BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Kingdom Monera
1. Which one of the following is NOT used as a criterion in the modern classification of
Monerans?
A. Morphological characters
B. Biochemical characters
C. Physiological characters
D. Presence of vascular tissues
2. Which bacterial structure contains the genetic material but lacks a surrounding
membrane?
A. Mesosome
B. Ribosome
C. Nucleoid
D. Capsule
3. Which statement correctly distinguishes prokaryotic DNA from eukaryotic DNA?
A. It is linear and enclosed in nucleus.
B. It is circular and membrane bound.
C. It is circular, naked and supercoiled.
D. It is associated with histone proteins.
4. The smallest known bacterium is
A. Thiomargarita namibiensis
B. Epulopiscium fishelsoni
C. Dialister pneumosintes
D. Caulobacter
5. Which bacterium is found in the intestine of Brown Surgeon Fish?
A. Rhodomicrobium
B. Epulopiscium fishelsoni
C. Vibrio cholerae
D. Spirillum volutans
6. The bacterial cell wall is mainly composed of
A. Cellulose
B. Chitin
C. Peptidoglycan
D. Pectin
7. Which one of the following bacterial arrangements forms irregular grape-like
clusters?
A. Streptococcus
B. Sarcina
C. Staphylococcus
D. Diplococcus
8. The Palisade arrangement is characteristic of
A. Cocci
B. Spirilla
C. Bacilli
D. Vibrios
Bacteria are classified into two groups on the basis of the presence or absence of
flagella.
 Flagella are long, thin, whip-like appendages that help bacteria in locomotion
(movement).
 Bacteria that possess one or more flagella are called flagellate bacteria, whereas
bacteria that completely lack flagella are called non-flagellate (atrichous)
bacteria
 Most flagellate bacteria are motile, while atrichous bacteria are generally non-
motile.
Archaebacteria (Ancient Bacteria):
 Archaebacteria are primitive prokaryotic organisms.
 They survive in extreme (harsh) environmental conditions.
 Therefore, they are known as Extremophiles.
 They differ from other bacteria due to their unique cell wall structure, which helps them
survive in harsh habitats.
Three major groups:
 Halophiles → Extremely salty areas.
 Thermoacidophiles → Hot acidic springs.
 Methanogens → Marshy areas and rumen of ruminants.
Eubacteria: Also known as true bacteria, are the most common and abundant prokaryotic
organisms found on Earth.
 They occur in soil, water, air, and inside living organisms.
 They are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan
(murein), which provides shape and protection.
 In motile bacteria, movement occurs with the help of flagella, which are long, whip-like
appendages.
Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae): Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophic
bacteria because they contain chlorophyll-a, the same photosynthetic pigment found in green
plants.
 These bacteria synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
 Cyanobacteria occur in different forms—they may be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous

 They are found in freshwater, marine, as well as terrestrial habitats.
 Their colonies are usually surrounded by a gelatinous sheath, which provides protection.
 Under nutrient-rich conditions, especially in polluted water bodies, cyanobacteria multiply
rapidly and form dense surface layers known as water blooms (algal blooms).
 Some cyanobacteria possess specialized thick-walled cells called heterocysts, which are the
sites of atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
 Important nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria include Nostoc and Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic Autotrophic Bacteria:
 Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria prepare their own food without sunlight.
 Instead of using light energy, they obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances such as
ammonia (NH₃), nitrites (NO₂⁻), nitrates (NO₃⁻), sulphur compounds, and iron
compounds.
 The energy released during oxidation is utilized for ATP synthesis and carbon dioxide fixation.
 These bacteria play a crucial role in biogeochemical cycles by recycling nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and sulphur, thereby maintaining soil fertility and ecosystem
balance.
Heterotrophic Bacteria
 Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant bacteria in nature.
 They cannot synthesize their own food and depend on organic matter for nutrition.
 Most heterotrophic bacteria are decomposers, breaking down dead plants, animals, and organic
waste into simpler substances, thus recycling nutrients in nature.
 Many heterotrophic bacteria are beneficial to humans.
 They are used in the preparation of curd from milk, production of antibiotics, and
biological nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of leguminous plants (e.g., Rhizobium).
 However, some heterotrophic bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases in humans, animals,
and plants.
Examples include:
Cholera – Vibrio cholerae
Typhoid – Salmonella typhi
Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
Citrus Canker – Xanthomonas citri
Reproduction in Bacteria
Bacteria reproduce mainly by three methods:
1. Binary Fission (Asexual Reproduction)
2. Sporulation (Spore Formation)
3. Genetic Recombination (Primitive Sexual Reproduction)
1. Binary Fission (Asexual Reproduction):
 Binary fission is the most common mode of reproduction in bacteria and occurs under
favourable environmental conditions.
 In this process, the bacterial chromosome first replicates, and the two DNA molecules move to
opposite ends of the cell.
 A septum (cross wall) then develops at the center of the cell, dividing the cytoplasm into two
equal halves. Finally, the parent cell splits into two genetically identical daughter cells.
Parent Cell
│
DNA Replication
│
Septum Formation
│
Cell Division
│
Two Identical Daughter Cells
Sporulation (Endospore Formation)
Sporulation occurs when bacteria face unfavourable conditions such as lack of nutrients, high
temperature, dehydration, or harmful chemicals.
Instead of multiplying, the bacterium forms a thick-walled endospore inside the cell.
The endospore is highly resistant to heat, dryness, radiation, and chemicals, allowing the
bacterium to survive for long periods.
When favourable conditions return, the endospore germinates to form a new vegetative bacterial
cell.
Unfavourable Conditions
│
Endospore Formation
│
Resistant Endospore
│
Favourable Conditions
│
Germination
│
New Vegetative Cell
Sexual Reproduction (Genetic Recombination)
Bacteria do not undergo true sexual reproduction because they do not produce gametes or form
a zygote. However, they exchange genetic material through a primitive form of DNA transfer,
called genetic recombination. This process increases genetic variation and helps bacteria adapt
to changing environments.
The three major methods of genetic recombination are:
 Conjugation – Direct transfer of DNA through a sex pilus.
 Transformation – Uptake of free DNA from the surrounding environment.
 Transduction – Transfer of DNA by bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacteria).
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are unique prokaryotic organisms because they completely lack a cell wall. Due to
the absence of a rigid cell wall, they exhibit variable shapes (pleomorphic). They are the
smallest known free-living cells and are capable of surviving without oxygen (facultative
anaerobes in many species). Several species of Mycoplasma are pathogenic, causing diseases in
plants, animals, and humans.