎 .
1−𝑟 𝑟−1

For an infinite series, if –1 < r < +1 Û ïrï < 1 then rn ® 0 as n ® ¥, and

𝑎
Sn ® S¥ = .
1−𝑟
Example: Find the nth term and the sum of the first 11 terms of the geometric series whose
3rd term is 2 and whose 6th term is –16.

Solution: x6 = x3 ´ r3 multiply by r 3 times to go from the 3rd term to the 6th term

Þ –16 = 2 ´ r3
Þ r3 = –8
Þ r = –2
Now x3 = x1 ´ r2
Þ x1 = x3 ÷ r2 = 2 ÷ (–2)2

Þ x1 = 1
2
Þ nth term, xn = arn –1 = 1 ´ (–2)n – 1
2
and the sum of the first 11 terms is
1 (−2)11−1 −2049
S 11 = × =
2 −2−1 −6

Þ S11 = 341 1
2

Infinite geometric series

When the common ratio is between –1 and +1 the series converges to a limit.
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + . . . . up to n terms
(1−𝑟𝑛)
Sn = 𝑎 .
1−𝑟
Since |r| < 1 , rn ® 0 as n ® ¥ and so
𝑎
Sn ® S¥ =
1−𝑟

Example: Show that the geometric series

S = 16 + 12 + 9 + 6 3 + …
4
converges to a limit and find its sum to infinity.

Solution: Firstly the common ratio is 12 = 3 which lies between –1 and +1 therefore
16 4
the sum converges to a limit.
a 16
The sum to infinity S¥ = =
1- r 1- 34
Þ S¥ = 64
Binomial series for positive integral index
Pascal’s triangle
When using Pascal’s triangle we think of the top row as row 0.

row 0 1
row 1 1 1
row 2 1 2 1
row 3 1 3 3 1
row 4 1 4 6 4 1
row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
row 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1

To expand (a + b)6 we first write out all the terms of ‘degree 6’ in order of decreasing
powers of a to give
…a6 + …a5b + …a4b2 + …a3b3 + …a2b4 + …ab5 + …b6

and then fill in the coefficients using row 6 of the triangle to give
1a6 + 6a5b + 15a4b2 + 20a3b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab5 + 1b6
= a6 + 6a5b + 15a4b2 + 20a3b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab5 + b6
Factorials

Factorial n, written as n! = n ´ (n – 1) ´ (n – 2) ´ . . . ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1.
So 5! = 5 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1 = 120
𝒏
Binomial coefficients or nCr or ( )
𝒓

If we think of row 6 in Pascal’s triangle starting with the 0th term we use the following
notation

0th term 1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term 5th term 6th term
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

𝑛
where the binomial coefficients nCr or ( ) are defined by
𝑟
n 𝑛 𝑛!
C r = ( ) = (𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑟 𝑟!
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3) ×… up to 𝑟 numbers
or n
Cr = ( ) =
𝑟 𝑟!

This is particularly useful for calculating the numbers further down in Pascal’s triangle.

Example: The ‘fourth’ number in row 15 is

15
15 15! 15! 15×14×13×12
C4 = ( ) = (15−4)!4! = 11! ×4! = = 1365.
4 4×3×2×1

You can also use nCr button on your calculator.

Example: Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (3 – 2x)5.

Solution: The term in x3 is 5

C3 ´ 32 ´ (–2x)3 since 5
C3 = 10

is 10 ´ 9 ´ (–8x3) = –720x3
so the coefficient of x3 is –720.

For more ideas on using the binomial coefficients, see the appendix.
5 Exponentials and logarithms
Graphs of exponentials and logarithms
4 y
y=x
y = 2x is an exponential function 3
2
and its inverse is the logarithm function
1 y = log2x
y = log2 𝑥. x
2 4

Remember that the graph of an inverse

function is the reflection of the original
graph in y = x. −4

Rules of logarithms
log a x = y Û x = ay log a xn = n log a x
log a xy = log a x + log a y log a 1 = 0
log a (x ÷ y) = log a x – log a y log a a = 1

Example: Find log3 81.

Solution: Write log3 81 = y

Þ 81 = 3y Þ y = 4 Þ log3 81 = 4.

To solve ‘log’ equations we can either use the rules of logarithms to end with
log a + = log a * Þ + = *
or log a + = * Þ + = a*

Example: Solve log a 40 – 3 log a x = log a 5

Solution: log a 40 – 3 log a x = log a 5

Þ log a 40 – log a x3 = x log a 5
Þ log a (40 ÷ x3) = log a 5
Þ 40 = 5
𝑥3

Þ x3 = 8
Þ x = 2.
 Example: Solve log2 𝑥 + log2(𝑥 + 6) = 3 + log2(𝑥 + 1).
𝑥(𝑥+6)
Solution: log2
𝑥(𝑥+6) = 3 Þ = 23 = 8
(𝑥+1) (𝑥+1)

Þ 2
x + 6x = 8x + 8 Þ x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
Þ (x – 4)(x + 2) = 0 Þ x = 4 or –2
But x cannot be negative (you cannot have log2 𝑥 when x £ 0)
Þ x = 4 only

Changing the base of a logarithm

log c b
log b =
a
log c a
Example: Find log 4 29.
log10 29 1× 4624
Solution: log 29 = = = 2 × 43 .
4
log10 4 0 × 6021

A particular case
logb b 1
log a b = = This gives a source of exam questions.
logb a logb a

Example: Solve log 4 x – 6 log x 4 = 1

6
Solution: Þ log 𝑥 – = 1 Þ (log 𝑥)2 – log 𝑥 – 6 = 0
4 4
log 4 x 4

Þ (log4 𝑥 – 3)( log4 𝑥 + 2) = 0

Þ log4 𝑥 = 3 or –2
Þ x = 43 or 4–2 Þ x = 64 or 1 .
16

Equations of the form ax = b

Example: Solve 5x = 13

Solution: Take logs of both sides

Þ log 10 5x = log 1013
Þ x log 10 5 = log 1013
log10 13 1×1139
Þ x = = = 1× 59.
log10 5 0 × 6990
6 Differentiation

Increasing and decreasing functions

dy
y is an increasing function if its gradient is positive, > 0;
dx
dy
y is a decreasing function if its gradient is negative, <0
dx

Example: For what values of x is y = f (x) = x3 – x2 – x + 7 an increasing function.

Solution: y = f (x) = x3 – x2 – x + 7
dy
Þ = f ' (x) = 3x2 – 2x – 1
dx
For an increasing function we want values of x for which f ' (x) = 3x2 – 2x – 1 > 0

Find solutions of f ' (x) = 3x2 – 2x – 1 = 0

Þ (3x + 1)(x – 1) = 0
Þ x = -1/3 or 1
-1
so graph of 3x2 – 2x – 1 meets x-axis at /3 and 1
and is above x-axis for
x < -1/3 or x > 1
Þ f ' (x) > 0 for x < –1/3 or x > 1

So y = x3 – x2 – x + 7 is an increasing function for x < –1/3 or x > 1.

Stationary points and local maxima and minima (turning points).

Any point where the gradient is zero is called a stationary point.

Local maxima and minima are called turning points.
The gradient at a local maximum or minimum is 0.
 minimum maximum
Stationary points of inflection
Turning points

Therefore to find max and min

dy
first – differentiate and find the values of x which give gradient, , equal to zero:
dx
d 2y
second – find second derivative and substitute value of x found above –
dx 2
second derivative positive Þ minimum, and
second derivative negative Þ maximum:
d 2y
N.B. If = 0, it does not help! In this case you will need to find the gradient
dx 2
just before and just after the value of x.
Be careful: you might have a stationary point of inflection

third – substitute x to find the value of y and give both coordinates in your answer.

Using second derivative

Example:
Find the local maxima and minima of the curve with equation y = x4 + 4x3 – 8x2 – 7.

Solution:
y = x4 + 4x3 – 8x2 – 7.
dy
First find = 4x3 + 12x2 – 16x.
dx
dy
At maxima and minima the gradient = =0
dx
Þ 4x3 + 12x2 – 16x = 0 Þ x3 + 3x2 – 4x = 0 Þ x(x2 + 3x – 4) = 0
Þ x(x + 4)(x – 1) = 0 Þ x = –4, 0 or 1.
 d 2y
Second find = 12x2 + 24x – 16
2
dx
d 2y
When x = –4, = 12 ´ 16 – 24 ´ 4 – 16 = 80, positive Þ min at x = –4
dx 2
d 2y
When x = 0, = –16, negative, Þ max at x = 0
dx 2
d 2y
When x = 1, = 12 + 24 – 16 = 20, positive, Þ min at x = 1.
dx 2

Third find y–values: when x = – 4, 0 or 1 Þ y = –135, –7 or –10

Þ Maximum at (0, –7) and Minimums at (– 4, –135) and (1, –10).

d2y
N.B. If = 0, it does not help! You can have any of max, min or stationary point of
dx 2
inflection.

Using gradients before and after

Example: Find the stationary points of y = 3x4 – 8x3 + 6x2 + 7.

Solution: y = 3x4 – 8x3 + 6x2 + 7

dy
= 12x3 – 24x2 + 12x = 0 for stationary points
dx
x(x2 – 2x + 1) = 0 Þ x(x – 1)2 = 0 Þ x = 0 or 1.
d2y
2
= 36x2 – 48x + 12
dx
which is 12 (positive) when x = 0 Þ minimum at (0, 7)
and which is 0 when x = 1, so we must look at gradients before and after.
x = 0.9 1 1.1
dy
= +0×108 0 +0×132
dx

Þ stationary point of inflection at (1, 2)

N.B. We could have max, min or stationary point of inflection when the second
derivative is zero, so we must look at gradients before and after.
Maximum and minimum problems
Example:
A manufacturer of cans for baked beans wishes to use as little metal as possible in the
manufacture of these cans. The cans must have a volume of 500 cm3: how should he design
the cans?

Solution:

We need to find the radius and height needed to make cans of

volume 500 cm3 using the minimum possible amount of metal.
h cm Suppose that the radius is x cm and that the height is h cm.
The area of top and bottom together is 2 ´ px2 cm2 and the
x cm
area of the curved surface is 2pxh cm2
Þ the total surface area A = 2px2 + 2pxh cm2. I

We have a problem here: A is a function not only of x, but also of h.

But the volume is 500 cm3 and the volume can also be written as V = px2h cm3
500
Þ px2h = 500 Þ h=
𝜋𝑥2
500
and so I can be written A = 2px2 + 2px ´
𝜋𝑥2
1000
Þ A = 2px2 + = 2px2 + 1000 x–1
x
𝑑𝐴 = 4px – 1000x –2 = 4𝜋𝑥 – 1000 .
Þ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
𝑑𝐴 1000
For stationary values of A, the area, =0 Þ 4px =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
1000
Þ 4p x3 = 1000 Þ x3 = = 79 × 57747155 Þ x = 4 × 301270069
4p
500
Þ x = 4×30 to 3 S.F. Þ h = = 8.60
p x2
We do not know whether this value gives a maximum or a minimum value of A or a
stationary point of inflection
𝑑2𝐴 2000
so we must find = 4𝜋 + 2000𝑥−3 = 4𝜋 +
𝑑𝑥2 𝑥3
Clearly this is positive when x = 4×30 and thus this gives a minimum of A
Þ minimum area of metal is 349 cm2
when the radius is 4×30 cm and the height is 8×60 cm.
7 Integration
Definite integrals
When limits of integration are given.
3
Example: Find ò1
6x 2 - 8x + 1 dx

Solution: ò
3

1
[
6x 2 - 8x + 1 dx = 2x 3 - 4x 2 + x ] 3
1 no need for +C as it cancels out

= [2 ´ 33 – 4 ´ 32 + 3] – [2 ´ 13 – 4 ´ 12 + 1] put top limit in first

= [21] – [–1] = 22.

Area under curve

The integral is the area between the curve and the x–axis, but areas above the axis are
positive and areas below the axis are negative.
Example: Find the area between the x–axis, x = 0, x = 2 and y = x2 – 4x.
Solution:
2 y

ò x - 4x dx
2
y=x²−4x
0 2

é x3 2ù
2
[8 ] - 16 x

= ê - 2x ú = 3 - 8] -[0 - 0] = which is negative 2 4

ë3 û0 3
−2
since the area is below the x–axis
+ 16 −4
Þ required area is
3

Example: Find the area between the x-axis, x = 1, x = 4 and y = 3x – x2 .

Solution: First sketch the curve to see which bits are above (positive) and which bits are
below (negative).
y = 3x – x2 = x(3 – x)
y
Þ meets x-axis at 0 and 3. 3
y=3x−x²

A1

Area A1, between 1 and 3, is above axis: x

3 A2
area A2, between 3 and 4, is below axis
so we must find these areas separately.
−3
 3
A1 = ò 1
3x - x2 dx
3
= é 3x - x ù = [4 × 5] - [1 16 ]
2 3
= 31/3 .
ê 2 3ú
ë û1
4
ò 3
4 êé 3x
2 x3 ùú
2 - 3 3 6
and 3x - x 2 dx = = [2 2 ] - [4 × 5] = - 1 5
ë û3
and so area A2 (areas are positive) = +15/6
so total area = A1 + A2 = 31/3 + 15/6 = 51/6.
4
x3 ù
dx é3x
2
Note that ò 4
3x - x 2
ê - ú = [2 2 ] - [1 1 ] = 1 1
3 6 2
1
ë 2 3û1

which is A1 – A2 (= 31/3 – 15/6 = 11/2).

Numerical integration: the trapezium rule

Many functions can not be ‘anti–differentiated’ and the trapezium rule is a way of
estimating the area under the curve.

Divide the area under y = f (x) into n strips, y

each of width h. y=f(x)

Join the top of each strip with a straight line to

form a trapezium.
yn
y0
y1 y2
Then the area under the curve x
» sum of the areas of the trapezia a
h h h
b

b
Þ ò a
f (x) dx » 1
2
h ( y0 + y1 ) + 12 h ( y1 + y2 ) + 12 h ( y2 + y3 ) + ... + 12 h ( y n-1 + yn )
Þ f (x) dx » 1
h ( y + y + y + y + y + y + y ... + y +y +y )
ò
b
a 2 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 n-1 n-1 n

b
Þ ò f (x) dx » h ( y0 + yn + 2( y1 + y2 + y3 + ... + yn-1 ))
1
a 2

Þ area under curve » ½ width of each strip ´ (‘ends’ + 2 ´ ‘middles’).

8 Appendix

Binomial coefficients, nCr

Choosing r objects from n

If we have n objects, the number of ways we can choose r of these objects is nCr.

nC
r = nCn – r
Every time r objects from n must, therefore, be the same as the number of ways of
leaving n – r behind. are chosen from n, there are n – r objects left behind; the
number of ways of choosing r objects
n
Þ Cr = nCn – r .

This can be proved algebraically.

𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
nC
n–r = = (𝑛−𝑛+𝑟)! (𝑛−𝑟)!
= = nCr
(𝑛−(𝑛−𝑟))!(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟! (𝑛−𝑟)!

(a + b)n
In the expansion of (a + b)n = (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b)… (a + b) (a + b),
where there are n brackets,
we can think of forming the term an – rbr by choosing the r letter bs from the n
brackets in nCr ways.
Thus the coefficient of an – rbr is nCr.
Points of inflexion

A point of inflexion is a maximum or minimum of the gradient.

When the gradient is also zero, in which case we have a stationary point of inflexion,
otherwise we have an oblique (sloping) point of inflexion.

--
+
- - -- + +

-- + +
minimum maximum
+ +
- - ---
of gradient of gradient
++
minimum
of gradient -- - - + + +
++
maximum
of gradient

++
++
+ +

-
Oblique points of inflexion Stationary points of inflexion

To find a point of inflexion

1. 𝑑2𝑦
Find the value(s) of x for which = 0, x = a, b, …
𝑑𝑥2
2. 𝑑3𝑦
Either show that ¹ 0 for these values of x
𝑑𝑥3
or show that
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
either x=a– Þ is +ve and x=a+ Þ is –ve
𝑑𝑥22 𝑑𝑥22
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
or x=a– Þ is –ve and x=a+ Þ is +ve
𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2
𝑑2𝑦
Û changes sign from x = a – to x = a +.
𝑑𝑥2

Example: Find the point(s) of inflexion on the graph of y = x4 – x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 1.

Solution: y = x4 – x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 1
𝑑𝑦
Þ = 4x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 5
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
Þ = 12x2 – 6x – 6
𝑑𝑥2
𝑑2𝑦
= 0 Þ 6(2x2 – x – 1) = 6(2x + 1)(x – 1) = 0
𝑑𝑥2

Þ x = – 1 or 1.
2
𝑑3𝑦
= 24x – 6
𝑑𝑥3
3
𝑑3𝑦 = –18 ¹ 0, and x = 1 Þ 𝑑 𝑦 = 18 ¹ 0
x=–1 Þ
2 𝑑𝑥3 𝑑𝑥3
 Þ points of inflexion at A, (– 1 , –2 1 ),
2 16 y
and B, (1, 3). y=x⁴−x³−3x²+5x+1 4
B
𝑑𝑦 *
Notice that = 0 when x = 1,
𝑑𝑥
x
𝑑𝑦
but = 1 3 ¹ 0 when x = – 1 −2 1 2
𝑑𝑥 4 2
A
Þ A, (– 1 , –2 1 ), is an oblique point of *
2 16
inflexion, and
B, (1, 3), is a stationary point of
inflexion.

Integration
Area under graph – sum of rectangles
y
y=f(x)
In any continuous graph, y = f (x), we can divide the
area between x = a and x = b into n strips, each of
width d x.
The area under the graph (between the graph, the
x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b) is approximately y0 y1 y2 yn
the area of the n rectangles, as shown.
Þ the area under the graph x
dx dx dx
𝑛 𝑏 a b

𝐴 ≅ 𝑦𝑖𝛿𝑥 , and as 𝛿𝑥 → 0, 𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑖=1 𝑎

Integration as ‘anti-differentiation’

A = area under the curve from x = a to x

d A = increase in area from x to x + d x
d A @ area of the rectangle shown
A
Þ d A ≈ f (x) ´ d x
𝛿𝐴
Þ ≈ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝛿𝑥

As d x ® 0
we have 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Þ to find the integral we ‘anti-differentiate’ f (x).

Index

area of triangle, 9, 10 integrals

binomial coefficients area under curve, 29
n
Cr = nCn – r, 31 definite, 29
binomial coefficients, nCr, 31 integration
as anti-differentiation, 33
binomial series, 21
binomial coefficients, 22 sum of rectangles, 33
n
Cr or æç nr ö÷ , 22 logarithm,
change of 23
base, 24
è ø
rules of logs, 23
choosing r objects from n, 31 mid point, 15
circle Pascal’s triangle, 21
centre at origin, 15
general equation, 16 perpendicular lines, 15
intersection with line, 17 points of inflexion, 32
show line is tangent, 18 polynomials, 3
tangent equation, 17 long division, 3
cosine rule, 10 radians
cubic equations, 7 arc length, 8
differentiation, 25 area of sector, 8
area of segment, 8
distance between two points, 15
connection between radians and degrees, 8
equations definition, 8
ax = b, 24
remainder theorem, 4
exponential, 23 sine rule, 9
factor theorem, 5 ambiguous case, 10
choosing a suitable factor, 6
stationary points
factorials, 22 gradients before and after, 27
factorising maxima and minima, 25
examples, 3 maximum and minimum problems, 28
functions second derivative, 26
decreasing, 25 trapezium rule, 30
increasing, 25 trig equations
geometric series solving, 12
finite, 19 trig functions
infinite, 20 basic results, 9
nth term, 19 graphs, 10
proof of sum formula, 19 identities, 13
sum of infinite series, 20
turning points, 25
sum of n terms, 19