AP Environmental Science Notes- Ben edition

Table of Contents

Chapter 2: The Natural World

Chapter 3: Ecosystem Ecology
Chapter 4: Global Climates and Biomes
Chapter 9: Water Resource and Use
Chapter 10: Land, Public and Private
Chapter 11: Feeding the World
Chapter 12: Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Chapter 13: Achieving Energy Sustainability
Chapter 14: Aquatic Pollution
Chapter 15: Atmospheric Pollution and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Chapter 16: Waste Generation, Terrestrial Pollution, and Waste Disposal
Chapter 17: Human Health and Environmental Risks
Chapter 18: Conservation of Biodiversity
Chapter 19: Global Change
Chapter 20: Sustainability, Economics, and Equity
Chapter 2: The Natural World
Module 5: Energy Flows, Feedback
●​ 1 cal= 4.184 J; 1 Cal= 1000 cal
●​ 1 Btu (British thermal unit)= 1055 J
●​ 1 kWh= 3,600,000 J
●​ Energy Efficiency: energy expended to get to form you want
●​ Steady State- outputs=inputs
●​ Positive Feedback Loop- change in system amplified
●​ Negative Feedback Loop- resists changes in systems
Working Towards Sustainability: Florida Everglades
●​ Florida Everglades- 5 million ha land, home to many threatened and endangered species
●​ Humans- 30% decrease in water flow, phosphorus makes cattails outcompete
○​ 35% natural habitat converted
●​ Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan:
○​ Increase the water flow back into everglades
■​ Conserve water, store water during rain to release later, remove levees and canals
○​ Reduce water pollution
■​ Regulation on chemicals and marsh to filter out water
○​ Adaptable management plan- flexible so can modify with results
Science Applied 1: Mono Lake
●​ LA redirecting water to lake, less water= higher concentration of salt, algae and animal death
●​ Amount of water has to be balanced with evaporation
●​ Streams entering contain salt, but salt deposits onto tufa towers where calcium carbonate makes
limestone
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Ecology
Case Study: Reversing Deforestation of Haiti
●​ Haiti- low money and no fuel-> deforestation for wood
○​ erosion without plants to hold down, need to plant trees but ppl need fuel
○​ Tried mango trees, but storms devastate farmland
Module 6: The Movement of Energy
●​ Hard to tell where ecosystem starts and ends- usually with a species’ range or topographic
features
●​ Biosphere- combination of all ecosystems on Earth, region of planet where life resides
Producers and Photosynthesis
●​ Autotrophs/Producers: organism that uses energy from sun to produce usable form of energy
●​ Does by photosynthesis, converting to glucose
Cellular Respiration
●​ Use glucose to store energy and build structures-> herbivores eat (cellular respiration)
○​ Aerobic respiration- energy
○​ Anaerobic- less energy
●​ Fuel metabolism and growth
Energy Captured by Producers Move Through Many Trophic Levels
●​ Consumer/Heterotroph- organism incapable of photosynthesis that must obtain energy from
consuming other organisms
●​ Carnivore- consumers that eat consumers
○​ Secondary Consumer- consumer that eats primary consumers
○​ Tertiary Consumers- consumers that eat secondary
●​ Trophic Levels- successive levels of organisms eating one another
●​ Food Chain- sequence of consumption from producer to tertiary
●​ Food Web- complex model of how energy and matter moves through ecosystem
●​ Omnivore- operate at several trophic levels, eats plants and animals
●​ Dead animals and Waster:
○​ Scavengers- organisms consume other dead animals
○​ Detrivore- organism that specializes in breaking down dead tissues and water particles
into smaller particles
○​ Decomposers: Fungi and b bacteria that concert organic matter into smaller elements and
molecules that can be recycled into ecosystem
Some Ecosystems are More Productive than Others
●​ Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)- total amount of solar energy that producers capture via
photosynthesis over period of time
●​ Net Primary Productivity (NPP)- energy captured by producers minus energy producers respire
○​ NPP=GPP- respired energy
●​ Calculating GPP:
○​ Dark: measure CO2 output (no photosynthesis)
○​ Light: Measure CO2 uptake (with photosynthesis)
○​ Add both together
 ■​ CO2 taken in by photosynthesis= overall CO2 taken in w/sunlight and CO2
produced in dark (respiration takes in CO2 while light, so to find total amount of
CO2 has to add that released)
●​ 1% of sunlight used by producers
●​ NPP around 25-50%, GPP (60%) used for respiration, 40% NPP
●​ NPP comparison shows productivity
The Efficiency of Energy Transfer Affects the Energy Present in Each Trophic Level
●​ Biomass- total mass of all living organisms in specific area
●​ Standing Crop- amount of biomass in ecosystem at particular time
○​ Amount of energy in system
○​ Productivity- trees (high biomass, low P), algae (low biomass, high P)
●​ Ecological Efficiency- proportion of consumed energy that can be passed down trophic level
○​ Average 10% less per trophic level
■​ Some indigestible (bones), some used before eaten (respiration)
Module 7: Movement of Nutrients
●​ Biogeochemical Cycle- movement of matter within and between ecosystems
○​ Pools- components containing matter; flows- process moving between pools
Hydrologic Cycle
●​ Important: needs to survive, primary agent for dissolving and transporting chemicals/elements
●​ Cycle:
○​ 1. Evaporates or released through transpiration (evapotranspiration)
○​ 2. Water vapor rises and cools into clouds (condensation)
○​ 3. Landfall-> evaporate or sucked up by plants, absorbed by soil (groundwater
percolates), runoff into streams and rivers into ocean
Human Activities and the Hydrologic Cycle
●​ Harvesting trees- reduces evapotranspiration, more runoff and percolation
●​ Paving roads and buildings- reduces RO, more evapotranspiration and percolation
●​ Diverting water (drinking/crops)
The Carbon Cycle
●​ 7 steps:
○​ Photosynthesis, respiration, exchange, sedimentation, burial, extraction, combustion
●​ Fast- section with organisms
●​ Slow- carbon held in rocks, soil, FF)
Photosynthesis and Respiration
●​ Takes in CO2, releases
●​ Also returns after death
○​ Carbon in live biomass->dead biomass pool, decomposers release CO2
Exchange, Sedimentation, Burial
●​ Ocean part of cycle
●​ Exchange: atmosphere and ocean exchange CO2
○​ Also from algae photosynthesis
●​ Dissolved CO2 multiple actions:
○​ Enter and exit photorespiration
○​ Can react with water-> CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
 ■​ Precipitates to form limestone/dolomite via sedimentation
●​ Dead organisms can become fossils if buried before decomposing
●​ Sedimentation= to volcano eruption and rock weathering
Extraction and Combustion
●​ Extraction of fossil fuels doesn’t impact cycle
●​ Combustion through volcanoes, FF, forest fires-> into atmosphere and soil
Human Impacts on the Carbon Cycle
●​ w/out human interaction, carbon exchange balanced
○​ Decomposers release carbon added by photosynthesis in soil at same rates entering
●​ Industrial Revolution starts big impacts
○​ Fossil fuels combustion- increases CO2 in air
■​ Warms planet
○​ Tree Harvesting
■​ Stores carbon above and below ground
■​ Cutting and burning trees increases CO2-> destroys biodiversity
■​ Offset in part by increased CO2 absorption by ocean
The Nitrogen Cycle Includes Many Chemical Transformation
●​ Macronutrients: 6 key elements that organisms need in relatively large amounts
○​ Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium sulfur
●​ Nitrogen important
○​ Amino acids, limiting nutrient
The Nitrogen Cycle
●​ Movement of nitrogen around the biosphere
○​ 5 major transformations:
■​ Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, mineralization, denitrification
Nitrogen Fixation
●​ Majority of nitrogen cannot be used by producers (N2 form)
●​ Nitrogen Fixation- process that converts N2 in atmosphere to form that producers can use
○​ Biotic process: bacteria convert N2 to ammonia (NH3), then ammonium (NH4+)
■​ Bacteria- cyanobacteria or bacteria living on roots of plants like legumes
■​ Cyanobacteria releases into water, bacteria on plants gets sugar for giving
nitrogen
○​ Abiotic Process
■​ lightning /combustions (forest fires) can convert N2→ NO3- nitrate
■​ Humans can capture N2 to create fertilizer
Nitrification
●​ Conversion of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2-) then nitrate (NO3-) which can be readily
used
○​ By specialized bacteria
Assimilation
●​ Process by which producers incorporate elements into tissue (Nitrogen as NH3, NH4+, NO2,
NO#-)
Mineralization
●​ After organism dies
 ○​ Mineralization- fungi and bacteria decomposes organism-> breaks down organic matter
and waste-> converts to inorganic compounds
■​ Also known as Ammonification
●​ Converted to NH4+
■​ Can be used by other producers or converted to different form
Denitrification
●​ Conversion of nitrate into nitrous oxide (N2O), and eventually N2 into atmosphere
○​ Bacteria in anaerobic conditions like waterlogged soils, bottom sediments of lakes
Human Impacts on Nitrogen Cycle
●​ Use of fertilizer-> excess nitrogen
○​ Leaching into groundwater, can create higher N2 concentration in atmosphere
■​ Then deposited by rain and alters nutrient level balance in ecosystems-> changes
species that thrive
Phosphorus Cycle Moves Between Land and Water
●​ Used in DNA, RNA, energy transfer
●​ Limiting nutrient second to nitrogen
The Phosphorus Cycle
●​ Movement of phosphorus around the biosphere
○​ Barely changes form- mostly as phosphate (PO4 3-)
○​ No gas phase except dust in rain or sea spray
Assimilation and Mineralization (Biotic Portion)
●​ Plants intake inorganic phosphorus and use organic phosphorus in tissues
●​ Waste and dead eventually decompose-> change back into inorganic phosphorus
Sedimentation, Geological Uplift, Weathering (Abiotic Portion)
●​ Phosphorus is not very soluble in water
○​ Precipitates as phosphate laden sediments
●​ sinks-> overtime geological uplift- forces bring ocean layers up as mountains
●​ Weathered over time, rainfall brings phosphorus to habitats
●​ Tightly held by soils (little leaching)
○​ Very little dissolved in aquatic systems (limiting nutrient)
Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle
●​ Mine phosphorus to use in products
○​ Fertilizers, detergents (usually older, some now banned)
■​ Stopped adding into detergents, 17 states banned it in dishwater
■​ EU- banned in laundry and dishwashing
●​ Excess phosphorus from fertilizer and water discharge go into bodies of water-> algal blloms
●​ Oxygen concentration drops-> fish die (dead zone)
●​ Alter plant communities, can allow certain plants to outcompete others
Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Sulfur cycle too
●​ Calcium, magnesium, potassium regulate cellular process and transmit signals between cells
●​ Primarily from rocks and decomposed vegetation
○​ Dissolve in water as Ca 2+, Mg 2+, K+ as ions
○​ No gas phase except as dust
●​ Positive ions attract to negative charges on soil particles
 ○​ Ca and Mg heavily attracted-> little leaching, high concentration in limestone, marble,
soil
○​ K weakly attracted-> leaching easier, creates potassium deficient soils, restricting growth
●​ Sulfur- allows organisms to use oxygen
○​ Sulfur cycle- movement of sulfur around biosphere
■​ Exists mostly in rocks, released through weathering
■​ Absorbed by producers as SO4 2- sulfate ions
●​ Cycles in food web
■​ Gas component through volcanoes, burning of fossil fuels, metal mining
■​ In atmosphere, comes down as sulfuric acid and acid rain
Module 8: Responses to Disturbances
●​ Ecosystems encounter disturbances
○​ Turbulences affect flow of energy/matter
○​ Can resist turbulence
○​ How can recover
Ecosystems are Affected Differently by Disturbances and How Well They can Recover
●​ Disturbance: event caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents resulting in changes in
population size or community composition
○​ Hurricanes, volcanoes, forest fires
○​ Anthropogenic- settlements, agriculture, air pollution, forest cutting
●​ Disturbances are not disasters
○​ Low fire-> kills some, but releases nutrients
■​ Producers pick up, productivity and NPP same
●​ Resistance- measure of how much a disturbance affects energy and
matter flow
○​ High resistance- not too different
●​ When matter and energy flow disturbed…
○​ Resilience- rate at which ecosystem returns to original state after disturbance
■​ high=returns quickly
○​ Resilience depends on biogeochemical and hydrologic chemicals
■​ Impacts on Carbon cycle- little, spreads out across many reservoirs
■​ Drought-> soil dries, less absorption, rain not absorbed well, positive feedback
system
●​ Some ecosystems eliminated
○​ Efforts trying to reverse effects and restore ecosystem
■​ Restoration ecology- study and implementation of restoring damaged ecosystem
Watershed Studies Help Us Understand how Disturbances Affect Ecosystem Processes
●​ Studies of disturbances
○​ Original cycle rates vs new (after disturbances)
●​ Conduct studies in the Watershed- land in given landscape that drains into a stream, river, or lake
●​ Hubbard Brook (NH) study
○​ Measured effects of clear cut and suppressed growth vs normal watersheds
■​ Increased nitrates in clear cut
●​ No plants to suck up excess nitrate-> runs off
 ■​ Plants important in nutrient cycling and not allowing new vegetation to grow bad
●​ Forests and other terrestrial ecosystems increase retention of nutrients on land
Intermediate Levels of Disturbance
●​ Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis: ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of
disturbance will be more diverse than those with high or low levels of disturbance
○​ Low disturbance: intense competition
■​ Few strongest species dominates and outcompetes others
○​ High Disturbance: dies out
■​ Species with high population growth rates survive
●​ Ex: New England Snails and Algae
○​ Snails are the disturbance
■​ Few Snails- little algae eaten-> most competitive algae wins
■​ Many snails-> most eaten-> most unpalatable algae wins
■​ Middle -> some eaten-> too much competition for one species to dominate, too
little to go extinct
Working Toward Sustainability: The Practice of Precision Agriculture
●​ Farming is inefficient
○​ Fertilizer not taken up, runs off
■​ Harmful for the environment
■​ Loss for farmers
●​ Crops need different fertilizer amounts
○​ Traditionally spread evenly, but should customize amounts for each plant
●​ Creates map of crops, soil sensors to detect water and nutrients
○​ GPS tractors steer themselves and fertilize precisely depending on plant
●​ Benefits: saves on fertilizer costs, fuel costs, better crop yield, more expensive though
Chapter 4: Global Climates and Biomes
Case Study: Growing Grapes to Make a Fine Wine
●​ Wine grapes grown in specific climates
○​ Mild, moist winters with hot, dry summers
■​ Too cold-> damages vines
■​ Summer-> moderately stressful creating balance of sugars and acids
●​ Climate Change: changing climate and weather
○​ CA- moving winyards further north
○​ France- harvesting 2 weeks earlier than before
●​ Possible future actions:
○​ Moving vineyards
○​ Adding irrigation to modify growing conditions
○​ Plant more tolerant grapes
Module 9: The Unequal Heating of Earth
Earth’s Atmosphere is Composed of Layers
●​ 5 Layers of the Atmosphere:
○​ Troposphere:
■​ Layer of atmosphere closest to surface of earth
 ■​ Densest layer
■​ Nitrogen, Oxygen, water Vapor, Circulation of liquids and gas in cycles
■​ Where weather occurs
○​ Stratosphere
■​ Layer of atmosphere above troposphere
■​ Less dense
■​ Ozone- absorbs UV-B and UV-C (critical for protection against DNA damage)
■​ Upper usually warmer-> absorbs more radiation
○​ Mesosphere
○​ Thermosphere
■​ Blocks X-ray and UV radiation, creates northern lights when charged molecules
interact with magnetic forces of poles
○​ Exosphere
The Amount of Solar Energy Reaching Earth Varies with Location
●​ Earth tilted 23.5 degrees
●​ Causes of uneven warming
○​ Variation in angle of Sun’s rays
■​ Equator- perpendicular (hits directly), so shorter length to travel
■​ Mid-latitude/polar, at oblique angle
○​ Variation in Surface Area that Rays are Distributed
■​ Equator- hits directly in small area
■​ Poles- spread out over long area
○​ Solar Energy Reflection
■​ Albedo- percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface
●​ White surface has higher albedo than black surface
●​ Earth average- 30%; polar- 80-95%, trees- 10-20%
Earth’s Tilt Causes Seasonal Changes in Climate
●​ Sometimes Earth tilt towards sun-> summer, other hemisphere away (winter)
●​ Cause variations in day length
Module 10: Air Currents
●​ Air currents caused by uneven heating (warm goes to cold), spreading moisture
Air Has Several Important Properties that Determines how it Circulates
●​ 4 Properties that determine how it circulates:
○​ Air Density (how many molecules in certain area)
■​ Less dense rises, more dense sinks
○​ Water Vapor Capacity
■​ Saturation Point- max amount of water vapor in the air at a given temp
●​ Temp decreasing, saturation pt decreases-> condensates
■​ Warm air- lots of water, humidity high, lots of precipitation
○​ Adiabatic Cooling and Heating
■​ Adiabatic Cooling- cooling effect of reduced pressure of air as it rises and
expands
●​ Lower pressure-> increase in volume-> decrease in temp
 ■​ Adiabatic Heating- heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks and
decreases in volume
●​ Higher pressure-> decrease in volume-> increase in temp
○​ Latent Heat Release
■​ Release of energy when water vapor in atmosphere condenses into a liquid
●​ Changing from gas to liquid releases energy, making gas warmer
Atmospheric Convection Currents Move Air and Moisture Around the Globe
●​ Atmospheric Convection Currents- global patterns of air movement that are initiated by unequal
heating in Earth (big contributor to climate)
○​ Humid air at surface warms and rises (density decrease)
○​ Rises, experiencing lower pressure (adiabatic cooling)
○​ Cooling causes it to reach saturation point-> clouds and precipitation
○​ Condensation-> Latent Heat Release
■​ Offsets adiabatic cooling and causes air to expand and rise further
○​ Top of Troposphere- chilled by adiabatic cooling (cold and dry)
■​ Displaced horizontally by more air rising
○​ Sinks and higher pressure causes adiabatic heating
■​ Reaches surface hot and dry, circulates picking up moisture and repeats
●​ Earth 3 Cells
●​ Hadley Cells- convection current between equator and 30 degrees
○​ Unequal heating causes air to rise, condenses water which falls over the tropics
○​ Cools, displaced horizontally, then sinks at 30 degrees N and S, flows back toward
equator
○​ Line with most intense sunlight- Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
■​ Dense clouds and thunderstorms, moves around depending on tilt
●​ Polar Cells- convection current formed by air rising at 60 degrees N/S and sinks at poles
○​ Air condenses as it rises, dry air moves to poles, sinks
●​ Ferrel Cells- convection current in atmosphere that lies between Hadley and Polar cells
○​ Driven by their circulation
■​ Warmer air from Hadley Cell moves to toward poles
■​ Colder air from polar cells move to equator
■​ Causes circulation moving warm air toward mid latitude and polar areas
Earth’s Rotation Causes the Coriolis Effect
●​ Coriolis Effect- deflection of objects path bc of Earth’s rotation
●​ Air currents deflected east or west00
●​ Equator displaces more (travels faster with larger circumference)
●​ Prevailing Winds in Hadley Cell
○​ Moving to Equator (Northeast Trade Winds moves southwest)
■​ Southeast Trade winds move northwest
●​ Prevailing winds in Ferrell Cells
○​ Tends to move to poles
○​ Deflected toward east
○​ “Westerlies”
●​ Polar Winds
 ○​ Move away from poles, deflected to west
○​ “Easterlies”
Rain Shadows Cause Mountains to Be Dry on One Side
●​ Ocean currents create lots of water vapor
●​ Winds carry and move up over mountains
○​ Adiabatic cooling, condensation (with latent heat release), pushed up over mountain
●​ Causes large precipitation on windward side of the mountains, cold dry air goes over-> leeward
side
○​ Rain Shadow- region of dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as
a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side
Module 11: Ocean Currents
Surface Ocean Currents Move Warm and Cold Water Around the Globe
●​ Moves warm and cold waters to different parts of globe- changes climate
○​ Gulf stream moves warm water to east coast of US
○​ Affects productivity of ocean regions
●​ Ocean Currents affected by combination of Factors
○​ Temperature
○​ Gravity
■​ Equator hotter-> water expands-> higher water levels-> moves out to poles
○​ Prevailing winds, coriolis effect
○​ Salinity
○​ Location of continents
Gyres
●​ Water pushed away from equator, pushed also by prevailing winds
●​ Equator and mid-latitude:
○​ Northern Hemisphere- overall rotating in clockwise direction
○​ Southern Hemisphere- overall rotating in counterclockwise direction
●​ Gyres- large scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in NH and counterclockwise
in SH
●​ Impact:
○​ Redistributes heat in ocean
○​ Cold water in polar regions move along west coast of continents
○​ Warm water of tropics move along east coast
○​ Generally west side cool, east coast warmer
Upwelling
●​ Upwelling- upward movement of ocean water toward the surface as a result of diverging currents
●​ Nutrients brought up with cold water, supports large populations of fish
Deep Ocean Currents Circulate Ocean Water Over Long Time Periods
●​ Thermohaline Circulation- ocean circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and
deep water
○​ Moves heat and nutrients around globe
○​ Driven by surface water with large amounts of salt
●​ Warm currents move from Gulf of Mexico to North Atlantic
●​ Water freezes and evaporates increasing salt content
 ○​ Saltier cold water sinks mixing with deep water
●​ Sinking water and rising warm water at equator creates deep, cold current moving north,
returning to surface, moving to Gulf of Mexico
●​ Effects:
○​ Warms Europe and North America
●​ Could shut down from climate change
The El Nino-Southern Oscillation is Caused by a Shift in Ocean Currents
●​ El Nino-Southern Oscillation- a reversal of wind and water currents in the South Pacific every
3-7 years
○​ Trade winds weaken or reverse direction
■​ Water moves to South America, suppressing upwelling for a while
●​ Effects:
○​ Suppress upwelling-> reduces productivity
○​ Reduces fish populations
○​ Cooler wetter conditions in South East America
○​ Dry weather in South Africa and Southeast Asia
■​ Poor crop yields and thousands of death
Module 12: Terrestrial Biomes
Terrestrial Biomes are Defined by Dominant Plant Growth
●​ Organisms adapt to climate
○​ Cactus for desert conditions-> water stored in tissue, waxy coating
●​ Terrestrial Biomes- geographic region categorized by a particular combination of average annual
temperature, annual precipitation, and distinctive plant growth forms on land
●​ Aquatic Biomes
○​ Aquatic region characterized by particular combination of salinity, depth, and water flow
●​ Biomes have different animal characteristics
●​ Biomes are large geographic areas home to a large amount of species, habitats are where a
particular organism lives
Climate Diagrams Illustrate Patterns of Annual Precipitation and Temperature
●​ Climate Diagrams
○​ Graph average monthly temp and precipitation
■​ Conditions of biome
■​ Growth periods (above freezing pt)
○​ Shows plant growth based on precipitation and temperature
■​ Every +10 C, 20 mm increase in precipitation
■​ If precipitation is above temp, temp is limiting factor
■​ If temp above, precipitation limiting factor
○​ Shows how humans may use biome
■​ Lots of rain, warm temp-> farming
■​ Warm, less rain-> grazing
Terrestrial Biomes Range From Tundra to Tropical Forests
●​ 3 Categories: Tundra/boreal forests, temperate, tropical
○​ 9 biomes total
Tundra
 ●​ Cold treeless biome with low growing vegetation
○​ Russia, Canada, Alaska, Antarctic Tundra (Edges and islands)
●​ 4 month growing season
○​ Upper soil thaws, pools for insects
●​ Permafrost- impenetrable, permanently frozen layer of soil
○​ No draining, no roots penetrate
●​ Cold temperatures, short growing season, little precipitation, permafrost
○​ Plants: Small shrubs, mosses, lichen
○​ Animals: musk oxen, arctic foxes
○​ Slow decomposition-> low amount of soil nutrients
●​ Human Impacts:
○​ Global warming melting permafrost
■​ Quicker decomposition-> more greenhouse gasses released
Boreal Forests (Taiga)
●​ 50-60 degrees N in Europe, Russia, North America
●​ Forest biome made up primarily by coniferous evergreens that can tolerate cold winters and short
growing seasons
○​ Cold and restricted by temperature rather than precipitation
●​ Cold and low precipitation
○​ Slow decomposition
○​ Waxy needles from trees resistant to decomposition
■​ Nutrient poor soil covered in thick layer of organic matter
●​ Plants: pines, spruce, fir (coniferous trees); Birch, Maple (deciduous trees)
○​ Deciduous grow rapidly in growing season
●​ Animals: beavers, brown bears
●​ Human Impacts:
○​ No agriculture
○​ deforestation-> trees cut down for logging
○​ Mining and oil/gas extraction
Temperate Rainforest
●​ Coastal biome typified by mild temperature and high precipitation
●​ Mild temperature:
○​ Coastal, ocean currents-> moderate temperatures and water vapor
○​ Mild summers and winters, 12 month growing season
○​ Winters raining, summers foggy
●​ Growth Of Large Trees
○​ Fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, coastal redwoods
●​ Nutrients
○​ Cold temperatures and coniferous needs
○​ Slow decomposition, but not as slow as tundra and boreal forests
○​ Nutrients taken by trees or leached by rainfall
■​ Ferns and moss survive in low nutrient soil
●​ Animals: black tailed deer, pacific giant salamander
●​ Human Impacts:
 ○​ Logging and conversion into single species tree plantations
Temperate Seasonal Forest
●​ Biome with warm summers and cold winters with over 1 meters of precipitation annually
○​ East US, Japan, China, Chile, Eastern Australia, Europe
●​ Temperature:
○​ Away from ocean
■​ Compared to temperate forests-> warmer summers, colder winters
●​ Decomposition:
○​ Deciduous tree leaves not warm
○​ Warm temp
■​ Favors decomposition
●​ Greater Plant Productivity:
○​ Long growing season
○​ Higher soil fertilizer
●​ Plants
○​ White tailed deer, gray squirrel
●​ Animals:
○​ Broadleaf deciduous trees (beech, maple, oak) some coniferous
■​ Predominance of deciduous trees makes of temperate seasonal forest
●​ Humans:
○​ So productive cut for farmland
○​ Grows back
Woodland/Shrubland
●​ Biome characterized by hot, dry summers, mild rainy winter
○​ Coast of south california, South south america, Southwest Austrailia
●​ Growth Period
○​ 12 month but restricted
■​ High temp- low precipitation summer
■​ Low Temp- high precipitation winter
●​ Wildfires common
○​ Adapted
■​ Plants resprouting
■​ Seed pods exploding with heat
●​ Soil/decomposition
○​ Low nutrients
■​ Leaching
●​ Plants
○​ Yucca, scrub oak, sage brush
○​ Animals: CA quail, San Joaquin kit
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Grazing and growing drought tolerant deeproot crops
○​ Development and frequency of fire difficult to survive
Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert
●​ Biome characterized by cold harsh winters and hot dry summers
 ○​ Great Plains, South America, Central Asia, Eastern Europe
○​ Growth constrained by summer (precipitation), winter (temperature)
○​ Frequent wildfires (10,000)
●​ Precipitation:
○​ Rainfall differs in regions
■​ North America East- 1m rainfall
●​ 2.5m tall grasses
●​ Good enough for trees, but wildfires prevent them from growing
■​ North America West- 0.5m
●​ 0.5m short grasses
■​ North America Rocky Mountains- rainshadow-> 0.25m
●​ Cold desert
●​ Cold Desert
○​ Temperate desert w/sparse vegetation
■​ Very cold winter and not hot desert plants like cacti
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Long growing season with rapid decomposition
■​ Highly production and large amounts of nutrients
○​ 98% of fall grass agriculture
○​ short grass-> grazing and growing wheat
Tropical Rainforest
●​ Wet and biome fond 20 N- 20 S of equator, with little seasonal temp variation and high
precipitation
○​ Central/South America, Africa, Southeast Asia
●​ Precipitation:
○​ Frequent and seasonal patterns
■​ ICTZ passing overhead
●​ Productivity/Decomposition
○​ Warm temp and abundant rainfall-> productivity high and decomposition rapid
○​ Nutrients sucked up quickly-> soil has little accumulated soil
●​ Biodiversity (Special)
○​ More biodiversity per hectare than any other terrestrial ecosystem
■​ Up to ⅔ of species live in rainforest
○​ Forest Layers:
■​ top= large tree creating forest canopy
■​ Understory-> several layers of smaller trees
■​ Trunk and branches: epiphytes (plants with bowls of water)
●​ Support small aquatic ecosystems
■​ Woody vines climb trees
●​ Organisms:
○​ Animals: jaguars, orangutans, tree frogs
●​ Humans:
○​ High productivity- 24,000 ha cut down for agriculture
○​ Low nutrients hold/quick decomposition: lose fertility, clear
 ○​ Deforestation
Tropical Seasonal Forest/Savanna
●​ Biome marked by warm temperature-> distinct wet and dry seasons
○​ Central America, Sub Saharan Africa, Australia
●​ Temperature:
○​ Warm temp
●​ Precipitation
○​ Seasonal Pattern follows ITCZ, rains during the summer
●​ Plants
○​ Tropical deciduous forests
■​ Drop leaves in dry season during drought
○​ Shrubs, trees
●​ Zones (special)
○​ Areas with largest dry seasons-> savannas
■​ Open landscapes dominated by grasses and scattered trees
■​ grazing-> less woody plants
●​ Animals: gazelles, zebra, cheetah, lions
●​ Humans:
○​ Warm temps support decomposition, low water constrains growth
○​ Fertile soil
○​ farming->conversion of 99% of land for grazing and agriculture
Subtropical Desert
●​ Biome prevailing at 30 N and 30 S with hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse
vegetation
○​ Mojave Desert, Arabian Desert, Great Victoria Desert
●​ Plants adapt to lack of water
○​ cacti/euphorbs/succulents
■​ Non-existent leaves, outside layer thick, spines to prevent eating
●​ Rainfall (special)
○​ Rare rainfall causes annual plants to grow rapidly
■​ Plants live for few months, reproduce, die, grow with rain
○​ Plants that live for many years have quick spurts of growth
■​ Little growth otherwise
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Slow recovery and vulnerable
○​ Climate change
○​ Draining of groundwater
Module 13: Aquatic Biomes
●​ Characterized by salinity, depth, waterflow
●​ 2 categories: freshwater and marine
Freshwater Biomes Have Low Salinity Streams/River
Streams and Rivers
●​ Fresh flowing water from spring/runoff/melting snow
○​ Creeks: narrower and less water
 ○​ River: wider carry more H2O
■​ Streams combine
●​ Flow and Growth
○​ Slow river- organic material (leaves) sinks to bottom
■​ Rooted plants +algae are able grow
○​ Fast Rivers- few plants and producers
■​ leaves-> bugs->fish
●​ Rapids
○​ Point where turbulent water mixes with oxygen and dissolves it
○​ Fast moving waters support high oxygen salmon and trout
●​ Slow Moving
○​ Support catfish
●​ Human Impact
○​ Pollutants and excess nutrients into water
Lakes/Ponds
●​ Standing water, pond smaller lake
○​ Less rooted plants (too deep)
●​ Zones
○​ Littoral Zone
■​ Shallow zone of soil and water in lakes and ponds where most algae and
emergent plants grow
■​ Most photosynthesis occurs here
○​ Limnetic Zone
■​ Zone of open water in lakes and ponds, as deep as the sunlight goes
■​ No rooted plants, phytoplankton is the only source of photosynthesis
●​ Floating algae
○​ Profundal Zone
■​ Muddy bottom of lake, pond, ocean
■​ Bacterial decomposition-> uses oxygen-> not enough oxygen for big animals
●​ Lake Productivity
○​ Oligotrophic- low level productivity
○​ Mesotrophic- moderate level of productivity
○​ Eutrotrophic- high level of productivity
●​ Human Impacts
○​ Increased nutrients, less clear (more phytoplankton)
Freshwater Wetlands
●​ Aquatic biome submerged or saturated by water for at least part of the year, but shallow enough
for emergent vegetation
○​ Swamps
■​ Great Dismal Swamp
○​ Marsh- wetlands with mostly not woody vegetation
○​ Bods- acidic wetlands with sphagnum moss and spruce trees
●​ Productivity
○​ High
 ●​ Critical to the environment
○​ Filters water
○​ Holds large rainwater-> slowly releases which reduces impact of droughts and floods
○​ Birds breeding sites and migration area for (⅓ of endangered species)
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Draining for agriculture, development, ridding of mosquitos
Marine Biomes Have High Salinity
Salt Marshes
●​ Marsh containing non woody emergent vegetation which is found along the coast in temperate
climates
○​ Found in estuaries
■​ Area along the coast where freshwater mixes with ocean saltwater
●​ High productivity
○​ River carrying nutrients and organic material
■​ Filters out contaminants
●​ ⅔ of marine fish and shellfish species live in salt marshes
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Filled in for development, pollutants in river
Mangrove Swamps
●​ Swamp occurs along tropical and subtropical coasts and contains salt tolerant trees with roots
submerged in water
○​ Mangrove trees-> estuaries and shallow coastlines with freshwater
●​ Benefits:
○​ Erosion and storm damage protection
○​ Sheltered habitat for fish and shellfish
●​ Nutrient rich with least trapped organic materials
●​ Human Impact:
○​ ⅓ destroyed-> habitation and agriculture for rice paddies and rubber trees
Intertidal Zones
●​ Narrow band of coastline between levels of high and low tide (steep rocks-> broad, sloping
mudflats)
●​ Stable at high tide (submerged), harsh at low tide (exposed)
○​ High temp, direct sunlight, drying (desiccation
●​ Crashing waves, might be washed away
●​ Animals:
○​ Barnacles, sponges, algae, mussels, crabs, sea stars
●​ Humans:
○​ Pollution, trash, chemical pollution, oil spills
Coral Reefs
●​ Most diverse marine biome found in shallow warm water beyond shoreline
○​ Great Barrier Reef-> 2600 km squared big
■​ Diversity (400 types of coral, 1500 types of fish, 200 types of birds)
●​ Coral
○​ Tiny animal secrete layer of limestone on the outside
 ○​ Eat detritus and plankton using tentacles
○​ Poor nutrients and food
■​ Algae in coral tissues (symbiotic)
●​ Coral eats-> gives CO2 and nutrients
●​ Algae uses CO2 in photosynthesis for sugars
●​ Nutrients stimulate algae to release sugars to coral
●​ Coral gets sugar, algae CO2, nutrients, and home
○​ Die off, skeleton still there-> reefs
●​ Human Impact:
○​ Pollutants, sediment deposition
○​ Coral Bleaching
■​ Algae in coral die/expelled causing coral to turn white
●​ w/out algae die too
●​ Caused by disease and environmental changes in pH, warmer water
The Open Ocean
●​ Deep ocean water, located away from shoreline where sunlight cant reach ocean bottom
○​ Sunlight usually stops at 200m
●​ Zones:
○​ Photic Zones
■​ Upper layer that gets enough sun for photosynthesis
○​ Aphotic Zone
■​ Deeper layer of ocean that lacks sunlight for photosynthesis
○​ Benthic Zone
■​ Ocean floor
●​ Photic:
○​ Algae major producer
○​ Food chain: phytoplankton->fish-> birds, fish
●​ Aphotic:
○​ Bacteria use energy in methane and hydrogen sulfide
■​ Chemosynthesis
■​ Bottom of the food chain
○​ Organisms can create own light
■​ Tube worms, jellyfish, squid
Working Towards Sustainability: Coffee
●​ Coffee grown in shade originally
○​ May get sunburned
●​ After transformed to grow like regular crop (large fields of same crop)
○​ Targets for insects and disease-> needs pesticides
●​ Some returned to shade
○​ Planting in intact rainforest
○​ Planting in rainforest with some trees removed
○​ Planting in field alongside trees
●​ Shade:
○​ Benefits:
 ■​ Less insects
■​ Less pesticide use needed
○​ Costs:
■​ Less density of coffee plants
■​ Higher price
●​ Provides homes for birds
●​ Certification seal by gov-> can help increase sales
●​ Decline in type of growth- > higher price cannot compensate certification price and lower coffee
yield
Chapter 5: Evolution of Biodiversity
Case Study: Benefits of Biodiversity
●​ Biodiversity debated if actually critical
○​ Old Studies-
■​ Food webs with higher species-> more productive
■​ More stable with abiotic changes like droughts
●​ critical-> missing lots of species in real ecosystems
●​ Could be more affected by climate and nutrients
●​ Tested again in 2017
○​ 67 studies in 6,000,000 locations
○​ Sites with more species-> higher productivity
○​ 50% of samples greater climate adapting
○​ 66% of samples with higher biodiversity had more nutrients
Module 14: Biodiversity
●​ 3 Scales of biodiversity
○​ Ecosystem, species, organism (gene) diversity
It is Difficult to Estimate the Number of Species on Earth
●​ Some species easy to see, others microscopic/inaccessible/timid
●​ Insects have the most species
○​ Estimate insects-> relative amount of total species
○​ Beetles 40% of insect species
●​ 5-100 mill (most agree 10 mil)
We can Measure Biodiversity in Terms of species Richness and Evenness
●​ Amount of species at local to determine human impact
●​ Measured by
○​ Species Richness- amount of species in given area
○​ Species Evenness- relative proportion of individuals within different species in the area
■​ high= every species have same number of species
■​ low= one dominates in number
The Evolutionary Relationship among Species can be Illustrated Using a Phylogeny
●​ Branching patterns of evolutionary relationships made based on similarity of traits
○​ More close 2 species, more related they are
●​ Uses morphology (form/structure), behavior, and genetics
Module 15: How Evolution Creates Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity is created Through Mutation and Recombination
●​ Evolution
○​ Change in genetic composition of a population over time
○​ Creates biodiversity
●​ Microevolution
○​ Evolution below species level
■​ Apple variations
●​ Macroevolution
○​ Evolution that gives rise to new species, genera, families, classes, phyla
●​ DNA
○​ Genes- physical location on chromosome
■​ determines/codes traits
○​ Allele
○​ Complete set of genes-> genotype
Genotype vs Phenotype
●​ Genotype- set, blueprint of possibilities
●​ Phenotype- traits expressed by individual
○​ Anatomy, physiology, behavior
○​ Can be determined by genes
○​ Also environment:
■​ Egg temp determines gender of sea turtles
■​ Improves ability to survive and reproduce in environment
Mutations
●​ Mutations
○​ Random change in genetic code produced by mistake in the copying process
■​ UV radiation
○​ Most bad-> die in embryo
○​ Bad-> decreases survival chance
○​ If good, can be passed on (increases survival chance)
Recombinations
●​ Recombinations
○​ Genetic process during reproductive cell division where one piece of a chromosome
breaks off and attaches to another
○​ Creates new combination of alleles on chromosome, producing new traits
■​ New immune defenses
Evolution can Occur Through Artificial Selection
●​ Evolution by Artificial Selection
○​ Process where humans choose which individuals to breed to reach a desired set of traits
■​ EX: dogs from wolves
■​ Wild mustard to brussel sprouts, cabbage cauliflower
○​ Can also be harmful
■​ herbicides->more resistant survive->reproduce-> now most resistant to herbicide
Evolution can Occur Through Natural Selection
 ●​ Evolution by natural selection
○​ Process where environment determines which individuals survive and reproduce
○​ Varying traits->some better at survival
■​ Get passed down
●​ Alfred Wallace and Charles Dickens
○​ Dickens- naturalist on NMS Beagle
■​ Sees trait variation in species, fossils, offspring eventually dying off
●​ Made book: “On the Origin of Species:
●​ Theory of Evolution
○​ Individuals produce excess of offspring
○​ Not all survive, but differ in traits
○​ Traits passed on hereditary
○​ Differences in traits associated with ability to survive and reproduce
●​ Natural selection
○​ Ability to survive and reproduce
○​ Adaptations- traits that improve individuals fitness
○​ Can favor multiple solutions
■​ Desert- waxy leaves, water storage, large roots
Evolution with Randomness (Not related to fitness)
Mutations
●​ If not lethal, can add to gene pool
●​ Larger population->more mutations
●​ Number of mutations accumulate->evolution
Gene Flow
●​ Process where individuals move to another population and alter genetic composition of both
○​ Influx of migrating individuals with different alleles->alter frequency
○​ High gene flow makes 2 populations similar in composition
○​ Can prevent natural/artificial selection
●​ Inbred panthers (homozygous, harmful alleles-> tail kinks, etc)
○​ Introduced 8 texan subspecies
○​ Genetic variation-> less inbred defects
Genetic Drift
●​ Change in genetic composition of population because of random mating
○​ More prevalent in small populations
■​ Individuals with unique traits cannot find mate-> traits disappear
○​ Less likely in big populations
Bottleneck Effect
●​ Reduction in genetic diversity due to a reduction or dramatic loss in population
○​ Habitat loss, natural disaster, humans, change in environments
○​ Less population means less genetic diversity
●​ Affects species:​
○​ Low genetic diversity
■​ Disease and low fertility
■​ Less able to adapt
 ■​ Can lead to extinction
Founder Effect
●​ Change in genetic composition as a result of descending from small number of colonizing
individuals
○​ Original birds have own pool of genes
○​ Some leave to new island
■​ Different composition because the few individuals are the source of all genetic
material
Module 16: Speciation and the Pace of Evolution
●​ Scientists study
○​ How quickly species can change, evolve, and go extinct
Speciation: Allopatric or Sympatric
Allopatric Speciation (common)
●​ Process of speciation that occurs with geographic isolation
○​ Physical separation of group of individuals from others
●​ If two habitats different environments, (temperature, water, predators)
○​ Different traits naturally selected
○​ Genetic composition diverges over time
●​ Reproductive isolation
○​ 2 populations of species evolving separately to the point that they cannot interbreed and
produce offspring
■​ Now considered 2 distinct species
Sympatric Speciation
●​ Evolution of one species into 2 without geographic isolation
●​ Usually polyploidy
○​ Increase in number of chromosomes (2->3,4,6)
○​ Happens during division of reproductive cells by accident or human
■​ Humans- trying to be larger plants and fruits
●​ Once polyploidy, cannot interbreed with diploid organisms
○​ Reproductive isolation
Pace of Evolution Depends on Factors
●​ Significant change like food (100s-> millions of years)
Rapid evolution by Natural Selection
●​ Environmental change-> most change to survive
○​ Cannot adapt-> extinct
○​ Rate of environmental change is greater than rate of evolution
■​ Slow rates-> long generational times, low genetic variation
●​ Ex: Cichlid fish
○​ 200 species over several million years ago-> evolved different food sources to adapt
Very Rapid Evolution by Artificial Selection
●​ Happens with Atlantic Cod
○​ Fishing catches largest adults
■​ Start becoming smaller size and sexual maturity younger
●​ GMOs
 ○​ Organisms produced by copying genes from a species with a desirable trait and inserting
them into another species
■​ Natural insecticide
Module 17: Evolution of Niches and Species Distribution
●​ Environmental changes-> affects species distribution
●​ Moving easily to better conditions-> survive, if cannot-> extinct
Every Species has a Niche
●​ Range of tolerance
○​ Limits to abiotic conditions species can handle (temp, humidity, salinity, pH)
○​ Ideal zone is where they can survive, grow and reproduce
○​ Further away- survive and grow
○​ Further- survive
○​ Outside- dead
●​ Fundamental Niche- ideal zone for abiotic factors
○​ Suitable abiotic conditions where species survive, grow, and reproduce
●​ Realized Niche- range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives
●​ Biotic limits
○​ Competitors, predators, disease
●​ Realized niche helped determine species distribution
●​ 2 Types of Niches:
○​ Niche Generalist- species that can live under wide range of biotic or abiotic conditions
■​ more alternatives, survives change easier
○​ Niche Specialist
■​ Species that is specialized to live in a specific habitat or feed on a small group of
species
●​ Koala, panda
■​ Little alternatives to survive-> change hard
Environmental Change can Alter the Species Distribution
●​ Changes in environment factors-> changes in distribution of species
○​ Ex: Trees
■​ As warmer, trees move upwards due to warmer conditions that can be tolerable
●​ Animals follow
●​ Future:
○​ Trees move north as warmer
○​ Mobile species may survive easier
○​ Immobile harder- blockades, habitat fragmentation, slow (turtles)
Environmental Changes Can Cause Extinction
●​ Extinction caused by change and Earth changes
○​ 99% of all species ever existing extinct
●​ Reasons:
○​ No environment where they can live nearby
■​ Isolated island
○​ Alternate environment may be occupied
■​ Too much competition
 ○​ Changes occur so quickly they cannot adapt
Fossil Record
●​ Fossils- remains of organisms preserved in rock
○​ Sediments and mud cover it
○​ Layers stack upon it
○​ Uncovering- reveals layer of time it lived in
The Five Global Mass Extinctions
●​ 5 periods of mass extinction
○​ Periods of time where large extinction of species occurs in a relatively shot time
■​ Counted by genera, not species
●​ Biggest mass extinction
○​ 251 million years ago
○​ 90% marine and 70% land vertebrae extinct
○​ Unknown cause
●​ More recent Cretaceous Period mass extinction
○​ 50% of species gone
○​ Large meteorite crashed-> dust clouds block sunlight-> lack of photosynthesis-> lack of
food
●​ Extinctions are the ultimate result of changes in the environment
●​ Use historical analysis to predict effects today
The Sixth Mass Extinction
●​ Experiencing one now within magnitude of others
●​ Poor data on abundance of species-> can only guess
○​ 24 species daily- UN
○​ 150 per day-> UN another study
●​ Causes:
○​ Habitat destruction, overharvesting, introduction of invasive species, climate change,
emerging disease
●​ Recovery from mass extinction- 10 mill years
●​ Debate on magnitude of crisis, costs of reducing human impact
Working Toward Sustainability: Protecting Oceans Where they Can
●​ TNC (the nature conservatory)- protects biodiversity
○​ Buys it
■​ 0.8 mill ha, protects 46 mill ha
○​ Conserves high biodiversity areas
■​ Florida Keys, Santa Cruz island
■​ Coastal areas
●​ Problems with coastal regions
○​ Decline in population bc pollution and overpopulation
○​ Shellfish, filter feeders clean water
■​ Without, algae increase-> algal bloom-> murky water-> low oxygen
○​ Had to buy, can only leave for harvesting and exploitation
■​ Leases and contracts
■​ Demonstrates sustainable harvesting
 ●​ Partnerships
○​ Blue Fields Oyster Company- helps preserve oyster populations to ensure ecosystem
ebenefits
○​ CA- marine fisheries and local fishermen
○​ Sustainable practices- apply to certain number of fish they can catch
■​ Also bans protected species
○​ Bycatch drops to 1%
Science Applied 2: Protecting Species Diversity
●​ Focus on hot spots- areas with highest species
●​ Endemic species- species that live in very small areas of the world/often in isolated areas
○​ Why do small parts of the world have the most diversity?
●​ Conservation organizations use the hotspots to focus efforts on
What Makes a Hotspot Hot?
●​ Species richness- important factor
○​ Higher number-> better to preserve
●​ Hard to determine-> not all species known-> looks at endemic plants instead
○​ Higher plant diversity-> higher animal diversity
●​ Conservation International
○​ >=1500 endemic plant species
■​ Conserving plant diversity conserves animal diversity
○​ 70% vegetation gone
■​ High diversity and high loss-> highest priority
What Else Makes it Hot?
●​ Consider number of species or number currently threatened
●​ Maybe not all 3 together
○​ Results based on number of species, number of endemic species, number of threatened
species yields different areas
■​ Difficulties in determining which standard to use
●​ Size of human population too
○​ higher= more likely to be in danger
What are the Costs and Benefits of Conserving Hotspots?
●​ Ppl conserving trying to preserve all animals
○​ Has to consider likelihood and costs
●​ Buying habitats, making agreements with landowners, removing the species
●​ US Wildlife Service- 20,000 ha for CA tiger salamander
What About Biodiversity Coldspots?
●​ Only protecting hotspots could cost important ecosystems like Yellowstone
○​ Low diversity, but one of few places for gray wolves
●​ Also provides important value to humans
○​ Wetlands- purify water, flood control, but low diversity
●​ moderate->high species diversity does not improve ecosystem services
●​ Doesn’t need to preserve every species
How can we Reach a Resolution?
●​ Need criteria and priorities, but is not agreed upon by everyone
 ●​ Consider bias and unintended consequences of favoring one over others
●​ Not all or nothing, make decisions on account of costs and benefits of alternate conservation
strategies
●​ Strike balance between preserving Earth species diversity and protecting ecosystem functions
Chapter 6: Population and Community Ecology
Case Study: New England Forests Come Full Circle
●​ Pilgrims arrive- cut down forests for farmland
○​ After awhile-> ppl leave to textile or Midwest
●​ Regrows
○​ Wind blows seeds for flowers/grass
■​ Golden rod dominates-> supports many bugs-> eat plants-> less plants
●​ Leaf beetle reduces golden rod
■​ Other plants able to grow
●​ Trees arrive, most white pines-> cut down for lumber
●​ Other broadleaf trees arrive, eventually return to community like previously
Module 18: Abundance and Distribution of Populations
●​ Individuals<population<community<ecosystems<biosphere
○​ Individuals-single organism
○​ Population- individual that belong to the same species like live in the same area
○​ Community- all populations within a given area
○​ Ecosystem- all abiotic and biotic components in a given area
○​ Biosphere- all of earth’s ecosystems
Populations Have Distinctive Characteristics
●​ Population Ecology
○​ Study of factors that cause populations to increase or decrease
■​ Used to help endangered species thrive or invasive species die
○​ To understand, must look at basic characteristics of a population:
Population Size
●​ Number of individuals in defined area at a certain time
○​ Looking at populations of endangered species
Population Density
●​ Number of individuals per unit area at a certain time
○​ Species rare or abundant
○​ Check if so dense there is not enough food
○​ Used for wildlife hunting- more dense, more you can hunt
Population Distribution
●​ Description of how individuals are distributed with respect to one another
●​ 3 Types:
○​ Random- no pattern
○​ Uniform/evenly spread:
■​ Common with terrestrial animals
■​ Plants that produce toxic chemicals to prevent other plants from growing near it
(allelopathic)
 ○​ Clumped:
■​ Schools of fish, birds, herding mammals
■​ Large groups provide enhanced feeding opportunities and protection from
predators
Population Sex Ratio
●​ Ratio of males to females
●​ Helps estimate offspring
Population Age Structure
●​ How many individuals fit into particular age category in a population
●​ Know how rapidly population ages
○​ More young/old= less offspring
Population Size Affected by 2 Factors:
Density Dependant Factors
●​ Limiting Resource- resource population cannot live without and that occurs in quantities lower
than the population would require to increase in size
○​ Decrease in resource-> decrease in population and vice versa
●​ Density Dependant Factors- factor that influences organisms’ survival and reproduction rates
depending on the size of the population
○​ Food: more competition with more individuals
●​ Carrying Capacity (k): limit of individuals in population that an environment can sustain
Density Independent Factors
●​ Factor that influences the survival and reproduction rate no matter what population size
●​ Natural disasters
Module 19: Population Growth Models
●​ Population Growth Models-
○​ Mathematical equations that can be used to predict population size at a given time
●​ Population Growth Rate- number of offspring minus number of deaths in the same time
●​ Intrinsic Growth Rate (r) - max potential for population growth with best conditions and
unlimited resources
○​ Not best conditions makes growth rate lower than intrinsic
●​ Exponential Growth Model= N(future)=N(now)e^rt
○​ N= number of individual, e=2.72, r= intrinsic growth rate, t= time
○​ J shaped curve- grows infinitely
Logistic Growth Model (With Carrying Capacity)
●​ Populations do not experience exponential indefinitely
○​ Only possible initially
●​ Logistic Growth Model- growth model describing population at first exponential, then slowing as
it reaches the carrying capacity (S shaped curve)
●​ LGM predicts populations with density dependent factors
○​ Density independent random, so unaccounted for
●​ LGM uses current population and carry capacity info
○​ Food and density dependant factors could change while baby is born
■​ Overshoot- population larger than carrying capacity
●​ Not enough resources-> dies off and rapid decline
Species Have Different Reproduction Strategies/Survivorship Curves
K-selected
●​ Species with low intrinsic growth rate will increase population slowly till carrying capacity
○​ Population largely based on carrying capacity (k), small population fluctuations
●​ Certain Traits:
○​ Large organisms, few, large offspring, parental care
●​ Risk of extinction higher due to slow growth
r-selected
●​ High intrinsic growth rate/usually die offs and overshoots
○​ Rarely by carrying capacity-> rapidly overshoots-> more dieoff
●​ Traits
○​ Reproductive maturity early
○​ Reproduce frequently
○​ Many offspring little or no care
○​ Weedly plants and insects
●​ r/k selected species are opposite sides of spectrum, some in middle
○​ Like tuna
Survivorship Curve
●​ Survivorship Curves- graph that shows distinct patterns of species survival as a function of age
●​ 3 Types:
○​ Type I survivorship curve
■​ High survival throughout life, die out due to old age (humans)
○​ Type II survivorship curve
■​ Relatively constant decline in survival throughout life (squirrels)
○​ Type III survivorship curve
■​ Low survival rate in early life, few reach adulthood (dandelions)
Interconnected Populations Form Metapopulations
●​ Cougars in multiple parts of mountain range- can move between on Corridors
○​ Strips of natural habitat connecting populations
●​ Metapopulation
○​ Group of spatially distinct populations connected by corridor movement of individuals
between them
■​ Connectedness helps populations survive
●​ Small population- less survival rate
○​ Inbreeding Depression- individuals with similar genotypes breed and produce offspring
with impaired ability to reproduce/survive
■​ Each parent with one copy of harmful gate, both parents pass down
○​ Catastrophes- less organisms to recover
■​ Metapopulations- some can move over to increase population and gene diversity
○​ Disease- others can repopulate
●​ Humans create more metapopulations through habitat fragmentation
Module 20: Community Ecology
●​ Species ability to survive depends on [Link] with species
Some species interactions cause negative interactions for both
 ●​ Community Ecology- study of interactions between species
●​ Symbiotic Relationship- two species living in close association with each other
●​ One species negatively impacted: competition, predation, parasitism, herbivory
Competition:
●​ Competition- struggle of individuals to obtain shared limiting resource
●​ Competitive Exclusion Principle- 2 species competing for same resource cannot coexist
○​ One will perform better and cause the other to adapt or go extinct
●​ Competition->Resource Partitioning
○​ 2 species divide resource based on differences in behavior or morphology
○​ Evolution- reduces number of individuals worse sharing-> adaptations shift to different
food type
●​ 3 Types of Resource Partitioning:
○​ Temporal Resource Partitioning
■​ Same resource, but use at different times (day or night)
○​ Spatial Resource Partitioning
■​ Different habitats and areas (different layers of the forest)
○​ Morphological Resource Partitioning
■​ Evolution of differences in body size/shape (Darwin’s finches)
Predation:
●​ One animal kills and consumes another
●​ Specialized predator- Parasitoids
○​ Animals lay eggs in another-> eats host inside out
●​ Controls abundance of prey
●​ Protection from predators:
○​ Behavioral
■​ Hiding, limited movement
○​ Morphological
■​ Camouflage, spikes
○​ Chemical- toxicity
○​ Mimicry to fool predators
Parasitism:
●​ Interaction where an organism lives in or on another
○​ Doesn’t want to kill host-> their home
●​ Pathogens- parasites that cause disease
○​ Virus, fungi, bacteria
Herbivory:
●​ Animal consumes producer
○​ Only consumes a portion
●​ Too many herbivores-> loss of vegetation
●​ none-> producers grow out of control
●​ Protection- spines, distasteful chemicals
Interactions that Are Positive/Neutral
Mutualism
●​ Interaction between 2 species that increases or enhances survival or reproduction for both
 ○​ Assist other for own benefits
○​ If not good enough-> natural selection choose without
○​ If good enough-> adaptations that help both
■​ Ants and acacia tree- ants get home in thorns, attack anything threatening tree
■​ Acaia- can grow leaves year round, gives ants nectar and leaves
Commensalism
●​ Relationship between two species where one is helped, other neither harmed nor helped
○​ Remora fish and shark
Keystone Species have Large Effects on Communities
●​ Keystone Species- a not very abundant species which has large effects on the ecological
community
○​ Specifically not abundant (not producers)- play bigger role than expected
●​ Can be: predators, sources of food, mutualistic species, provider of some other essential service
○​ Predators:
■​ Keep overwhelming or competitive species at bay and preserve biodiversity
●​ Ex: sea start and mussels
○​ Mutualistic interactions
■​ Bat only pollinator- if dies plants cannot grow
○​ Ecosystem Engineer- keystone species that creates or maintains the habitat for other
species
■​ Beaver
Module 21: Community Succession
●​ Natural communities change all the time
Primary Succession without Soil
●​ Ecological Succession
○​ Predictable replacement of one group of species by another overtime
●​ Primary Succession- ecological succession on surface without soil
○​ Glacier retreat, volcano, human abandonment
●​ Bare Rock Colonized
○​ Lichen , moss breaks down using acid-> weathering and death-> soil
●​ Enough Soil-> mid successional species
○​ Grass, wildflowers easily get there
○​ Can withstand nutrient poor soil and exposed sun
○​ death-> increases soil quality and ability to hold water and nutrients
●​ New species come in
●​ Final product determined by temp and rainfall
○​ Eastern temperate seasonal forest, mid grassland, 1st shrubland
Secondary Succession with Soil
●​ Secondary Succession- succession of plant life in areas disturbed but with soil
○​ After hurricane, forest fire, abandoned farms
●​ 1- easily arrival species (wildflowers, grass)
●​ 2- better competitors slowly arrive, eventually trees
○​ Pioneer trees- seeds easily dispersed (cherry seeds eaten by birds and pooped out)
○​ Pioneer Species- species that can colonize new areas and grow well in full sunshine
 ●​ Pioneer trees create shade-> less new trees
○​ Bigger shade tolerant trees grow and outgrow the pioneer trees-> no sunlight for them
and die
●​ Secondary succession on many different scales
●​ Used to have climax community (final stage), but natural disturbances happen regularly and can
be reset
Succession for Aquatic Habitats
●​ Intertidal zone: rock wipe clean
○​ Short lived red/green algae-> long lived algae
○​ 3 years or more-> barnacles and mussels
●​ Freshwater Lakes dug out of glaciers
○​ Sediments fill up bottom, growth of plants, algae fill up
○​ Until terrestrial habitat
The Species Richness of Community is Influenced by Many Factors
●​ Number of Species present- new species colonize area, speciation, extinction
●​ important ce varies region to region and on four factors
Latitude
●​ Closer to equator, more species
Time
●​ Longer habitat exists, more colonization, speciation, extinction
Habitat Size, Distance from Source Species
●​ Theory of Island Biogeography- theory demonstrates duel importance of habitat size, distance in
determining species richness
●​ Larger Habitats:
○​ Dispersing species more likely to find
○​ Can support more species
○​ Often more variance in environmental conditions-> more niches met
■​ Wider range of conditions allow for more opportunities for speciation
Distance between Habitat and Colonizer Original Spot
●​ Many species can disperse short distances, but few long
●​ Closer islands- more species
Conservation and Island Biogeography
●​ Originally for islands, can be applied to habitat islands( created by human habitat fragmentation)
●​ Setting aside habitat for species: consider size distance between one area and others that could
provide corridors

Chapter 7: Human Population

Case Study: China
●​ China- most population and still growing
○​ Highest consumption of goods and pollution
●​ Tried to control pollution- worked to 1.6 fertility rate
●​ Even if starts to decline, resource consumption still increases
○​ More ppl buying goods (cars, refrigerators)
■​ Has to be mined, processed, then daily usage of electricity
 ●​ Human population is increasing, and so is consumption
Module 22: Human Population Numbers
Scientists Argue about Human Carrying Capacity
●​ 5 days-> 2.1 mil born, 800,000 born-> net 1.3 mill increase
●​ Agriculture and cleanliness leads to rise in population
●​ Some agree with Thomas Malthus
○​ Population growing exponentially, food production growing linearly
○​ Population will and has exceeded carrying capacity
●​ Others: more ppl= more intellect
○​ Increasing innovation to keep agriculture production up
Many Factors Drive Human Population Growth
●​ Factors:
○​ Population size, birth/death rates, fertility, life expectancy, migration
●​ Demography:
○​ Study of human populations and trades
○​ Scientist-demographer
Changes in Population Size
●​ Most of history-> births slightly outnumber deaths
●​ Country population
○​ Inputs: immigration and births
○​ Outputs: emigration and death
●​ CBR (Crude birth rate)- births per 1000 ppl
●​ CDR (Crude Death Rate)- deaths per 1000 ppl
●​ National Population Percent Growth Rate: [(CBR+immigration)- (CDR+ emmigration)]/10
●​ Doubling Time: 70/growth rate percentage= years
●​ Earth population will not double again, birth rate will slow in the foreseeable future
Fertility
●​ Total Fertility Rate (TFR)- estimate of average number of children each woman will have in
childbearing years
●​ Compare to Replacement Level Fertility
○​ TFR needs to offset number of deaths (a little over 2)- 2, but needs to count for child
deaths
●​ Developed vs Developing Countries
○​ Developed- relatively high levels of industrialization and income
○​ Developing- low industrialization and income
■​ Mortality higher for young
Life Expectancy
●​ Life Expectancy- average number of years person expected to live
●​ High Life Expectancy:​
○​ Better healthcare
○​ High resource consumption rates and environmental impacts
●​ Measured 3 Ways:
○​ Everyone
○​ Male- generally shorter bc biological and workplace more dangerous
 ○​ Female
Infant/Child Mortality
●​ Affected by health care, nutrition available, pollution
●​ Infant mortality rate- number of deaths under 1 per 1000
●​ Child mortality rate- number of deaths under 5 per 1000
●​ Developed nations have lower mortality-> availability of prenatal care
●​ Differs within country
○​ Demographics based on socioeconomic status, different degrees of access to prenatal care
and health care
Aging/Disease
●​ Even with low mortality and high life span, deaths can be high
●​ Aging- more ppl older than other countries
●​ Disease- before: malaria and tuberculosis, now: HIV and AIDS
Migration
●​ Net Migration Rate:
○​ Difference of immigration-emigration per 1000 ppl
○​ Positive- more immigration
○​ Negative- more emigration
●​ With enough migration, population can grow
○​ US and Canada
●​ Due to displacements from disasters (refuge camps), humanitarian and health issues
●​ Ppl moving to developed nations-> take on living habits-> increase in ecological footprint
Age Structure Diagrams
●​ Age Structure Diagrams:
○​ Visual showing number of people within specific age group divided by male and female
●​ 3 Broad Types:
○​ Population Pyramid-
■​ Narrow top, fat bottom
■​ Developing country-> indicates population will grow
■​ Population Momentum:
●​ Continued population growth after growth reduction measures put into
place
●​ How long it takes for changes to affect ppl
●​ Lots of ppl at reproductive maturity, hard to stop
○​ Column:
■​ Almost all same-> developed nation
■​ Developing nations slowing births-> this graph
○​ Inverted Pyramid:
■​ More old then young
■​ Fertility rate below 2.1, decreasing number of females
■​ Shrink in population
Module 23: Economic Development, Consumption, Sustainability
Democratic Transition Follows Economic Development
●​ How population changes over time
Theory of Demographic Transition
●​ Theory of Demographic Transition:
○​ Theory that as country goes from subsistence economy to industrialization and increased
affluence, there is a predictable shift in population growth
●​ 4 Phases:
●​ Growth patterns of country-> not perfect at describing everything
○​ Other factors for reduction in population growth, still good model, visualizes
development
Phase 1: Slow Population Growth
●​ High birth and death pre industrialization
○​ Dangerous living and working conditions, infant deaths high, disease and no health care
●​ Subsistence Economy- mostly farmers
○​ High birth-> more children, higher chance of surviving
●​ Country before the Industrial Revolution
●​ Can return to this phase from war, natural disaster, disease and increasing death rate
Phase 2: Rapid Population Growth
●​ Death rates decline, birth stays the same
●​ Modernizes-> new things reduce infant mortality rate and crude death rate
○​ CBR continues- takes time for ppl to adjust to infant survival rate
●​ India
Phase 3: Stable Population Growth
●​ Economy and Education better, more income, less children
●​ Lots of children becomes a financial burden
●​ Affluence:
○​ State of having plentiful wealth, including possession of mass goods, property
●​ More affluent-> more pursue higher education, birth control-> less children
●​ Birth rates and death rates decrease-> steady state
Phase 4: Declining Population Growth
●​ High affluence- and economic development
●​ Japan, Germany, Italy
●​ Less young people, more old
○​ More ppl retired-> ratio of dependant elderly increase
○​ Puts strain and greater burden on workers
●​ Shortage of workers-> immigrants or incentives to give birth
●​ TFR rebounds after hitting 1.2-1.5
○​ Population is affluent and educated, easier for the children
Family Planning
●​ Educated and working women less likely to have children
○​ More use and knowledge of birth control
●​ Family Planning
○​ Practice of regulating the number of children through birth control
●​ Some countries campaign to reduce birth rates this way
○​ Kenya and Thailand
Population Size, Economic Development, and Consumption Affect the Environment
 ●​ Population and amount of resource use and activities contribute to environmental degradation
Resource Use
●​ 9/12 most populous countries developing-> grow rapidly while developing
●​ Per capital footprint for country- shows effect of affluence on consumption of goods
●​ Higher development and affluence usually means greater impact
○​ US 8.6 ha, world average- 1.7 ha
●​ Find footprint of whole country-> depend heavily on size of population
○​ US 279 million ha, China- 4,968 million ha
IPAT Equation
●​ People can live differently- greater or lower impact on environment (hard to calculate)
●​ IPAT Equation
○​ Impact= population x affluence x technology
●​ Population- more ppl, greater usage
●​ Affluence:​
○​ More affluent country and population is, more environmental impact
●​ Technology:
○​ Both degrade and improves environmental impact
○​ Some how use “destructive tech” to calculate impact
Impact of Affluence
●​ Measures country’s wealth and potential environmental impact-> GDP
○​ Value of all products and services produced by country in one year
■​ Consumer spending, investments, gov spending, exports minus imports
●​ Low GDP- too poor for too much pollution (industrialization)
○​ Little fossil fuels and waste
●​ Increasing- affords fossil fuels (coal)-> much more pollution
○​ Inefficient polluting equipment
○​ Trade off for pollution vs poverty
■​ China
●​ Turning Point: rich enough to purchase better equipment and reduce pollutants
○​ Ppl more willing for gov to spend on regulating pollution
○​ Better management and policing
●​ Increasing GDP best way to save environment
○​ 1- rising income= less births, reduced population-> less impact
○​ 2- wealthy countries can make improvements
Local v.s Global and Urban Impacts
●​ Impacts, locally in borders of region or globally
●​ Scale depends on ecosystem development
Local vs Global Impacts
●​ Rural, agriculture society= local
○​ Most resources from inside of country
○​ Overuse of resources
■​ Land to have more farms
■​ wood-> deforestation
●​ Brazil
 ○​ 3 million ha per year during peak
○​ Erosion, soil degradation, habitat loss
●​ Global Impacts
○​ agriculture-> less trees-> more CO2
○​ Fertilizers
○​ More common in affluent/urban societies
■​ Fossil fuels and tech
●​ Usually more consumption= more impact
Urban Impacts
●​ Urban-50% population, consumes 75% of resources
○​ Contains more than 386 ppl per km^2
●​ Ppl in urban areas expected to increase in future
●​ 16/20 largest cities in world developing
●​ Developed Countries
○​ Planned city infrastructure- public transportation, sanitation
○​ Typically small per capita footprint
■​ Services within walking distance, more public transportation
●​ Developing Countries
○​ Affluent has resources
○​ poorer-> no access, lie on outside in temporary shelters
■​ Slums, overpopulated, no way to reduce impact
Sustainable Development is a common, if Elusive Goal
●​ Economic Development and environmental protection
○​ Influenced by each other, can be close- renewable energy, free transportation, less
footprint and more sustainable
●​ UN report
○​ Human demand= loss of biodiversity
○​ Ecosystem sustainability will be threatened
○​ Alterations to ecosystems that improved wellbeing will cause more poverty in some areas
○​ Sustainable practices-> may improve standard of living
●​ Needs broader and greater understanding of systems to achieve
○​ Govs, orgs, corporations, communities have to work together
Working Toward Sustainability: Gender Equity, Population Control in Kerala
●​ India’s population increasing- unlikely to stabilize due to number of young people
●​ Kerala successful in lowering fertility and population growth
○​ At first high- health care led to less deaths
○​ Now similar to developed countries
●​ Three Es
○​ Education- 90% literacy, women education-> greater female power and fertility plans
○​ Employment- working-> starts family later
○​ Equality- other countries with equality have flow fertility rates too
Chapter 8: Earth Systems
Case Study: Are Hybrid Electric Vehicles as Environmentally Friendly As We Think?
●​ Reduce gasoline use, but tradeoffs
●​ Use scarce metals like neodymium, lithium, and lanthanum
○​ Neodymium needed to make magnets in electric motors
○​ Lithium and Lanthanum in batteries
●​ Mining of metals leaves habitat harmed-> holes, roads, pollution, debris
●​ Can create acidic slurry which can contain dissolved metals and minerals
Module 24: Mineral Resources and Geology
The Availability of Earth’s Resources was Determined when the Planet was Formed
The Formation and Structure of Earth
●​ Early Earth bombarded with debris and separated in layers
●​ Core- innermost zone of Earth’s interior composed of mostly iron and nickel, liquid outer and
solid inner
●​ Mantle- layer that contains molten rock or magma which circulates in convection currents
●​ Asthenosphere- outer part of mantle composed of semi-molten, ductile rock
●​ Lithosphere-brittle outermost layer which includes solid upper mantle and crust
Hot Spots
●​ Hot Spots-places molten material from mantle reaches lithosphere
The Theory of Plate Tectonics Describes the Movement of the Lithosphere
●​ Alfred Wegener- Pangaea, but spreads out over time
●​ Plate Tectonics- lithosphere divided in plates, most in constant motion
●​ Tectonic Cycle- sum of processes which build and break down lithosphere
Plate Movement
●​ Oceanic (iron so heavier and sinks) v.s continental (silicon dioxide so lighter and rise)
●​ Plates can move into each other
Consequences of Plate Movement
●​ Plate going over hot spot melts crust-> Volcano- vent which emits ash, gases, or molten lava
Types of Plate Contact
●​ Divergent Plate Boundaries- area beneath ocean where tectonic plates move away from each
other
○​ Seafloor Spreading- formation of new ocean crust from magma pushing upward and out
of mantle to surface
●​ Convergent Plate Boundaries- move toward each other and one goes under
○​ Ocean and land creates subduction zone
○​ Both land can create mountains
●​ Transform Plate Boundary- tectonic plates move sideways past each other
○​ Seismic activity-frequency and intensity of earthquakes over time
○​ Fault Zone- where faults are, with high seismic activity
Faults, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes
●​ Earthquake- when plates suddenly slip and release potential energy along fault
○​ Epicenter- exact point on surface of Earth above location where rock ruptures during
earthquake
●​ Often times observed with volcanoes-> ring of fire
Environmental and Human Toll of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
●​ Earthquakes reported using Richter Scale- logarithmic scale
●​ Loss of human, collapsed buildings, fires, contaminated water supplies, nuclear plants
●​ Tsunami- series of waves in ocean caused seismic activity or undersea volcano
●​ Volcanoes- loss of life, habitat destruction and alteration, reduction in air quality
The Rock Cycle Recycles Scarce Minerals and Elements
●​ Rock Cycle- geologic cycle governing contestant formation, alteration, and destruction of rock
material that results from tectonics, weathering, erosion
●​ Granitic (lighter colorL feldspar, mica, quartz) v.s Basaltic (dark; iron magnesium, calcium)
●​ Intrusive Igneous Rock- igneous rock that forms when magma rises and cools in a place
underground
●​ Extrusive Igneous Rock- rock that forms when magma cools above surface of Earth
●​ Rock cools-> Fractures or cracks, water can run through and dissolve precious metals and cause
veins and deposits
Sedimentary Rock
●​ Sedimentary Rock- form when sediments compressed by overlaying sediments
○​ Lake beds, sand dunes, landslides-> usually heterogeneous
Metamorphic Rocks
●​ Metamorphic Rock- rock that forms when rock is subjected to high temp and pressure
○​ Overlaying rock layers or tectonic pressures
Module 25: Weathering and Soil Science
The Processes of Weathering and Erosion contribute to the Recycling of Elements
●​ Rock exposed to surface undergoes weathering and erosion to smaller bits and return to rock
cycle
Weathering
●​ Physical Weathering- mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals
○​ Ex: water going into cracks and expanding, plant roots
●​ Chemical Weathering- breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, dissolving of
chemical elements from rocks or both
○​ Releases nutrients from rocks, breaks down primary minerals to form secondary minerals
and ionic elements
○​ Ex: lichen, acid rain
●​ Acid Rain- precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor
and sulfur and nitrogen oxides in atmosphere
○​ Can degrade limestone, marble; leach minerals
Erosion
●​ Erosion- physical removal of rock fragment from landscape or ecosystem
○​ Wind, water, ice, organisms can erosion to travel and accumulate in deposits
Soil Links the Rock Cycle to the Biosphere
●​ Soil- important for plant growth, filter of water, biodiversity
The Formation of Soil
●​ Result of weathering of rocks and gradual accumulation of detritus
●​ 2 Directions: break down of rock and primary material and deposition of organic matter to make
soil
 ●​ 5 Factors to determine properties of soil:
Parent Material
●​ Parent Material- underlying rock material from which inorganic components of soil are derived
○​ EX: quartz sand-> nutrient poor soil; calcium carbonate-> high pH, calcium, productivity
Climate
●​ Temp, humidity, water affects soil
●​ Temp- do not develop in cold bc little or no decomposition
●​ Humid- higher humidity quicker soil development from weathering, leaching nutrients, and
decomposition
●​ Affects type of plant growth (and what it produces when dies)
Topography
●​ Soils on steep slopes erosion and bottom of slopes accumulate soil and deep
Organisms
●​ Plants releasing organic acids, taking nutrients; worms digging up an mixing soil
●​ Soil Degradation- loss of some or all of soil’s ability to support plant growth (human)
○​ Erosion of topsoil, compaction of soil, during, intensive use depleting nutrients
Time
●​ Soil aging-> deep and fertile as has many years of continual inputs of organic matter
●​ Some may be infertile from use, less productive communities above them, more water going
through
Soil Horizons
●​ Horizons- horizontal layer in soil defined by physical features like texture and color
●​ O Horizon- organic detritus, humus (most gully decomposed organic matter in lowest section of
O horizon)
●​ A Horizon (topsoil)- zone of organic material and minerals mixed together
●​ E Horizon- zone of leaching or eluviation
○​ Iron, aluminum, dissolved organic acids from overlying horizons transported through and
removed from E horizons and deposited in B horizon
●​ B Horizon- soil horizon made of mostly mineral material with little organic matter
●​ C Horizon- least weathered soil horizon, beneath B horizon and similar to parent
Properties of Soil
Physical Properties of Soil
●​ Size and weight
●​ Sand, silt, clay are mineral particles of different sizes
●​ Reading Chart- go to lowest number for each
●​ Permeability- how quickly drains depends on size of particles
○​ Sand largest-> drains quickly->Silt->clay
●​ Agricultural soil-> loam w/. Balanced water drainage and retention
Chemical Properties of Soil
●​ Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)- ability of particular soil to absorb and release cations
○​ Important for plants, clay holds best bc can attract charged minerals, but too much can
cause waterlogging
●​ Base Saturation- proportion of soil bases to acids
 ○​ Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium neutralize acids like aluminum which acids hurt
plants while bases promote growth
●​ CEC can retain and release nutrients, high base saturation can hold nutrients
Biological Properties of Soil
●​ 3 groups- Bacteria, Fungi and Protozoans 80%, however other organisms contribute whether soil
mixing, herbivores, detritivores
The Distribution of Mineral Resources on Earth has Social and Environmental Consequences
Abundance of Ores and Metals
●​ Crustal Abundance- average concentration of an element in Earth’s crust
●​ Ores- a concentrated accumulation of minerals from which economically valuable minerals can
be extracted
●​ Metals- elements with properties that allow them to conduct electricity, heat energy, etc
●​ Some ores from magma, veins, disseminated deposits, chemical weathering
●​ Reserve- known quantity of a resource that can be economically recovered
○​ Cant know exact amount of mineral supplies since private companies can hold info
Mining Techniques
Surface Mining
●​ Strip Mining- removal of strips of soil and rock to expose underlying ore
○​ When ore is close to surface and runs parallel to it (coal and sand)
●​ Mine Tailings- unwanted waste material created during mining
●​ Open-pit mining- creates a large visible pit or hole in ground
○​ When ore is close to surface but extends below surface horizontally and vertically
●​ Mountaintop Removal- remove top of mountain with explosives, removing resource and
depositing tailings nearby often in or near rivers/streams
●​ Placer Mining- process of looking for metals and precious stones in river sediments
Subsurface Mining
●​ Subsurface Mining- mining techniques used when desired resource more than 100m below
surface
●​ Usually digs horizontal tunnel then vertical shafts going up and down
The Environment and Safety
●​ Soil, water, biodiversity, human health impacted
Mining and the Environment
●​ Construction of roads-> erosion, damage to waterways, habitat fragmentation
●​ Mine tailings-> acid mine drainage when water passes through-> lowers pH when pumped ut of
subsurface
●​ Mountaintop-> damage to environment, streams, groundwater
●​ Mercury used in gold mining-> harms plants and animals and humans
Mining Safety and Legislation
●​ Miners- dangerous (accidents, explosions, burial, toxic gas, respiratory disease)
●​ Overtime needs to dig deeper- more dangerous, higher cost, mine tailings
●​ Mining Law of 1872- regulate mining on federal lands-> allowed ppl to mine and get stuff to
promote expansion west
●​ Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977- regulates surface mining of coal and
surface effects of subsurface mining
 ○​ Land minimal disturbance, must be reclaimed
Chapter 9: Water Resource and Use
Case Study: Dams and Salmon on the Klamath River
●​ Klamath River- Oregon & California
○​ Salmon migrate up river
●​ Dams and drained lakes for farmland
○​ Warmer and less water (climate change) bad for salmon
●​ Big populations die out
●​ Plan: remove dams, conserve water with better crops
Module 26: The Availability of Water
Groundwater can be Extracted for Human Use
●​ 3% of all water unsalty
○​ 77% in glaciers, 22% in ground-> less than 1% available
●​ Groundwater
○​ Aquifer- layer of permeable rock and sediment that contains groundwater
■​ 2 types:
●​ Unconfined- porous rock covered by soil which water can easily flow
○​ Higher chance of human contamination
●​ Confined- surrounded b layer of impermeable rock/clay-> no water flow
○​ Older, slower recharge rate, less likely contamination
○​ Water Table- uppermost level where groundwater fully saturates rock/soil
○​ Groundwater Recharge- process precipitation water percolates into aquifer
■​ Confined only recharges if it has surface opening (recharge area)
○​ Important for plant roots, springs (groundwater percolates to surface)
■​ Source of freshwater
■​ Wells pumping it up
■​ Artesian well- well in confined aquifer
●​ High pressure pushes water up naturally and bursts out of well
○​ Cone of Depression- area lacking groundwater due to its rapid withdrawal by well
■​ Ogallala Aquifer in the US great plains
■​ Near Sea-> fresh water pushing down to prevent infiltration of salt
●​ Pumping too much may lead to a cone of depression and less pressure,
infiltrating groundwater with salt
Surface Water is the Collection of Aquatic Biomes
●​ Surface Water
○​ Streams, rivers, ponds, lakes
■​ River: Flood Plains- land adjacent to river
●​ Excess water floods in heavy rain/snow deposits nutrients
■​ Amazon, Congo, Yangtze river volume biggest
●​ Ponds/Lakes
○​ Surface area, depth, volume
○​ 3 ways created:
■​ tectonic activity raises land, isolates region of the ocean
 ●​ Caspian Sea
■​ Tectonic activity- land splits open long/deep fissures that fill with water
●​ Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Baikal
■​ Glaciers scrape large depressions
●​ Wetlands- lower flood likelihood
○​ Measured by surface area
Atmospheric Water Produces Precipitation
●​ Still important even though little amount
○​ Rainfall patterns
●​ Impacted by drought and El Nino
○​ Causes human loss, soil damage, nutrient cycling
○​ Droughts dry out soil-> fertile layer blown away and soil can become hard and
impermeable
■​ Dust bowl- wheat fields create more soil erosion
■​ Drought-> crop failure-> dust storms
■​ Human migration and economy down
○​ Flooding from water across dried soil-> soil cannot absorb well
○​ Impermeable Surfaces- pavement/buildings don’t allow water penetration
■​ Flooding
Module 27: Human Altercation of Water Availability
●​ Channel flow of flood rivers
○​ Levees and dikes
●​ Block flows of rivers to store water
○​ Dams
Levees and Dikes are Built to Prevent Flooding
●​ Floodplains from spilling away
○​ Want to use for commercial/residential use
■​ Levees- enlarged banks built upon each side of river
●​ Fertility reduced
●​ Sediments no longer settle there-> where river leaves to ocean
●​ Force floodplains downstream-> worse flooding
●​ Development in area encouraged, but still floods
●​ Levee failure
○​ Tremendous pressure cause it to fail-> New Orleans Hurricane Katrina
●​ Dikes- structures built to prevent ocean water from flooding adjacent land
○​ Netherlands- dikes and pump remove water so they have land
Dams are Built to Restrict the Flow of Streams+Rivers
●​ Dam- barrier that runs across the stream/river to control flow of water
○​ Creates reservoir- the body of water created by damming river/stream
○​ Holds water for…
■​ Electricity, human need, flood control, recreation
○​ Largest reservoir system- Missouri River (6 dams+reservoirs- 90 trill L)
●​ 3% dams hydroelectric, 18% flood control, 38% recreation
●​ Dams bring financial, societal, environmental costs
 ○​ 3 gorges dam- Yangtze river
■​ Much hydroelectric power and prevents seasonal flooding
■​ Forced relocate 13 cities and 1.3 mil ppl
○​ Harm on organisms
■​ Fish Ladders- stairlike structure that lets migrating fish get around dam
■​ Fish die by going through turbines
○​ Some species dependant on seasonal flooding
■​ Simulate it by releasing water from reservoir
Aqueducts Carry Water from One Location to Another
●​ Aqueducts- canals, ditched, or pipes used to carry water from one location to another
○​ Older ones lose up to 55% water
○​ New- concrete canals, pressurized steel underground
○​ NY city Catskill Aqueduct, LA- Colorado River Aqueduct
●​ Costs
○​ Fragmentation/destruction of habitats
○​ Some rivers go dry b/c of how much water taken
●​ International Impact
○​ dams/aqueducts in rivers between 2 countries
■​ India and Bangladesh
■​ Yarlung Zangbo River in China-> Chinese dams could divert water away from
India and Bangladesh
■​ Officials scared could take all water-> no fresh water
○​ Soviet Union- Aral Sea
■​ diversion-> salinity up, split into 2 seas- North+South
■​ Climate less stable
■​ Saving North sea, but gave up south
Desalination Converts Salt-> Freshwater
●​ Desalination/Desalinization: removing salt from saltwater
○​ Middle East- 50% water from this
●​ 2 Ways:
○​ Distillation-water is boiled and steam is captured to get pure water
■​ Expense monetarily+environments- needs a lot of energy
○​ Reverse Osmosis- water forced through a thin membrane at high pressure
■​ Water passes, but not salt
■​ More efficient+cost effective
■​ Leaves brine-> cannot dump-> ocean (can be harmful)
●​ Water treatment/management system cost $$$
●​ Poorer countries unable to afford-> 5% of population, but use 1% of water
Module 28: Human Use of Water Now and in the Future
●​ Water use:
○​ 70% agriculture, 20% industry, 10% home use
Water is Used for Agriculture
●​ Water Footprint: total daily per capita use of fresh water
○​ Math Cal:
 ■​ Total per capita water use
■​ Total water divided by amount of ppl= per capita annual water use in US
●​ Agricultural output increasing- 2x in last 50 years
Irrigation (4 ways)
●​ Furrow irrigation
○​ Trenches next to crops-> full with water, seeps into dirt
○​ 65% efficiency
●​ Flood irrigation
○​ Flooding entire field
○​ 70-80% efficient
○​ More disruptive
●​ Spray irrigation
○​ Water pumped into spray nozzles that spray water everywhere
○​ 75-95% efficient
○​ Expensive and more energy
●​ Drip Irrigation
○​ Slowly dripping nose next to plant
○​ Over 95% efficiency
○​ Best for perennial crops and less water for weeds to grow
Hydroponic Agriculture
●​ Hydroponic Agriculture- cultivation of crop plants under greenhouse conditions by immersing
roots in nutrient rich solution (no soil)
●​ Benefits:
○​ Water not taken up can be reused (95% less water use)
○​ More crops, under ideal conditions, every season, little need for pesticides
●​ Usually more costly
Water for Industry Use
●​ Electricity Generation
○​ Distinguish water coming in and out
●​ Hydroelectric Dam
○​ Is not consumed
●​ Thermoelectric/Nuclear power plants/coal
○​ Heat water-? Water vapor that rises turns turbines
○​ consumed (lost to atmosphere as water vapor)
●​ Industrial Processes
●​ Metals + paper
○​ Copper (highest), Aluminium, Steel, Paper (lowest amount of water needed)
Household Water Use
●​ Developed countries (US 595 L/day) use more than less developed
●​ USA- 24% toilets, 23% bathrooms, 16% laundry
●​ Outdoor use- pools depends on state (CA 6x more than PA)
●​ 15% ppl lack access to clean water
●​ Contaminated water, etc
Water Ownership
 ●​ Issues around ownership
○​ CA+multiple groups interested in river-> have right to it, but not owning it
○​ India v.s Bangladesh
○​ Middle East Wars
●​ Solution: all interested parties compete and pay for it
○​ Chile free market- failure (little gov oversight)
■​ Some without water
○​ American West- need to use all water, cannot sell across states
●​ Solution: tiered water pricing systems
○​ You change rates based on amount of water used
○​ baseline -> more = more being charged
Water Conservation + Technology
●​ Better technologies
○​ Toilets + showers + washing machines to use less water
●​ Xeriscaping- style of landscaping removing water intense vegetation from lawns and replaces it
with more water efficient native landscapes
○​ Las Vegas paying homeowners
●​ Industrial- better more efficient tech
○​ Cooling Machinery-> recirculating water systems
●​ Gutter collecting rain to reuse
●​ Leak detector on pipes
●​ Water withdrawals decreasing even though more people b/c of new tech
Science Applied 4: Is There a Way to Resolve the California Water Wars?
●​ Cali agriculture business huge
●​ Increase need of water-> irrigation, but demand increasing 1% per year
●​ Wildlife-> negatively impacted
○​ Salmon don;t have place to lay eggs in Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta
What Historical Factors Have Led to California’s Water Wars?
●​ High water use-> majority in Central Valley region for farms
●​ Farmers get contracts for lower prices of water
●​ Controversy if they should be given cheap access to water to protect agriculture or pay same price
as everyone else
How Might Farmers Respond to Increased Water Prices?
●​ Four ways:
●​ Charge More for produce to make back difference
○​ Doesn’t change environmental concern, but negative on broccoli demand and consumer
wallet
●​ Switch to Crops with Less Water Use
○​ Alfalfa- huge water taker no longer profitable-> tomatoes, broccoli, potato
○​ Positive environmental impact
●​ Better Irrigation Techniques
○​ Pay for itself and use less water
●​ Sell
○​ Reduce food output and water consumption depending on what the land is used for after
 ●​ Politicians uncertain of increasing prices
●​ People can sell cheap water from gov at higher prices in cities to make profit
The Motivation Provided by Drought
●​ Drought 2013-2016
●​ Farms left fallow (nothing grown especially rice), new plants (less water), new irrigation,
groundwater
○​ Groundwater let them gain more money from higher demand, but can cause water table to
go down
How Have the Water Wars Played Out in the Political Arena?
●​ At first big push for dams, but now many dams and problem not solved
●​ Lawsuits:
○​ Against pumping so much water out of River and Deltas-> hurt wildlife
●​ Bills to cut water for residents, rationing water, drought resistant plants, restoration of San
Joaquin-Sacramento River Delta ecosystem, act to balance groundwater extraction
What can be Done?
●​ Economists want everyone to pay the same-> farms will be encouraged to change

Chapter 10: Land, Public and Private

Case Study: Who Can Use Our Public Lands? And for what Purposes?
●​ Public Lands- land held by local or federal entity “in trust” for citizens
●​ Gov awards right to use the land for activities like harvesting trees, oil, mining to companies
●​ Protests against auction of land to oil and gas companies
●​ Wolves being shot by cattle ranchers on National Forest land
●​ Conflict:
○​ What obligations does a gov have when it holds land “in trust”?
○​ Can citizens use land for things other than gov allows?
Module 29: Land Use Concepts and Classification
●​ Module is on effects of human use on land and classification of land use
Human Land Use Affects the Environment in Many Ways
●​ Land use and change in landscape negatively affects organisms
●​ Laws regulate how people use the land
●​ 3 concept to understanding land use and conflicts:
The Tragedy of the Commons
●​ The Tragedy of the Commons- the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted if it
is not regulated in some way
○​ Regulation from users themselves or government agency
●​ When one or more people look at short term benefit and overuse a common good that leads to the
good becoming scarce and everyone suffers long term

Externalities
●​ Externalities- the cost or benefit of a good/service that is not included in the purchase price of
that good or service or otherwise accounted for
○​ Positive:
■​ Bakery opens up nextdoor-> smell is good for you
 ○​ Negative:
■​ Noise from bakery keeps you up
■​ Tragedy of Commons
●​ Negative Externalities important:
○​ Lead to serious environmental damage where no one is held responsible
●​ Private Ownership or Gov Regulation can solve tragedy of commons
○​ Gov regulation-> more money so cost not worth it
○​ Private-> self regulation to not ruin their property
Maximum Sustainable Yield
●​ Deer without predator in forest
○​ Too much hunting= population dead
○​ none= population boom-> bust
●​ Intermediate area= Maximum Sustainable Yield
○​ The maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested without
compromising the future availability of that resource
○​ Usually around ½ of carrying capacity
■​ S curve will have highest population growth then and can be replenished faster
●​ MSY for trees:
○​ Too much= cannot grow back and sunlight will dry soil
○​ Too little= not enough sun for trees to grow
●​ Difficult to use for policies
○​ Hard to calculate- and unsure if the MSY rate is really correct after
○​ If other harm and negative externalities occur, can be bad-> harvest way less than MSY
Public Lands are Classified According to their Use
●​ Protection can be excluding almost all human activity to permitting harvest of resources
●​ 14% terrestrial and 3.4% marine areas protected
International Categories of Public Land
●​ UN list of protected areas classified into 6 categories
National Parks
●​ Scientific, educational, recreational use; beautiful or unique landforms
●​ Most cases are not used for extraction of resources
●​ Tourism, protection of species, may be some management of area like controlled burning to make
actual fires less deadly by removing deadwood
Managed Resource Protected Areas
●​ Areas open to extraction of resources
●​ Road construction-> habitat fragmentation
Habitat or Species Management Areas
●​ Actively managed to maintain biological communities
○​ EX: burning for pine tree cones to spread seeds
Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas
●​ Protect ecosystems and organisms especially if they are endangered
Protected Landscapes and Seascapes
●​ Protected landscapes and seascapes that combine non destructive use of natural resources with
opportunities for tourism and recreation
 ●​ Orchards, villages, beaches
National Monuments
●​ Protect special sites of natural or cultural interest
○​ Historical landmarks or areas of natural beauty
●​ Good for environment, but could harm evicted indigenous people
Public Lands in the United States
●​ Much of Western State land is federally owned
●​ 42% of land total is publicly held
Public Land Classifications
●​ Rangelands, national forests, national wildlife refuges, etc
●​ Environmental policies most based on Resource Conservation Ethic
○​ The belief that people should maximize use of resources, based on the greatest good for
everyone
■​ Consider resource or monetary value of nature
●​ Because many purposes in conflict and interest in using lands, US gov uses
○​ Multiple-Use Lands- A U.S. classification used to designate lands that may be used for
recreation, grazing, timber harvesting, and mineral extraction at the same time
Land Use and Federal Agencies
●​ Land in US split by federal agencies with 4 having majority
○​ Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
■​ Grazing, timber, mining, recreation
○​ United States Forest Service (USFS)
■​ Timber harvesting, grazing, recreation
○​ National Park Service (NPS)
■​ Recreation and conservation
○​ Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)
■​ Wildlife conservation, hunting, recreation
Module 30: Land Management Practices
●​ Land management practices in different rangelands and forests
●​ Describe problems and trends in land use and causes/impact of urban sprawl
Land Management Practices Vary According to Land Use
●​ Aldo Leopold- moral responsibility to protect environment
●​ Practices apply to both public and private land
Rangelands
●​ Rangelands- a dry open grassland primarily used for grazing cattle
○​ Most common land use, but can easily lose biodiversity in overuse/fire
●​ Grazing Livestock
○​ Open land uses less fossil fuels than lots
○​ Can mimic old pressures by roaming bison eating grass
■​ Help increase biodiversity
○​ Aerate soil and introduce waster
●​ Downsides:
○​ Damage stream banks, destroy vegetation-> erosion and lower soil quality
●​ Taylor Grazing Act of 1934- permit based grazing system to control amount of grazing
 ○​ Low cost doesn’t deter too many and doesn’t fund the cost of maintaining rangeland
●​ BLM managers don’t need scientists to help set guidelines, so often not successful at preserving
rangelands
Forests
●​ Forests- Lan dominated by trees and other woody vegetation and sometimes used for commercial
logging
●​ National forests many start for commercial use
●​ Logging companies now use land in exchange for a royalty (part of revenue)
○​ Royalty doesn’t pay for how much gov spends maintaining the roads and forests
Timber Harvest Practices
●​ 2 main ways: clear cut or selective
●​ Clear Cutting- a method of harvesting trees that involves removing all or almost all of the trees
within an area
○​ Easiest and most economical
○​ Then replant, but usually trees that do well in direct sunlight (lower biodiversity)
●​ If only part of forest is valuable economically- should only cut down trees that are valuable
●​ Downsides:
○​ Erosion which then harms streams by depositing soil/sediments
○​ Amount of sunlight reaching water rises, temps rise
○​ Companies often use fire/herbicides to remove other plants before regrow-> bad
○​ Habitat fragmentation
●​ Selective Cutting- the method of harvesting trees that involves the removal of single trees or a
relatively small number of trees from the larger forest
○​ Good for shade tolerant trees
●​ Negative impact still there:
○​ Road construction-> habitat fragmentation
●​ 3rd way: Ecologically Sustainable Forestry- an approach to removing trees from forests in ways
that do not unduly affect the viability of other noncommercial tree species
○​ Maintain forest as close to natural as possible
○​ High cost make it difficult to compete
Logging, Deforestation, and Reforestation
●​ 30% commercial timber from US and Canada
●​ Conflicting interests in Logging
○​ USFS wants timer production, but also keep biodiversity
○​ Marbled murrelet- bird nests in coastal redwood forests, but with logging has become
rare and endangered
●​ Tree plantations- a large area typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species
○​ Replaces complex forest ecosystems, can never develop back if keep using, can use up
nutrients in soil
●​ USFS has to protect biodiversity, but no set guidelines, so decides by itself-> critics
Fire Management
●​ Fire is important process for nutrient cycling and regeneration
●​ Dead biomass can be removed by Prescribed Burn
 ○​ A fire deliberately set under controlled conditions in order to reduce the accumulation of
dead biomass on a forest floor
■​ Reduces risk of actual fire while still bringing benefits
●​ Also leave actual fires burning as long as humans not threatened
●​ Human behavior and mismanagement can cause fires
●​ Yellowstone 1988- at first a lot burned, but brought a lot of new species
National Parks
●​ Managed for scientific, educational, aesthetic, recreational use
The Goals of National Park Management
●​ National Parks solely for protection of area, unlike National forests
●​ 1963- ecology and guidelines about how to run in Leopold Report
○​ Main purpose was to maintain park as before
○​ Conservation and return to more natural state if affected by humans
●​ Policies can differ- people can visit with recreational use
○​ Channel Islands National Park- rare pelican there, so no recreation
National Parks and Human Activities
●​ Humans impact even from outside- pollution, noise
○​ Parks are islands of biodiversity in increasing human development
●​ Popularity also hurts human overuse can harm environment
○​ ATV noise pollution
●​ Have to balance short term recreation with long term biodiversity
Wildlife Refuges and Wilderness Areas
●​ National Wildlife Refuges- federal public land managed for primary purpose of protecting
wildlife
○​ Fish and Wildlife Service mostly
●​ National Wilderness Area- area set aside with the intent of preserving a large tract of intact
ecosystem or landscape
○​ Created by other public lands and same agencies
○​ Limited human use and roadless, but roads/activities from before put in place allowed
Federal Regulation of Land Use
●​ National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)- a 1969 US federal act that mandates an
environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits
○​ Helps ensure protection of nation’s resources with other acts
●​ Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)- A document outlining scope and purpose of a
development, describing environmental context, suggesting alternative approaches to project,
analyzing environmental impact of each alternative
○​ Cannot make them choose least impact one, bt can make them wait until submit
Environmental Mitigation Plan
■​ Plan that outlines how developer will address concerns raised by project’s impact
on environment
●​ If discovers endangered species while area under consideration, can apply protection from
Endangered Species Act
○​ 1973 US Act designed to protect form extinction
 ●​ Public can comment on decisions, can learn by going to informational sessions to help reduce
land development impact
Residential Land Use is Expanding
●​ Increase in moving to areas suburban and exurban
○​ Suburbs- an area surrounding a metropolitan center, with a comparatively low population
density
○​ Exurb- an area similar to a suburb, but unconnected to any central city or densely
populated area
●​ Brings new problems, but solutions have been successful
Causes and Consequences of Urban Sprawl
●​ Urban Sprawl- urbanized areas that spread into rural areas, removing clear boundaries between
the two
○​ Areas separated by big paths of roads-> dependance on automobile
■​ Also usually more land per person since suburban homes usually bigger
●​ Urban sprawl also usually occurs at edge of city- replacing farmlands and increasing their
distance to consumer
●​ Urban sprawl caused by:
○​ Automobiles and highway construction
○​ Living costs
○​ Urban blight
○​ Government policies
Automobiles and Highway Construction
●​ Before cars- transportation slow
○​ City helpful, could walk to find everything within miles of city center
●​ Automobile and highway system makes it faster and easier- work in city, return to quiet home at
night
Living Costs
●​ Land readily available in suburbs, city not so much
○​ Higher prices and higher taxes b/c of more services
●​ Suburbs usually have little low income/affordable housing, and have to have car to drive-> more
wealthy people
Urban Blight
●​ Urban Sprawl- people leave city->less revenue-> either reduce services or raise taxes-> (service
reduce) crime rate increase-> infrastructure deteriorates-> people leave
○​ More people move to suburb-> businesses follow-> commuting around cities instead of
into it-> businesses lose money-> close->less people come (lower consumers for
everyone)
●​ Urban Blight- the degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often
accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs
○​ Positive feedback loop
●​ Historically contributes to racial segregation-> wealthy whites moving out, which then cause
suburban communities to profit, people coming back though, so declining
Government Policies
 ●​ Highway Trust Fund- a US federal fund that pays for construction and maintenance of roads and
highways
○​ Positive feedback loop-> pays for more construction of highways, increasing suburbs,
with more ppl and driving-> more gas used-> bigger fund to build more-> more people
live further from work
○​ Induced Demand- the phenomenon in which an increase in the supply of a good causes
the demand to grow
●​ Zoning helps address urban issues
○​ A planning tool used to separate industry and business from residential neighborhoods
○​ Quieter, safer communities by restricting land uses in areas
○​ Also can regulate:
■​ # of parking spaces a building has to have, how far building from street-> address
safety issues and minimize environmental damage
●​ Multi-use zoning- zoning classification that allows retail and high-density residential
development to coexist in the same area
○​ Can develop traditional main street with shops and apartments together
●​ Suburb boom- Federal Housing Admission
○​ Jump start economy by letting them apply for mortgages at low interest for new built
suburbs- later for veterans
Smart Growth
●​ Smart Growth- a set of principles for community planning that focuses on strategies to encourage
sustainable, healthy communities
1.​ Create Mixed Land Uses
a.​ Allows easier transportation to places and encourage to be in neighborhood-> safer
2.​ Create a Range of Housing Opportunities and Choices
a.​ Counters poverty-> housing for all income levels-> in mixed area can get jobs near home
3.​ Create Walkable Neighborhoods
a.​ Mixing land use, reducing speed of traffic, stores right up to sidewalk
b.​ Benefits: less cars/pollution, interact more with neighbors-> civic engagement
4.​ Encourage Community and Stakeholder Collaboration in Development Decisions
a.​ Stakeholders- person or organization with interest in particular place or issue
b.​ No right way to build neighborhood-> Need to work together
5.​ Take Advantage of Compact Building Design
a.​ Multistory buildings and parking garage to reduce environmental impact and have more
open space
b.​ Shops, cafes on ground floor to be more easily accessible
6.​ Foster Distinctive, Attractive Communities with a Strong Sense of Place
a.​ Sense of place- the feeling that area has distinct and meaningful character
b.​ Feels better to live there
7.​ Preserve Open Space, Farmland, Natural Beauty, and Critical Environmental Areas
a.​ Working farmland good source of produce;
b.​ Recreation and enjoyment and provides habitats
8.​ Provide a Variety of Transportation Choices
 a.​ Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)- development that attempts to focus dense
residential and retail development around stops for public transportation, a component of
smart growth
b.​ Bikes, safe roads, bus service, light rail, zipcar-> reduces need of owning car
9.​ Strengthen and Direct Development Toward Existing Communities
a.​ Development strategies to help reinvigorate neighborhoods can keep urban sprawl from
expanding
b.​ Can use infill
i.​ Development that fills in vacant lots withing existing communities rather than
expanding into new land outside the city
c.​ Urban Growth Boundaries- restriction on development outside designated area
10.​ Make Development Decisions Predictable, Fair, and Cost effective
a.​ More time spent can make individualized plans rather than promoting cookie cutter
development (suburbs)
●​ Smart growth can help reduce water pollution, reduce fossil fuel consumption, reduction in miles
traveled
Working Towards Sustainability: What are Ingredient for Successful Neighborhood?
●​ Dudley Street area of Roxbury and North Dorchester victim of urban blight
○​ Felt ignored, unsafe, and poor
●​ Tony Hernandez starts Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative (DSNI)
○​ Obtains Eminent Domain
■​ A principle that grants government the power to acquire property at fair market
value even if owner doesn’t want to sell
●​ Goals of plan
○​ Rehabilitate housing crisis
○​ Construct homes that are affordable according to residents
○​ Assemble vacant land for redevelopment through eminent domain
○​ Plan environmentally sound and affordable development that is physically attractive
○​ Convert vacant spots to things the communities can use/enjoy like parks
○​ Increase power of residents
Chapter 11: Feeding the World
Case Study: A Farm Where Animals Do Most of the Work
●​ Joel Salatin’s famous Polyface farm
●​ “Grass farmer”- grows grasses that is harvested and dried into hay
●​ Cows eat-> then killed and turned into beed
○​ But while eating on field, cattle leave manure
●​ Brings in chickens to eat larvae and spread manure+their own
○​ Eggs also bring in food
●​ Manure in winter used to build up floor for winter-> also throws down corn with straw layers
○​ Spring: brings in pigs who dig up for corn
○​ Good fertilizer
●​ Sustainable farming working with the natural world
●​ Ways to make food efficiently without fighting nature and using fossil fuels
Module 31: Human Nutritional Needs
●​ Goals: nutrition that humans need, how they are met, and why some are not met
Human Nutritional Requirements are Not Always Satisfied
●​ More advancements have improved production, but still 815 million are affected by food
insecurity
○​ Around 8.8 million die per year
●​ Undernutrition- condition in which not enough calories ingested to maintain health
○​ Can lose energy needed for daily tasks, easier to get sick, may impact brain growth
●​ Malnourished- having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbs, vitamins, and
minerals
●​ Food Security: condition where people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that
meets their dietary needs for active and healthy lifestyle
●​ Food Insecurity: condition in which people do not have adequate access to food
●​ Famine: condition where food insecurity is so high that large numbers of deaths occur in a given
area over a relatively short period
○​ Result of crop failures, social political causes
●​ Anemia- deficiency in iron
○​ Deficit in just one nutrition can be harmful
○​ Also caused by malaria, AIDS, parasites
●​ Another form of malnutrition: Overnutrition
○​ Ingestion of too many calories and a lack of balance of foods and nutrients
○​ 2 billion overweight adults
○​ 600 million obese (20% above ideal weight)
○​ Risk of disease: diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, stroke
●​ Overnutrition common in developed countries; but also happens in developing
○​ Depends on how affordable and accessible a certain food it
●​ Grains- make up largest part of human diet
○​ Corn rice and wheat make up half of human energy intake
●​ Meat- livestock or poultry consumed as food (2nd highest)
○​ Demand increases when country has economic growth
Undernutrition and Malnutrition Occur Primarily Because of Poverty
●​ Enough grain to feed everyone, but problems mostly bc of poverty
○​ Lack of resources that allows person to get food
●​ Political and economical factors:
○​ Numerous examples of people protesting due to lack of food
■​ 2008 food riots in Haiti, Egypt, 2017 Venezuela
○​ Refugees leave everything behind- have no food
●​ Large amounts of grain (40%) used to feed livestock
●​ Eating lower on the food chain
○​ Get better nutrients, calories, and impact less by eating primary produces
○​ Concept popularized Frances Morre Lappe
●​ Grain production leveling off, while population still growing
 ○​ Need to reduce food waste, calorie consumption, placemore land into agriculture,
improve crop yields, reduce consumption of meat, increase fruits and veggies, and
harvest more fish
○​ Combination of these
Module 32: Modern Large-Scale Farming Methods
●​ Describe large scale agricultural methods, benefits of GMOS, and large scale raising of meat/fish
○​ What the methods are, benefits, and costs to alternatives
Modern Industrial Farming Methods Have Transformed Agriculture
●​ To meet positive feedback loop and demand: Industrial Agriculture/Agribusiness
○​ Agriculture that applies techniques of mechanization and standardization to production of
food
The Energy Subsidy in Agriculture
●​ Energy Subsidy- the fossil fuel energy and human energy input per calorie of food produced
○​ Ex: 5 calories to make 1 calorie of food= energy subsidy of 5
●​ Traditional small scale agriculture uses has lower energy subsidy, but now average human diet is
energy subsidy of 10
○​ Mostly from fossil fuels
●​ Most energy goes to goof production on farm, processing in factory and in the home
○​ 17% of total energy use for food
The Green Revolution
●​ Green Revolution changed it from human labor based
○​ A shift in agricultural practices in 20th century that included new management techniques
and mechanization as well as triad of fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties
○​ Led to much more food production
●​ Norman Borlaug helps start by creating new strains of wheat that are disease resistant higher yield
along with fertilizers and irrigation to increase output
Green Revolution Practices:
Mechanization
●​ Machines may not be better at job, but can be much more worth it
●​ Large scale farms more successful: Economics of Scale
○​ Observation that average costs of production fall as output increases
○​ Buying new machine can go through much more and make more money back on big farm
VS small farm
●​ More efficient with specialized equipment- especially for one crop only (easier and only needs
certain machines)
Irrigation
●​ Benefits: can grow crops where usually cannot, increase crop growth rate
●​ Cons: deplete groundwater, aquifers, etc
○​ Waterlogging: form of soil degradation that occurs when soil under water for prolonged
periods-> roots cannot get oxygen
○​ Salinization: soil degradation where small amounts of salt in irrigation water are left
behind in soil and become highly concentrated which can stop plant growth
Fertilizers
●​ Used to replenish missing organic material that depleted from agriculture
 ●​ Organic Fertilizers:
○​ Composed of organic matter from plants and animals (usually decomposed manure)
●​ Synthetic/Inorganic Fertilizers:
○​ Produced commercially normally with use of fossil fuels
○​ Pros: highly concentrated, easy application, specific nutrient targets can be met, easily
absorbable
■​ 20 mill tons in 1960 to 200 mill in 2018
○​ Cons: uses many fossil fuels, runoff which can cause algae blooms, do not add organic
matter
Monocropping
●​ Monocropping: method that utilizes large plantings of single species/variety
○​ Corn, soybean, wheat, cotton grown in monocrops of 405 ha
●​ Pros: easier to plant and harvest at same time, pesticide and fertilizer treatments are same
●​ Cons: soil erosion- large fields empty in preparation for growing
○​ Pests- single plant is big food source for insects that specialize in the plant
■​ Predators may not have habitat in monocrop
Pesticides
●​ Pesticides- substance, either natural or synthetic, that kill or control organisms that people
consider pests
○​ 350 kilograms applied, 90% agriculture
●​ Insecticides- pesticide that targets species of insects and other invertebrates that consume crops
●​ Herbicides- pesticide that target plant species that compete with crops
●​ Broad-spectrum Pesticides- a pesticide that kills many different types of pest
●​ Selective/Narrow-spectrum Pesticides- pesticide that targets a narrow range of organisms
●​ Can benefit: area less disturbed= more efficient
●​ Persistent Pesticides- pesticide that remains in environment for a long time
○​ DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)- accumulated in fatty tissues of animals and
caused shells to be easily cracked
■​ Banned in 1972
●​ Nonpersistent Pesticide- pesticide that breaks down rapidly, usually in weeks or months
○​ Fewer long term effects, but need to be applied more
●​ Pesticide Treadmill- cycle of pesticide development, followed by pest resistance, followed by
new pesticide development
○​ Positive feedback system
○​ Pesticide kills insects except those with Pesticide resistence and they repopulate, making
it less effective
●​ Cons: kill other beneficial organism, runoff into water
Genetic Engineering is Revolutionizing Agriculture
●​ Scientists can isolate gene and move to another to make GMO
Benefits of Genetic Engineering
●​ Good things: more crops, less pesticides, more profit, reduce world hunger
Increased Crop Yield and Quantity
●​ Can increases resistance to harsh conditions- let it be grown more
●​ Can provide extra essential nutrients (golden rice and vitamin A)
 ○​ Can also make pharmaceuticals and other compounds (cheaper)
●​ Modified animals- salmon grow faster
Potential Changes in Pesticide Use
●​ Can increase resistance to pests
○​ Corn injecting Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) kills butterfly and moth larva
●​ Crops become resistant to herbicide Roundup
○​ HT- herbicide tolerant;
●​ 80% corn either Bt or HT
Increased Profits
●​ Reduce pesticide use=less money used
●​ Greater yields
Concerns About GMOs
●​ People question safety of GMOs- human consumption and effects on biodiversity
Safety for Human Consumption
●​ Little evidence to support claim
●​ Possibility of causing allergic reaction if ppl eat good with genes transferred from another food
they are allergic to
Effects on Biodiversity
●​ May breed with wild plants and eliminate wild varieties
○​ Creation of buffer zones around GMOs
●​ GMOs contribute to loss of genetic diversity
○​ Some can be useful, like greenbug from sorghum-> beneficial genes may be removed
Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms
●​ National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Act (2016)
○​ GMO labeling required
○​ Still no regulation on plant GMOs, unlike EU
●​ Organic excludes GMOS
●​ Animals GMOS still under consideration by FDA
Modern Agriculture Includes Farming Meat and Fish
●​ Agriculture more mechanized- applies to animals as well
○​ Main objective is to produce as much meat as possible at low cost
○​ Methods to promote faster growth in animals
High Density Animal Farming
●​ Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO)
○​ Large indoor or outdoor structure designed for maximum output
●​ Animals confined with little room throughout life cycle
○​ Improves feeding efficiency, minimize land costs, increase fraction of food energy that
goes into production of body mass
■​ Less energy used
●​ Given antibiotics and nutrient supplements to reduce chances of health effects and diseases
●​ Cons: antibiotics given contribute to increase in antibiotic resistant strains
○​ Waste disposal- a lot of waste which can runoff into waterways and contaminated rivers
and groundwater
Harvesting Fish and Shellfish
 ●​ Fish 3rd major food after grain and meat
●​ Global production up 30% since 1980
●​ Decrease in wild fish caught in the world’s oceans and increase in aquaculture
○​ Farming aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, seaweeds
●​ Fishery- commercially harvestable population of fish within a particular ecological region
○​ Tragedy of the commons- fish not part of a single country, and no incentive to stop
○​ Voluntary limit for some countries causes others to be able to overfish
●​ Fishery Collapse- decline of fish population by 90% or more
○​ Big fish have been caught less-> even though more ships and time spent shipping
●​ Current Fishing Methods:
○​ Factory ships stay at sea for months, pull fish with huge nets including using dragnets for
ocean floor fish
○​ Can find high demand fish with sonar or spotter
●​ Cons: dragnets harm ocean-bottom habitats- scouring coral, sea sponges, plants
○​ Commercially important keystone species can be destroyed, leading to major change in
food webs
○​ Bycatch- unintentional catch of nontarget species while fishing
■​ Reduce or endanger species
○​ Juveniles caught
Module 33: Alternatives to Industrial Farming Methods
Alternatives to Industrial Farming Methods are Gaining More Attention
●​ Industrial agriculture now conventional; developing countries opposite
Shifting Agriculture and Nomadic Grazing
●​ Shifting Agriculture- land is cleared and used for few years until it runs out of nutrients
(Amazon)
○​ Slash and burn agriculture-> overtime land plots may grow back, but growing population
may also use it
○​ Cons: Soil Compaction- a process where repeated trampling by humans, machinery, or
animals causes a compaction of soil and a reduction in pore space (reduces productivity)
○​ Burning releases carbon
●​ Desertification- transformation of arable, productive land to desert or unproductive land because
of climate change or destructive land use
●​ Nomadic Grazing- feeding of herds of animals by moving them to seasonally productive feeding
grounds, often over long distances
●​ Shifting and Nomadic both good with little population, but with more ppl, less sustainable
Sustainable Agriculture
●​ Sustainable Agriculture- agriculture that fulfills the need for food and fiber while enhancing the
quality of the soil, minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources, and allowing economic
viability for the farmer
○​ Requires more labor-> more expensive usually, but indefinite use of resources
●​ Using natural animal and plant waste as fertilizer
●​ Intercropping- an agricultural method in which two or more crop species are planted in the same
field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction
○​ Beans and corn (provides nitrogen)
 ●​ Crop Rotation- rotates crop in field season to season (does same as intercropping)
●​ Agroforestry- trees and vegetables planted together
○​ Different heights to stop wind+ catch soil reduces erosion
●​ Contour plowing- plowing and harvesting done parallel to topographic contour of land
○​ Prevents erosion by water while still having plowing
No-Till Agriculture
●​ Perennial plants- a plant that lives for multiple years
●​ Annual Plants- plants that only live for a season
●​ Plowing and tilling- kill weeds and insect larvae, but also bad
○​ Erosion from breakdown of soil
○​ Can compact soil below till area, release/reduce nutrients in soil and more CO2
●​ No-till Agriculture- farmers do not turn the soil between seasons to reduce erosion
○​ Downside- has use of herbicides so no weeds
●​ Use of perennial plants- no need to replant,
○​ ppl trying to change annual plants to perennial or domesticate wild perennial plants
Integrated Pest Management
●​ Integrated Pest Management (IPM)- agricultural practice that uses a variety of techniques
designed to minimize pesticide inputs
○​ Crop rotation-, Intercropping, pest resistant crop varieties- reduce success of insects
plants to find a good host with multiple plants and let predators have habitats
○​ Targeted use of pesticide- careful use depending on presence of insects
●​ Have to be trained in IPM and spend more time inspecting crops
Organic Agriculture
●​ Organic Agriculture- production of crips that sustains or improves soil without use of pesticides
and fertilizer
○​ Work with natural systems instead of against
○​ Increase soil mass, biological activity and beneficial chemical properties
○​ As much organic matter and nutrients in soil as possible
○​ Avoid synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
○​ Reduce the adverse environmental effects of agriculture
●​ Most farms small- easier to care for, but has to sell at higher price due to labor prices
●​ Less likely to do no-till methods successfully without pesticides and may use other alternatives
worse
Alternative Techniques for Farming Animals and Fish are Becoming More Popular
●​ Free range becoming more popular- more ethical, less likely to spread disease (less medications),
manure spread out and naturally decomposed- no need to have big piles
○​ Use more land, cost of meat higher
More Sustainable Fishing
●​ International cooperation key
●​ EX: Northwestern Atlantic fisheries- Canada and US work together to stop fishing in areas to
allow fishery to regrow
●​ Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996- shifts fishery management from economic to conservation
based
○​ Commercial species can be banned if considered threatened
 ●​ Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs)- fishery management program in which individual
fishers are given a total amount of fish they can catch or sell for a season
○​ Fishers with ITQ no need to spend more money to outcompete more advanced boats- all
have limit to catch
●​ Populations of fish increasing, can help small businesses, or control large fishing companies
●​ Categories to help consumers- best, good, and worst depending on which ones are sustainable and
which ones are being overharvested
Aquaculture
●​ Demand for fish increasing
●​ Increase production through aquaculture by keeping in enclosures, giving them food and
antibiotics
○​ Can alleviate pressure on fisheries and feed undernourished people
○​ Environmental problems- wastewater pumped back into river and ocean
■​ Contains bacteria, virus, pests that can harm wild populations
○​ Fish can escape and compete, interbreed, or spread disease and parasites
Working Towards Sustainability: Urban Agriculture
●​ Urban farms- own food, improve degraded urban land, jobs, store carbon
○​ Backyard, rooftop, and balcony gardening
●​ Detroit Black Community Food Security Network (DBCFSN)- starts urban garden to feed people;
now over 350 in Detroit
Science Applied 5: How to Define Organic Food?
How did the movement begin?
●​ Environmental concerns widespread-> organic food
What does it mean to be organic?
●​ USDA designates standards for organic food
○​ Little pesticide use, no antibiotics, no synthetic fertilizers, no GMOs
●​ Spot checks so far apart- doesn’t know for sure if it is actually organic-> 2017 now more common
Does organic food mean family farms?
●​ Older usually family; but now corporations into organic food
○​ Drives down cost
●​ USDA after push by companies to allow fertilizers and pesticides allows some synthetic additives
in organic food
What does the organic label not mean?
●​ Size of farm, whether it is less dangerous than nonorganic, humane facilities,
●​ Organic food usually healthier, better for soil
Chapter 12: Nonrenewable Energy
Case Study: All Energy Use Has Consequences
●​ Fossil Fuels- remains of fossilized organisms that burn for energy and release carbon
○​ Pollution and extraction costs
●​ Oil Spills- Gulf of Mexico 2010; kills many marine animals and birds
●​ Accidents happening with fuel extraction (coal)
●​ Natural Gas considered cleaner, but still releases greenhouse gasses, locating and extraction
harms environment
 ●​ Nuclear Energy- leaking radioactive gas and generates radioactive nuclear waste
Module 34: Patterns of Energy Use
Nonrenewable energy is used worldwide and in US
●​ Fossil Fuels- fuel derived from biological material that became fossilized millions of years ago
○​ Fossils converted to compounds with high energy under pressure
●​ Nonrenewable Energy Resource- energy source with finite supply
●​ Nuclear Fuel- fuel from radioactive materials giving off energy
●​ Gigajoule (Gj)= 1x10^9- (8 gallons of gasoline); 10^9 GJ=exajoule (EJ)
○​ quad= 10^15 Btu or 1.055 EJ
Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use
●​ Oil, coal, natural gas highest energy sources
●​ Developed countries that are 20% of total population use 50% of world energy
●​ Commercial Energy Sources- energy source bought and sold
●​ Subsistence Energy Source- energy source gathered by individuals for own immediate needs
●​ Industrialization changes energy demand-> subsistence->gasoline for cars; industry-> need more
electricity and nuclear power
Patterns of Energy Use in the US
●​ Trend leads to Big three: Oil, Natural Gas, Coal
○​ Recently coal down, natural gas up bc of availability of fracking of natural gas
●​ Releases work-> end use of energy; and waste-> Heat, CO2, pollutants
●​ 81% fossil fuel, 9% nuclear, 10% renewable
●​ 15% of energy imported, usually petroleum imports, but steadily decreasing
●​ Energy Changes:
○​ Regionally: midwest and southeast use coal; west and northeast- nuclear, natural gas,
hydroelectric
○​ Climate: winter- colder in north use more; summer- AC in south
Different Energy Forms are Best Suited for Specific Purposes
●​ Cars using gas bc has high energy to mass ratio, easy to ignite and close,
○​ More air pollution so for other things may use hydroelectric
○​ Needs more processing so for other things use coal
Quantifying Energy Efficiency
●​ Extracting energy source and processing into energy to do work always reduces energy efficiency
●​ Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROEI)= Energy obtained/energy invested
○​ Higher number is, more efficient it is
Finding the Right Energy Source for the Job
●​ Compare total efficiency to see which method is better
○​ EX: heating water- on stove (60% efficient) or from water heater (99% efficient)
■​ Source and transportation of energy heating both (solar for stove; coal 35% for
heater)- solar will be better
Efficiency and Transportation
●​ Transportation Efficiency- how much energy it takes to transport you
○​ No regard for convenience, comfort, style
●​ Smaller cars and electric/hybrids usually more fuel efficient
●​ EPA instituted requirement for cars to have average of 21 km per liter by 2025
 ●​ Fuel choice also important in efficiency
Electricity Accounts for 40 Percent of Energy Use
●​ Energy Carrier- something that can move and deliver energy in a convenient, usable form to end
users (Electricity)
●​ 40% of energy consumed used to generate electricity, but at end, only 13% can be used
The Process of Electricity Generation
●​ Electricity highly efficient, but to get it from natural energy sources is only 35%
○​ Energy source that undergoes fewest conversions probably most efficient
●​ Coal Plant: coal delivered to boiler and burned, heating water into steam which moves through
turbine, and turns it spinning generator creating electricity
○​ Electricity then moved to electrical grid and distributed
○​ Water either can condense and reused or discharged to body of water
Efficiency of Electricity Generation
●​ Improvements can increase efficiency
○​ Combined Cycle- power plant using both exhaust gasses and steam turbines to generate
electricity
■​ Natural gas burned, which releases gas to turn gas turbine, excess heat boils
water for steam turbine-> 60% efficiency
Capacity
●​ Capacity- maximum electrical output
○​ Typical power plant around 500 MW (continuously) 500X24= 12,000 megawatt-hours
●​ Some power plants close down for maintenance, for cost purposes, etc
○​ Capacity Factor- fraction of time power plant operates per year
■​ Thermal or nuclear usually 0.9
■​ Renewable may be only 0.25
Cogeneration
●​ Cogeneration/Combined Heat and Power- use of fuel to generate electricity and steam
○​ Need steam so first used to turn turbine, then sent to heat buildings or factories- 90%
efficiency
●​ Natural Gas 34%, then coal 30%, then nuclear at 20% and rest is renewable
Module 35: Fossil Fuel Resources
Coal is the Most Abundant and Dirtiest of the Fossil Fuels
●​ Coal- solid fuel formed primarily from remains of trees, ferns, other plants from 280-360 million
years ago
○​ Peat (decomposed organic material)-> Lignite (compressed)-> Bituminous Coal (soft)->
Anthracite Coal (Hard)
●​ Lignite->bituminous->anthracite; more pressure, older, more energy
●​ Largest reserves in US, Russia, China, Australia, India
Advantages of Coal
●​ Energy dense, plentiful, easy to extract and transport, little refining
Disadvantages of Coal
●​ Mining harmful to environment
●​ Impurities in coal can be released into air (Sulfur 0.4-4% of coal)
○​ Cleaning impurities uses organic compounds that may spill
 ●​ Leaves ashes that need to be stored and may spill- Knoxville 2008
●​ Air pollution- 60-80% carbon
Petroleum is Cleaner than Coal
●​ Petroleum- fossil fuel occurring in underground deposits, liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, water,
sulfur
●​ Crude Oil- liquid petroleum removed from the ground
●​ Formed by remains of phytoplankton
○​ Found in porous sedimentary rocks like sandstone, which then capped by nonporous rock
○​ Migrates upwards as it is less dense (along with natural gas)
●​ Drilled and usually pumped out
○​ May use controlled gas flares to burn off natural gas
●​ Then brought to oil refinery to created many compounds (tar, asphalt, gas, diesel, kerosene)
●​ Used for transportation, petrochemicals (plastic and lubricants), pharmaceuticals, cleaning
solvents
●​ Saudi Arabia, US, Iran , China, Canada, Iraq
Advantages of Petroleum
●​ Easy to transport, energy dense, cleaner than coal, releases around 85% CO2 as coal
Disadvantages of Petroleum
●​ Sulfur and trace metals ( mercury, lead)
●​ Oil naturally leaks out, oil spills
●​ Effects habitat around- Railway accidents like 2013 Lac-Megantic accident
○​ Killed 47 after exploding in town
●​ Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)- has oil, but will harm habitat and people in area
Natural Gas is the Cleanest of Fossil Fuels
●​ Natural Gas 80-95% methane, 5-20% ethane, propane, and butane
●​ Electricity Generation and Industrial Processes use most
●​ Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)- natural gas but liquid, transported easier
●​ 29% of energy used in US
Advantages of Natural Gas
●​ Cleanest of fossil fuels (little impurity), supplied conveniently by pipeline (altough without
pipeline LPG is less convenient)
○​ Releases 60% CO2 as coal
Disadvantages of Natural Gas
●​ Releases Methane- x25 more efficient at absorbing energy as CO2
●​ 2-9% escaped gas while drilling
●​ Fracking- chemicals and water contamination, leaks
Oil sands and liquified Coal are Also Fossil Fuels
Oil Sands
●​ Oil Sands- slow flowing, viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay
●​ Bitumen- degraded type of petroleum that had migrated to the surface and modified by bacteria
●​ Extracted by surface mining
●​ Very energy costly to mine, energy to refine out water and impurities-> system efficiency lower
and CO2 releases more
Liquid Coal
 ●​ CTL (Coal to Liquid) - technology to convert solid coal to liquid fuel
○​ Can be helpful in shortage, but harms environment, releases more than 2 times
Fossil Fuels are a Finite Resource
●​ Total US energy use leveling off
●​ Energy Intensity- energy use per unit of GDP (gross domestic product)
○​ Decreasing- using energy more efficiently
The Hubbert Curve
●​ The Hubbert Curve- bell shaped curve representing oil use and projecting oil production and
when the world runs out
○​ Upper and lower estimate
○​ Oil production steady until hits half supply (Peak oil) which then declines
●​ Conclusion still holds that fossil fuels will run out-> need new energy source
Module 36: Nuclear Energy Resources
●​ Concerns over radioactivity, accidents; positive for low emissions of CO2
Nuclear Reactions Use Fission to Generate Electricity
●​ Uses Uranium-235 as fuel source
●​ Fission- nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which then
splits into two or more parts, releasing additional neutrons and energy in the form of heat
○​ Then can continue fission into other atoms
○​ Heat used to produce steam
●​ Byproduct of radioactive waste
●​ Fuel Rods- cylindrical tube that encloses nuclear fuel within nuclear reactor
○​ Moves uranium pellets into reactor core
●​ Heat from nuclear fission heats water which circulates in a loop which heats another container of
water creating steam and turning the turbine turning the generator and water is then
●​ Moderator to slow neutrons to effectively trigger next chain reaction
●​ Control Rods- cylinders around fuel rods to absorb neutrons and stop/slow fission reaction
●​ Uranium ore 900 kg-> 3k nuclear fuel
○​ Needs to be chemically enriched to increase concentration
Nuclear Energy has Advantages and Disadvantages
●​ Technically “clean”- no air pollution
●​ Became more and more expensive as protests, legal battles, delays incur
○​ Nuclear accidents, contaminate air and water, people could use waste as weapon
●​ Around 100 nuclear power plants in US
Nuclear Accidents
●​ Three Mile Island 1979: cooling water valve closed and reactor overheated-> highly radioactive
○​ People evacuated, no documented increase in health problems
●​ Chernobyl (1986)- operators remove emergency cooling and control rods
○​ Overheated and caused explosion-> winds blow radiation across Europe
○​ Thyroid cancer- 5000 cases for ppl near Chernobyl (radioactive iodine)
●​ Fukushima (2011)- breaks due to earthquake and typhoon
○​ Technically no deaths from radioactivity, but shut down all 54 reactors after
○​ Reopened 5 tentatively
Radioactive Waste
 ●​ Radioactive Waste- nuclear fuel that can no longer produce enough heat to be useful in power
plant, but still is radioactive
○​ High level: fuel rods; low-level: contaminated protective clothing, tools, rags
■​ High- immediate damage to human; low level: DNA damage, harmful effects to
brain, eyes, immune system
●​ Needs to be contained until less radioactive (half lives)
○​ Becquerel (bq)- rate at which radioactive material decays (1 atom per sec)
○​ Curie- rate at which material decays (37 billion decays per second)
●​ Stored in water, surrounded by lead on land, needs to store it somewhere safely
○​ Yucca Mountain good candidate, but rejected by public
Fusion Power
●​ Nuclear Fusion- reaction that occurs when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier
nuclei
○​ Most popular for hydrogen to make helium
○​ Too hot to do for now
Summary of Nuclear Power and Comparison to Other Fuels
●​ Nuclear Regulatory Commission- oversees files for construction of power plants
Working Toward Sustainability: Meet Sense, the Home Energy Monitor
●​ Sense- tells you how much energy you use and which devices
●​ Phantom Load- unnecessary standby electricity that continue to use electricity
Chapter 13: Achieving Energy Sustainability
Module 37: Conservation, Efficiency, and Renewable Energy
We can Use Less Energy Through Conservation And Increased Efficiency
●​ Energy conservation and efficiency key to maximizing energy resources and easier to implement
Energy Conservation and Efficiency
●​ Energy Conservation- finding and implementing ways to use less energy
Conservation
●​ Individual: thermostat, reduce hot water, walk, public transportation, carpool, unplug when not
using, laptop rather than computer
●​ Gov: tax electricity, oil, gas, offer rebates as incentive to operate on less energy
●​ Tiered Rate System- pay higher rates as usage goes up
●​ Peak Demand- greatest quantity of energy used at any one time
○​ Companies have to provide enough energy
○​ Reduce peak demand- pay more during time
●​ Energy conserved also includes energy lost in conversions (save 100-> really save 300)
Efficiency
●​ Changes in tech-> more efficient like LEDs
●​ Energy Star (US EPA)- products that use less energy/ save 2-5 cents per hour
Sustainable Design
●​ Insulation, trees, close to work
●​ Passive Solar Design- construction designed to take advantage of solar radiation without active
technology
○​ Windows letting sun in to warm, colors absorbing or reflecting sunlight (cooler/warmer),
overhanging roof helps block sun, green roof
 ●​ Thermal Mass- property of building material that allows it to maintain heat or cold
○​ High thermal heat helps keep energy longer (warmer on cold nights)
●​ Recycled materials to build (fly ash from coal plants, recycled denim)
●​ EX: California Academy of Sciences
Renewable Energy is Either Potentially Renewable or Nondepletable
●​ Potentially Renewable- energy source that regenerates indefinitely as long as not overharvested
○​ Biomass-
●​ Nondepletable- energy source cannot be used up
○​ Solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal energy
●​ Renewable- potentially renewable and nondepletable
●​ Developing world more likely to use biomass, but unsustainable
●​ Renewable 14% worldwide (mostly biomass)
●​ US- renewable 10%, mostly from biomass, hydroelectric, wind
Module 38: Biomass and Water
Biomass is Energy from the Sun
●​ Biomass- all from sun
○​ Wood, charcoal, animal products, plant remains, Municipal Solid Waste, liquid fuels
○​ Higher use in developing countries
○​ Can be processed into Biofuels- liquid fuel created from processed or refined biomass
■​ Ethanol, biodiesel
●​ Biomass- 50% of renewable energy (4.5% total)
○​ Wood and biofuels around equal, MSW much less
Modern Carbon versus Fossil Carbon
●​ If carbon in new plants better than fossils depends on how it was harvested, treated, etc
●​ Modern Carbon- carbon in biomass recently in atmosphere
○​ In theory if grow same amount as plant, should be carbon neutral
■​ Activity that doesn’t change CO2 concentrations
●​ Fossil Carbon- carbon in fossils
○​ Rapid increase of CO2- as stored away for long time
Solid Biomass: Wood, Charcoal, and Manure
●​ 2-3 billion worldwide use wood; 3 mill in US as primary energy source
●​ Can be sustainable, but usually results in net removal
○​ The process of removing more than is replaced by growth, typically used when referring
to carbon
■​ Even with new trees not balanced, carbon in soil could be burned away and
equipment can disturb soil and release carbon
●​ Charcoal: lighter and more energy than wood, less smoke
●​ Manure: removed microorganisms, but can release particulate matter and pollutants harming
respiratory system
●​ Particulate matter, Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides
Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel
●​ Liquid biofuels can substitute gasoline and diesel
●​ Ethanol- alcohol made from converting starches and sugars from plant material into alcohol and
carbon dioxide
 ○​ 90% from corn
●​ Biodiesel- diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemical altering oil from plants
○​ Algae, soybean, palm
Ethanol
●​ US most, Brazil second (but with sugarcane)
●​ Usually made into gasohol- 10% ethanol, 90% gasoline
●​ E-85; 15% ethanol, 85% gasoline (can be run by Flex-Fuel Vehicles)
○​ A vehicle that either runs on either gasoline or gasoline/ethanol mix
●​ Produces less air pollutants, but less energy content, so reduces mileage
○​ Growing corn needs a lot of fossil fuel energy and land
●​ Alternative: Switchgrass- perennial crop so no need to replant and dig soil
○​ Harder to convert bc cellulosic-> needs to break cell wall
Biodiesel
●​ Usually more expensive than petroleum
●​ B-20: 80% petroleum, 20% biodiesel
●​ SVO- straight vegetable oil (waste from restaurants) can be used with home kits
●​ Biodiesel- soybean oil, processed vegetable oil
○​ Trying ways to get from cellulose, wood, algae
■​ Algae- most fuel per hectare of land, least energy used, least fertilizer needed
●​ 15-300 times more
●​ Technically carbon neutral and better than ethanol, but uses more land, which may transfer more
carbon
The Kinetic Energy of Water can Generate Electricity
●​ Hydroelectricity- energy generated by kinetic energy of moving water
○​ 2nd most common renewable energy
○​ Washington, CA, NY, Oregon, Alabama
○​ 17% worldwide- china, brazil, canada, US, India, Russia
Methods of Generating Hydroelectricity
●​ Water falling turns turbine generating energy
●​ Amount depends on flow rate (kinetic energy) or vertical distance water falls (potential energy)
Run-of-the-River Systems
●​ Run-of-the-River: hydroelectricity generation in which water is retained behind low dam or no
dam
●​ Little flooding upstream, seasonal changes n river flow not affected
●​ Cons: small, energy (water) cannot be stored, so dry seasons have no electricity
Water Impoundment Systems
●​ Water Impoundment- the storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam
○​ Can control flow rate-> controls electricity produced
●​ Most common method
●​ Biggest: Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze (biggest world); Grand Coulee Dam (biggest US)
○​ TGD: 22,500 MW; GCD: 6,800 MW
Tidal Systems
●​ Tidal energy- energy from movement of water driven by gravitational pull of Moon
○​ Use gates and turbines to capture kinetic energy
 ●​ France, Korea, Canada
●​ Not major energy source, difference between low and high tide too great, transmission lines have
to be close to generator-> disruptive to coast habitats and tourism
Hydroelectricity and Sustainability
●​ Bring electricity with little need for fossil fuels
○​ Electricity less expensive for consumer
●​ provide recreational, economic opportunities and flood control downstream
●​ Negative environmental: free flowing river held back-> flood prime
agriculture/canyon/archeological land
●​ Displacement of habitats and people
●​ Reservoir hold more heat and less oxygen than rivers-> hostile to some species, more parasites in
warmer water
●​ Alter downstream-> salmon trying to go up
○​ Fish ladder to help them move up
●​ During construction+filling reservoir releases CO2; cement-> 5% of all emissions
●​ Dead plants covered by water decompose, release methane
●​ Silation- accumulation of sediments, primarily silt, on bottom of a reservoir
○​ Needs to remove by machines using fossil fuels
●​ Starting to be removed bc of heavy siltation or environmental concerns
Module 39: Solar, Wind, Geothermal, and Hydrogen
The Energy of the Sun can be Captured Directly
●​ Sun energy rages from 3-7 kWh
Passive Solar Heating
●​ No reliance on intermediate pumps or technology to supply heat
●​ EX: Solar ovens- solar heat absorbed and converted to heat and cooks to 175 F
○​ Reduces wood use, can stay safe a home without needing to go out to get wood
Active Solar Energy Technologies
●​ Active Solar Energy-energy captured from sunlight using advanced tech
○​ Solar water heating, photovoltaic solar cells, concentrating solar thermal systems
Solar Water Heating Systems
●​ Heating pools, heating in buildings
●​ Domestic Hot Water System- sun heat energy transferred to liquid, circulating by pump (active)
or natural (passive) and back into container
○​ If freezing, changes from water to antifreeze liquid-> transfers heat to water
Photovoltaic Systems
●​ Photovoltaic Solar Cells- system of capturing energy from sunlight and converting directly to
electricity
○​ Semiconductors generate low voltage current in sun-> converted to high voltage
alternating current
○​ 12-20% efficient
●​ Extra unused energy can be used to charge batteries (to use later) or sell to utility company
Concentrating Solar Thermal Electricity Generation
●​ CST- large scale application of solar energy to electricity generation
 ●​ Lenses or mirror and tracking systems to focus sunlight into small beam to evaporate water and
turn turbine
○​ Need a lot of land and cannot generate at night
Benefits and Drawbacks of Active Solar Energy Systems
●​ No CO2, solar provides during peak hours (sunny and hot for AC)
●​ Solar panels expensive to manufacture and install
○​ US tax breaks, funding packages make it more affordable
●​ Manufacturing needs energy and water+ toxic metals and chemicals
●​ Solar energy into batteries-> manufacturing, disposing, recycling batteries have impacts
●​ End of life also waste- 30-50 years
Wind Energy is the Most Rapidly Growing Source of Energy
●​ Wind Energy- energy generated from kinetic energy of moving air
●​ Fastest growing-> most in China, US, Germany, India, Spain
○​ US only 7% still
Generating Electricity from Wind
●​ Wind Turbine- a turbine that converts wind energy into electricity
○​ Wind turns blades which transfer energy to gearbox (mechanical energy) and turns
turbine
○​ Land: 25% capacity factor; Offshore- 35-50%
●​ Usually grouped into wind farms or parks
○​ Denmark, Netherlands, UK, Sweden
●​ US parks: Cape Cod fails and abandoned, first Block Island Wind Farm (5 turbines
A Nondepletable Resource
●​ Nondepletable, clean, amount available doesn’t depend on how much used today, share land with
other uses
●​ Disadvantage: use batteries, bird collisions, sound may be disturbance, habitat disturbance,
aesthetics
Earth’s Internal Heat is a Source of Nondepletable Energy
●​ Geothermal Energy- heat that comes from natural radioactive decay of elements deep in Earth
○​ Can heat groundwater and drive up as geyser and hot springs
●​ US, China, Iceland are largest producers
Harvesting Geothermal Energy
●​ Can directly pump groundwater into home or heat exchangers collect heat by circulating liquid
underground and back up
●​ Steam from groundwater runs turbine
●​ Heat won’t run out, but groundwater can
●​ Iceland- 25%, US- less than 1%; not available everywhere
●​ Hazard gasses and steam can escape power plants
Ground Source Heat Pumps
●​ Ground Source Heat Pumps- technology transfers heat from ground to building
●​ Ground retains Sun’s heat well and stays around the same throughout year
○​ Pump cycles fluid through pipes underground
○​ In winter absorbs heat and compressed to increase temp, then distributed
○​ In summer pulls heat from house and transfers underground
 ●​ 30-70% less energy to heat and cool building
Hot Water Heat Pumps
●​ Variation of ground source heat pump
●​ Takes heat in air from garage or basement and transfers to water tank
●​ 99% efficient and 200-250% amount of energy used transferred to water tank
Hydrogen Fuel Cells Have Many Potential Applications
The Basic Process in a Fuel Cell
●​ Fuel Cell- an electrical-chemical device that converts fuel, such as hydrogen, ino an electrical
current
●​ Normal battery: nickel and cadmium react until goes dead
●​ Fuel Cell: reactants constantly added (like hydrogen)
●​ Hydrogen Fuel Cells- membrane that protons forced through while electrons take different
pathway, generating electric current
●​ Cons: Hydrogen gas little in nature and explosive
○​ Need to either use fossil fuels to separate making CO2
○​ Or electrolysis- electric current applied to water to split it
●​ Hydrogen pros: acts as energy carrier-> can be stored until needed and is clean
The Viability of Hydrogen
●​ Hydrogen Fuel Cells- 80% efficient
●​ Cons: obtaining without using more fossil fuels than it would save
●​ How to safely distribute
○​ Liquid or gas, and in vehicle in high pressure gas, but needs to have large tanks and can
explode
●​ Pros: can be sustainable way of travel, 60% of energy into motion for electric vehicles vs 20% for
normal
○​ Way less environmental cost and better efficiency
Module 40: Planning Our Energy Future
●​ All energy sources have impact on environment
Our Energy Future Depends on Efficiency, Conservation, and the Development of Renewable and
Nonrenewable Energy Resources
●​ Sustainable energy strategy: needs to combine energy efficiency, conservation, and development
of the energy and take into account of costs, benefits, and limitations
○​ Also consider the transportation of the energy source
Renewable Energy Overview:

Energy Pros Cons Emissions Electricit EROEI

y cost

Liquid biofuel -Potentially -loss of land -CO2 1.3

Renewable -higher food costs -Methane (corn)
-Can reduce fossil -lower gas mileage 8
fuel use -possible net increase in GG gasses (sugar
-reduce trade deficit cane)
-possibly more
 environmentally
friendly than FF

Solid Biomass -potentially -Deforestation -CO

renewable -Erosion -Particulate matter
-Eliminates waste -Indoor and outdoor air pollution -Nitrogen Oxides
from environment -possible net increase in GG gasses -possible toxic
-Available to metals from MSW
everyone -danger from
-Minimal tech needed indoor pollutants

Photovoltaic solar -nondepletable -need lots of metals and water to -none during 0.1 8
cells resource make operation
-After initial -No plan to recycle once broken -some while
investment, no cost to -Geographically limited manufacturing
harvest more -storage batteries required for off
system grids
-high initial cost

Solar Water Heating -nondepletable -making needs lots of metal and -none during
Systems resource water operation
After initial -no plan to recycle panels -some while
investment no cost Geographically limited manufacturing
High initial cost

Hydroelectricity -Nondepletable -limited amount can be installed in -methane from .05-.11 12

-low cost to run area decaying flooded
-flood control -high construction cost vegetation
-recreation -threats to ecosystems
-loss of habitat, land, displacement
of ppl
-siltation

Tidal Energy -nondepletable -Potential disruptive effect on some -none during use 15
resource marine organisms
-after initial -geographically limited
investment, no more
cost

Geothermal Energy -nondepletable -emits hazardous gasses and steam -none during .05-.30 8
-after initial cost, no -geographically limited operation
more while running
-can be installed
anywhere (ground
source heat pump)

Wind Energy -nondepletable -turbine noise -none during 18

-after initial cost, no -Death of birds and bats operation
more while running -Geographically limited to windy
-low upfront cost areas with transmission lines
-may not be aesthetic to some
 -storage batteries needed for off
grid

Hydrogen Fuel Cell -Efficient -producing is energy intensive -none 8

-no pollution -lack of distribution network
-hydrogen storage challenges
A Renewable Energy Strategy Presents Many Challenges
●​ Amory Lovins- innovation and advances driving force to change energy source, not depletion
●​ Change to Renewable completely needs lots of funding from gov
●​ Limitations: transmission over energy grid; cost and storage
Improving the Electrical Grid
●​ Problems with Electrical Grid:
○​ Difficult to transport energy from many sources far away to other areas
○​ Some areas unable to supply enough energy, others cannot handle amount of electricity
generated
○​ Long distances- lose 5-10% electricity
●​ Smart Grid- sufficient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts any source of
electricity and distributes it automatically to end users
○​ Basically tells energy generators when energy needed and when not
○​ Smart appliances- use by themselves at night when energy surplus
○​ Helps keep peak energy lower
●​ Current: uses large plants that when shut off put more demands on other systems
○​ Large number of small generators
■​ Less expensive, more reliable, shorter distance and saves energy, less likely to
break down with widespread outage
Addressing Energy Cost and Storage
●​ Overtime as more made, price will go down
●​ More experience-> ppl more used to it-> more likely to buy-> can cut prices lower
○​ Tax credits and rebates also keep costs lower
●​ Energy Storage Solutions
○​ Pump water uphill, which then can release during peak demand through turbine
○​ Battery charging and storage better
●​ Can accelerate by gov intervention, taxes on industries that emit CO2, market with more
consumers willing to pay
○​ EX: gas prices up, oil conservation went up
●​ Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI)- certain fraction of energy has to be renewable
○​ In 9 Eastern states
Working Toward Sustainability: Building an Alternative Energy Society in Iceland
●​ Iceland uses more energy per capita, but almost all local renewable
●​ Hydroelectricity, geothermal
○​ Also wants hydrogen fuel for cars and buses
Science Applied 6: Should Corn Become Fuel?
●​ Good- decrease pollution, dependence on foreign oil
●​ Bad: all inputs needed increases emissions, uses more energy to create ethanol and small impact
Does Ethanol Reduce Air Pollution?
●​ May produce carbon monoxide
●​ Oxygenated Fuel- fuel with oxygen as part of molecule
○​ Adding more ensures more oxygen and better combustion
●​ All inputs may cause ethanol to release more pollutants than gas
Is Ethanol Neutral in the Production of Greenhouse Gases?
●​ Inputs- tractor driving, fertilizer production, processing uses fossil fuels
●​ Tilling may release additional CO2 trapped in A and B horizons
●​ More land needed-> deforestation increases CO2
●​ Ethanol production with coal releases as much as gas alone
Does Ethanol Provide a Substantial Return on Energy Investment?
●​ Energy Inputs: running farm machinery, producing chemicals (fertilizer), drying corn,
transporting corn, converting to ethanol, shipping it
●​ Output: ethanol, distiller’s grains, corn gluten, corn oil
●​ Slight gain 1:1.3; vs 1:15 for gasoline
Does Ethanol Reduce our Dependence on Gasoline?
●​ 4% of gas-> high fuel mileage probably better
Unintended Impacts of Ethanol Production?
●​ Cropland limits-> only 20% of gas can be fully replaced
●​ food-> gas, no corn to eat
●​ Corn-> a lot used for ethanol, crop price rises, lose out on food to feed hungry
Alternatives to Corn Ethanol?
●​ Cellulosic Ethanol- an ethanol derived from cellulose, cell wall material in plants
○​ Switchgrass, Miscanthus grass, paper waste, algae
●​ Breaks cellulose into component sugars
○​ Difficult and expensive
●​ Good: no high energy, perennial, fertilizers and pesticides unnecessary
What’s the Bottom Line?
●​ Releases many pollutants, but greenhouse gasses less than gasoline
Chapter 14: Aquatic Pollution
Case Study: Chesapeake Bay
●​ Chesapeake Bay largest estuary in US
●​ Freshwater mixes with saltwater of ocean making extremely productive area
●​ Nitrogen and excess Phosphorus- sewage treatment facilities, animal waste from concentrated
feeding concentrations, and fertilizer
○​ Algal blooms
●​ Increased sediments make water cloudy and prevent sunlight from reaching grasses that are
habitat for blue crabs
●​ Estrogen from sewage why 23% male largemouth bass and 82% of smallmouth bass developed
into hermaphrodites
○​ Male sex organs growing eggs
●​ Chesapeake Bay Action Plan to reduce nutrients, sediments, and chemicals, blue crab population
increased
Module 41: Wastewater from Humans and Livestock
●​ Water Pollution- contamination of streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater with substances
produced by human activities
●​ Wastewater- water produced by livestock operations and human activities
●​ human sewage, gray water from bathing, washing of clothes and dishes
Wastewater from Humans and Livestock Poses Multiple Problems
●​ Pollution can come from…
○​ Point Source- distinct location from which pollution is directly produced
■​ Factory, sewage treatment facility
○​ Nonpoint Source- diffuse area that produces pollution
■​ Farming region, suburban community with many lawns, storm runoff
■​ Is a negative externality
●​ Concerns: demand for oxygen in decomposition, nutrient release, diseases
Oxygen Demand
●​ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)- amount of oxygen a quantity of water uses over a period
of time at a specific temperature
○​ lower = less pollution; higher= more
●​ More oxygen used, can lead to low oxygen concentrations which can be lethal,
●​ dead zones can be self-perpetuating-> dead organisms take more oxygen
Nutrient Release
●​ Decomposition of wastewater-> nitrogen and phosphorus (2 main limiting factors)
●​ Eutrophication- phenomenon in which a body o water becomes rich in nutrients
●​ Cultural Eutrophication- increase in fertility in a body of water, result of anthropogenic inputs of
nutrients
●​ Initially causes algal bloom, dies and causes high BOD, then dead zone (Mississippi River dump
into Gulf of Mexico)
Disease-Causing Organism
●​ Pathogens through water: cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, gastrointestinal illness
●​ ¼ worldwide doesn’t have sufficient access to safe drinking water
○​ Over half in China and India
●​ Indicator Species- a species that indicates whether or not disease-causing pathogens are likely to
be present
○​ Fecal Coliform Bacteria- group of generally harmless microorganisms living in
intestines of humans and other animals
■​ E. Coli
We Have Technologies to Treat Wastewater
●​ Bacteria breaks down matter into organic and inorganic compounds, then outcompeted by
harmless bacteria
Septic Systems
●​ Septic System- relatively small and simple sewage treatment system made of septic tank and
leach field, often for rural areas
●​ Septic Tank- large container that receives wastewater from a house
○​ Buried underground, wastewater flows in and out (separates into 3 layers)
■​ Scum layer- anything at top that rises
 ■​ Sludge Layer- solid waste material from wastewater (bottom)
■​ Septage- layer of fairly clear water in middle (bacteria and nutrients)
●​ Leach Field- component of septic system, made up of underground pipes below surface
○​ Small holes for septage to leak through and absorbed and filtered by soil
■​ Harmful bacteria outcompeted or degraded by soil microorganisms
●​ No energy, but needs to pump out every 5-10 years
Sewage Treatment Plants
●​ Wastewater brought via pipes, filtered out solid material
●​ Primary Treatment- allows solid waste material to settle into sludge layer
●​ Secondary Treatment- bacteria breaks down 85-90% of organic matter into CO2 and inorganic
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus)
○​ Also adds oxygen for aerobic bacteria which smells better
●​ Remaining water disinfected using chlorine, ozone, or UV light
●​ Slide taken away after digestion and removal of water-> landfill, burn, or fertilizer
●​ Wastewater output usually have high nutrients- have to get rid of maybe with tertiary treatment
Legal Sewage Dumping
●​ When high rain-> treatment centers overwhelmed and allow dumping of wastewater
●​ Usually concentrated in specific areas, which can lead to contamination, illness
●​ Have to modernize treatment system to handle it
Animal Feed Lots and Manure Lagoons
●​ Farms raising many animals use Manure Lagoon
○​ Human-made pond lined with rubber to prevent manure from leaking into groundwater
●​ Bacteria breaks down-> fertilizer
●​ Risk- leaks, overflow into other water bodies
Module 42: Heavy Metals and Other Chemicals
Heavy Metals are Highly Toxic to Organisms
●​ 3 Main: Lead, Arsenic, Mercury
Lead
●​ Lead contaminates through lead-lined pipes and fittings
●​ Fetuses and infants most sensitive- damages brain, nervous system, kidneys
●​ Flint, Michigan in 2014, took water form Flint River, but high chloride concentrations corroded
lead pipes
Arsenic
●​ Arsenic naturally in crust-> can contaminate groundwater and human activities breaking up rocks
and using it for products can increase concentration
○​ Can be removed by fine membrane filtration, distillation, and reverse osmosis
●​ Causes cancer in skin, lungs, kidneys, bladder
●​ Limit at (10 ppb)
●​ EX: Bangladesh and Indian wells have arsenic concentration, poisoning
Mercury
●​ ⅔ from burning fossil fuels (coal)
●​ Trash incineration, manufacturing cement
●​ Petroleum exploration- lead and mercury, when dumping wastewater, can runoff or groundwater
 ●​ Inorganic Mercury not harmful., but bacteria in lakes can convert to methylmercury, which is
poisonous
○​ Central nervous system
○​ Can be transferred through eating fish and shellfish
●​ 2013 Agreement to reduce mercury pollution
Acid Deposition and Acid Mine Drainage Affect Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
●​ Acid Deposition- acids deposited on Earth as rain and snow or as gases and particles that attach to
the surfaces of plants, soil, and water
●​ Caused: release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide-> change in sulfuric acid and nitric acid
●​ Coal Scrubbers- pass hot gases through limestone slurry which reacts with acidic gases and
removes it from atmosphere
●​ Low pH in water can also be from below- development of underground mines flood and allows
pyrite to break down to make iron and hydrogen molecules
○​ Low pH causes harmful metal ions to dissolve
Synthetic Organic Compounds are Human-Produced Chemicals
●​ Organic synthetic compounds- pesticides, pharmaceuticals, military compounds, industrial
compounds
○​ Can be toxic, cause genetic defects, interfere with growth and sexual development
Pesticides and Inert Ingredients
●​ Pesticides usually kill off other species that might be desirable
○​ Ex: endosulfan- kills insects and amphibians
●​ Can alter physiological functions of other species: DDT moving up food chain-> thinning shells
in birds
●​ Inert Chemicals- secret ingredients that make pesticide more effective
○​ Roundup’s inert chemicals kill amphibians by bursting gill cells and suffocating
Pharmaceuticals and Hormones
●​ 50% had antibiotics and reproductive hormones, 80% nonprescription drugs, 90% steroids
○​ Hormones need very little concentration to have a big effect: estrogen in male fish
growing eggs
Military Compounds
●​ Perchlorates- harmful chemicals used for rocket fuel
○​ Can contaminate soil where military are manufactured, tested, or dismantled
○​ Leaches into soil and can be ingested by food or water
●​ Affect thyroid gland and reduce production of hormones
Industrial Compounds
●​ Cuyahoga River- industries dumping waste into river killing all animal life, fire in river causes
movement to clean it up
●​ Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): group of industrial compounds used to manufacture plastic
and insulate electrical transformers
○​ Ingestion is lethal, carcinogenic
○​ General Electric dumps PCBs into Hudson, has to pay and remove it
●​ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): flame retardants, but can be found in fish, aquatic
birds, human breast milk
○​ Brain damage especially in children
Module 43: Oil Pollution
●​ Oil/petroleum toxic to many marine organisms and can spread, very persistent and hard to remove
There are Several Sources of Oil Pollution
●​ Spills from Oil Tankers
○​ EX: Exxon Valdez- spilled Alaska 1989, 42 million liters of oil killing 250,000 searids,
2,800 otters, 300 seals, 22 killer whales
○​ Oil not completely gone- 14,500 gallons left, bu most species have rebounded (except
killer whales and sea otters
●​ Now ships have o have double-hull design with 2 steel walls to contain leaking oil
●​ Offshore Drilling- 146,000 kg per year in NA
○​ Gulf of Mexico 2010 oil leak-> 780 million liters into Gulf of Mexico
●​ Natural Releases of Oil from Seeps- around 60% of oil in NA, 45% worldwide
There are Ways to Remediate Oil Pollution
●​ Contaminated animals have to be cleaned by hand
●​ Usually first contains oil then 4 options:
○​ Use vacuum to suck up oil; shallow and coastal areas use absorbent materials to suck up
○​ Treat using chemicals, but can be toxic to marine life
○​ Burn the oil off, but pollution and leaves harmful byproducts
○​ Genetically engineered bacteria to consume oil, hoping to make it more effective and
quicker
●​ Sponges, burn oil slicks by heating oil to have more complete combustion and cleaner emissions
●​ Oil in underwater plumes- mixture of oil and water (Gulf of Mexico 15-20 miles long, 5 miles
wide)
●​ Coast- can be sprayed off, but harms environment and removes marine life
○​ Can be ignored, but oil left in small cracks and porous rock still harmful
Module 44: Nonchemical Water Pollution
Solid Waste Pollution Includes Garbage and Sludge
●​ Solid Waste- can be dumped into ocean, issue in developing cuz no proper political mechanism to
prevent it
○​ Great Pacific Garbage Patch
●​ Can be dangerous- plastic strangling animals, medical waste (needles) from ships
●​ Coal Ash and Tailings after coal is burned-> dumped and can contaminate groundwater
Sediment Pollution Consists of Soil Particles that are Carried Downstream
●​ Sediment Pollution- unnatural increase of sediments into water via human activity
○​ Via Construction, agriculture, deforestation-> 70% sediments from humans
●​ Effects: water becomes brown and cloudy, less sunlight reduces plants and algae, clog gills
lowering ability to get oxygen, increased nutrients
Thermal Pollution Causes Substantial Changes in Water Temperatures
●​ Thermal Pollution- nonchemical water pollution that occurs when human activities cause a
substantial change in the temperature of water
●​ Common: industry takes cold water uses it to absorb heat, then releases hot water
●​ Effects:
○​ Thermal Shock- dramatic change in water temp that can kill organisms
■​ Increases respiration when warmer, uses up more oxygen, kills them
 ●​ EPA regulates amount of water
●​ Solutions- Cooling tower that releases heat into atmosphere to cool water
○​ Closed systems, keeping water and heat inside system without releasing it, reuse
Noise Pollution May Interfere with Animal Communication
●​ Can cause animals to behave in a different way
●​ Ex: underwater sonar from finding oil caused whales to end up on beaches
●​ Solutions: ships make propellers quieter, no underwater sonar systems
Module 45: Water Pollution Laws
The Clean Water Act Protects Water Bodies
●​ Clean Water Act of 1972- supports protection of wildlife and recreation in and on water by
maintaining or restoring chemical, physical, and biological properties of surface waters
○​ Limited pollutants in waterways and control industry
The Safe Drinking Water Act Protects Sources of Drinking Water
●​ Safe Drinking Water Act (1974, 1986, 1996)- sets national standards fro safe drinking water
○​ Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL)- standard for safe drinking water by EPA,
regulates elements and substances
■​ Microorganisms, disinfectants, organic and inorganic compounds
●​ Bodies of water assigned use-> see if can fully support designated uses
●​ Municipal Water systems safe, reduced much contamination
Water Pollution Legislation is Becoming More Common in the Developing World
●​ Currently industrializing, cannot afford treatment and regulation, corruption can prevent
legislation
●​ However, as country becomes more affluent, can afford to take action in environmental issues
Working Towards Sustainability: Purifying Water for Pennies
●​ Proctor and Gamble Company creates powder with flocculant and chlorine to kill bacteria
○​ Cheap and decides to use in nonprofit to distribute
●​ Later sells for profit with PUR at higher price
Chapter 15: Atmospheric Pollution and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Case Study: Cleaning Up in Chattanooga
●​ Chattanooga at first extremely polluted- 3rd highest particulate pollution in US
●​ Enacted Air Pollution Control Ordinance, worked with industry to lower pollution
○​ Able to meet all the federal limits
●​ Comprehensive Recycling Program, later lowered ozone output as well
Module 46: Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources
●​ Air Pollution- introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the
atmosphere that can harm plants, animals, or materials
Air Pollution is a Global System
●​ Pollution can spread around the whole globe
●​ Many inputs and outputs
Classifying Pollutants
●​ Clean Air Act- lists Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, Particulate matter,
tropospheric ozone, lead, CO
○​ Potential harmful: volatile organic compounds and mercury
Sulfur Dioxide
●​ SO2 from burning fossil fuels, volcanos, forest fires
●​ Effects: harms respiratory system, plants, acid rain
Nitrogen Oxides
●​ NOX- any combustion in atmosphere (fossil fuels, wood, biomass burning)
●​ Effects: harms respiratory system, smog, acid rain, over fertilization
Carbon Oxides
●​ CO- incomplete combustion, poor ventilation
●​ Effects: death, low oxygen
●​ CO2- complete combustion
●​ Effects: climate change
Particulate Matter
●​ Particulate Matter (PM)/Particulates- solid or liquid particles suspended in air
○​ Combustion- coal, oil, diesel, biofuels (vehicle smoke)
●​ Range in size from 00.1 um to 100 um (micrometers)
○​ Smaller than 10= Particulate Matter-10; Smaller than 2.5= Particulate matter 2.5
■​ 10- not filtered out by nose/throat, 2.5- can travel further, mostly more toxic
Photochemical Oxidants
●​ Photochemical Oxidants- class of air pollutants formed by sunlight acting on chemicals like
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide
○​ Harmful to plants, humans, construction material
●​ Ozone- harms plants and animals. and respiratory function
●​ Smog- mixture of oxidants and particulate matter
○​ Photochemical Smog- smog that is dominated by oxidants such as ozone
■​ Los Angeles-Type Smog or Brown Smog
○​ Sulfurous Smog- smog dominated by sulfur dioxide and sulfate compounds
■​ London-Type Smog, gray smog, industrial smog
Lead and Other Metals
●​ Lead- trace metal in fuels, used to be added to gas, but phased out; paint
○​ Effects: toxic to nervous central system
●​ Mercury- combustion of fossil fuels, fish, waste incinerators
○​ Effects: toxic to central nervous system,
Volatile Organic Compounds
●​ Volatile Organic Compounds- organic compounds that evaporates at typical atmospheric
temperatures
○​ Mostly hydrocarbons, lead to formation of photochemical oxidants
Primary and Secondary Pollutants
●​ Either directly from source or gone through transformations
Primary Pollutants
●​ Primary Pollutants- polluting compound that comes directly out of a smokestack, exhaust pipe,
or natural emission source
○​ Includes COX, SO2, NOX, VOCs
Secondary Pollutants
 ●​ Secondary Pollutants- primary pollutants that have undergone transformation in presence of
sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds
○​ Ozone creation from NOX and VOCs in sunlight; acid rain compounds
Air Pollution Comes from Both Natural and Human Sources
Natural Emissions
●​ Volcanoes- sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide
●​ Lightning- Nitrogen oxides
●​ Forest Fire- particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide
●​ Living Plants- give of natural VOCs, can create smog and photochemical oxidant pollution
Anthropogenic Emissions
●​ Transportation largest source of CO and NOXs
●​ Energy Generation/Power plants is most sulfur dioxide
●​ Clean Air Act- establish standards to control pollutants harmful to human health and welfare
○​ National Ambient Air Quality Standards allows EPA to set concentration limits for
pollutants
■​ Recently everything decreased, only Lead and ozone close to standards
●​ European “Black Triangle” uses lots of lignite or brown coal-> bad air pollution
●​ Parts of Asia so severely impacted by particulate matter and sulfates which limits visibility
Module 47: Photochemical Smog and Acid Rain
Photochemical Smog Remains an Environmental Problem in the US
●​ Photochemical smog and ozone hard to control due to formation and weather, hard to reduce and
predict
The Chemistry of Ozone and Photochemical Smog Formation
●​ Formation: nitrogen oxides with little VOCs causes NO2 to create No and O, which creates ozone
●​ Sunlight intensity decreases, Ozone combines with NO to create oxygen and NO2
●​ Ozone Accumulation and Distribution- natural
●​ With VOCs- NO2 breaks up, forms ozone, but VOCs bond with NO and ozone continues to
accumulate and doesn’t break down
●​ Higher amounts at higher temperature
Thermal Inversions
●​ Usually warm air near bottom, brings pollutants up and into atmosphere as it rises
●​ Thermal Inversion- warm layer of air covers a layer of cold dense air below it
○​ Cool air and pollutants do not rise and traps pollutants, can cause severe pollution event
○​ Can also cause other forms of pollution- cold spell shut down heating-> use coal, but gets
trapped
Acid Deposition has Improved in the US
●​ Acid deposition is deposition of water with pH lower than 5.6
How Acid Deposition Forms and Travels
●​ Formation: Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide released through combustion
○​ Becomes acid through reactions with oxygen and water (secondary pollutants)
○​ Break down into nitrate and sulfate and H+ ions
○​ Blown out by wind and eventually deposited
●​ Can cross oceans, continents, countries, US and Canada, china and Wet Coast, etc
Effects of Acid Deposition
 ●​ Director indirect effects: decreasing pH of body of water (direct) ,but hard to tell
●​ Decreasing species diversity, unable to survive and reproduce
●​ Low pH- mobilization of metals (bound metals to soils released) abd cab affect organisms
○​ Acid can hurt species and nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide
●​ Harm human buildings- damage when hydrogen reacts and causes things to dissolve or
sulfur/nitrogen reacts with material
Module 48: Pollution Control Measures
●​ Pollution prevention best (least cost), but not always preventable
Pollution Control Includes Prevention, Technology, and Innovation
●​ Using fuel with less impurities, or refine them out (coal and sulfur)
●​ Can reduce amount of fuel used, but no matter what, still pollution, so needs to control
Control of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions
●​ Sulfur Oxides:
○​ Fluidized Bed Combustion- coal burned near calcium carbonate which absorbs it and can
be used in homes, although some escapes
●​ Nitrogen Oxides: hotter burning in oxygen creates more nitrogen oxides
○​ Can control amount of oxygen used and reduce temps
■​ Can cause carbon monoxide to form and create more particulates
○​ Catalytic Converter- reduces CO and NOX
Control of Particulate Matter
●​ Gravitational Settling- relies on gravity as gas goes through smoke stake to have particles settle
at bottom
●​ Different ones all use energy, which can generate more pollution
●​ Fabric Filters- (baghouse filters) filtration device that lets gas through but not particles
●​ Electrostatic Precipitators- gas enters and uses electrical charge to cause particles to attract to
positive and negative charges on precipitator
●​ Scrubber- combination of water and air to separate particles and leaves liquid or sludge and
remove sulfur dioxide
Smog Reduction
●​ Ozone main cause, but hard to control bc is secondary pollutant
●​ Most efforts lowering VOCs in urban areas, recently more on reducing nitrogen oxide
Around the World, People are Implementing Innovative Pollution Control Measures
●​ Municipality actions: reduce gas spills at gas stations, restrict lighting fluid (VOCs), reduce wood
burning stoves or fireplaces, automobile use (reduces nitrogen oxides and VOCs)
●​ Clean Air Act:
○​ open to free market to determine best way to reduce sulfur dioxide-> Acid Rain Program
○​ Buying and selling allowance for sulfur release-> cannot release more than allowed, but
can buy and sell them
■​ Gradually reduced amount distributed and in turn reduced sulfur release
Module 49: Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
●​ Tropospheric/ground level pollution-> ozone is oxidant harming respiratory systems, but
important in stratosphere
Stratospheric Ozone is Beneficial to Life on Earth
●​ Sunlight in UV-A (longer low energy), UV-B, and UV-C (shorter high energy) wavelengths
 ○​ UV-B exposure- cancer, harms immune system, hurts cells and photosynthesis
○​ Ozone critical in stratosphere to absorb UV rays
Formation of Stratospheric Ozone
●​ O2 hit by UV-C and breaks bonds into 2 oxygen atoms
●​ O encounters O2, creating O3
●​ UV-B or UV-C strikes O3, splitting back into O2 and O, absorbing it
Breakdown of Stratospheric Ozone
●​ Chlorofluorocarbons- (CFCs) from refrigerators, air conditioning, aerosol spray cans break down
ozone
●​ Cl introduced to stratosphere-> CL+O3-> O2 + CLO, then O+CLO-> Cl +O2, is a catalyst and
breaks down ozone, which then cannot absorb UV-B radiation
Humans Have Contributed to Significant Destruction of the Ozone Layer
●​ CFC use in refrigerators starting in 1920s cause rapid destruction
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
●​ 1970s-80s, ozone decreasing in Antarctica
○​ Ozone depletion seasonal, but caused such low concentrations-> Ozone hole
●​ Ice crystals with nitrogen oxide from winter react with Cl2 and sun causes Cl to enter atmosphere,
no ozone forms in dark polar winter, so creates hole
○​ Has to wait until temperatures warm to increase ozone levels
●​ UV radiation was rose which caused skin cancer and harmed ecosystems
Efforts to Reduce Ozone Depletion have been Mostly Effective
●​ Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer- most far reaching environmental
treaty, many completely eliminated CFC use
●​ CFCs peaked at 4 ppb and now decreasing, but slow due to hard removal of CFCs from
atmosphere
Module 50: Indoor Air Pollutioncom
●​ Exposure to pollution in enclosed space dangerous
Indoor Air Pollution is a Significant Hazard in Developing and Developed Countries
●​ Reasons and characteristics differ
Developing Countries
●​ Biomass burning with no exhaust system or ventilation makes carbon monoxide and particulates a
hazard
○​ Acute respiratory infections, pneumonia, bronchitis, cancer
●​ More than 4 million deaths and 90% in developing countries
Developed Countries
●​ Ppl spending more time indoors, chemical vapors from plastics and petroleum based material can
spread
Most Indoor Air Pollutants Differ From Outdoor Air Pollutants
●​ Homes made of manufactured materials-> pollutants accumulate which can breathe in
Carbon Monoxide
●​ Malfunctioning exhaust systems, where exhaust air goes into home (commonly natural gas
burners)
○​ Interferes with oxygen transport in blood and causes oxygen deprivation and death
Asbestos
 ●​ Asbestos- long, thin, fibrous silicate material with insulating properties, causes cancer when
inhaled
●​ Used for pipes, shingles, etc, usually harmless
○​ As older, become airborne and can breathe in, but removal can cause more asbestos
without care
Radon
●​ Radon-222: radioactive gas from decay of uranium, can seep into foundation or rock or
groundwater
○​ Daughter product- polonium-210, both can be breathed in
●​ Lung Cancer- 14% of deaths from it
●​ Solution: tests for radon, if there is, increase ventilation, or seal cracks in basement
VOCs in Home Products
●​ VOCs in building material, furniture, glue, paints
●​ Formaldehyde- very toxic VOC used in building products like carpeting glue
○​ Common in pressed wood
●​ Effects: irritates eyes and throat, asthma, potential carcinogen
●​ Detergents, deodorizers, solvents can contain VOC; plastics can release over time
Sick Building Syndrome
●​ New buildings focus on insulation and less air leaks, but can allow buildup of pollutants
●​ Sick Building Syndrome- buildup of toxic pollutants in an airtight space, seen in newer buildings
○​ As building materials dry, releases toxic pollutants and off-gassing occurs, more VOCs
and hydrocarbons in building
●​ Four reasons: inadequate or faulty ventilation; chemical contamination from indoor sources like
glue, carpeting, furniture, cleaning agents, copy machines; chemical contamination from outside
source like vehicle exhaust taken in by intakes; biological contamination like mold
Working Towards Sustainability: A New Cook Stove Design
●​ Biomass burning exposes women and children to CO and particulates
●​ Efficient Cook Stoves- consume less fuel, improve air quality, reduce vegetation and material
needed to collect
○​ 2 ways:
■​ Biolite CampStove- generate electricity via semiconductor to turn fan to increase
oxygen
■​ Separates physical solid fuel from gases that form when burned-> burn gas
●​ Then use small fan using heat for better burn

Chapter 16: Waste Generation, Terrestrial Pollution, and Waste Disposal

Case Study: Paper or Plastic
●​ Polystyrene- plastic polymer with high insulation value (Styrofoam)
○​ Used paper cups instead
●​ To quantify environmental costs and benefits- look at list of inputs and outputs related to
manufacture, use, and disposal
○​ Paper and styrofoam manufacturing, transportation, what else needs to be used,
reusability, chemical leaching from bleaching and dioxin
 ○​ Toxicity- harm, illness, or death caused by chemical means through ingestion, inhalation,
or absorption
Module 51: Only Humans Generate Waste
Humans Generate Waste That Other Organisms Cannot Use
●​ Waste others cannot use
Waste as a System
●​ Waste- material outputs from a system that are not useful or consumed
○​ Energy waste
The Throw-Away Society
●​ Increasing industrialization and wealth made possible for ppl to buy then throw things away
●​ Planned Obsolescence- process of designing a product so it will need to be replaced in few years
○​ Ex: appliances, cars, phones
●​ Mixtures of materials harder to recycle-> Throw-away society
●​ Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)- refuse collected by municipalities from households, small
businesses, and institutions (schools, hospitals, etc)
●​ Agricultural Waste, mining waste, industrial waste, other waste generally deposited and processed
on site
●​ Trend for increasing MSW, but flattened a little; due to population growth, bu generation depends
by season, socioeconomic status and geographic location
○​ 4.4 lbs per day per person in 2014
●​ Developing countries become responsible for bigger portion bc of growing population and
production of goods creates waste which they export out
The Solid waste Stream Contains Materials from Many Sources
●​ Waste Stream- flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in solid waste landfill, or
disposed of in another way
Composition of Municipal Solid Waste
●​ Paper makes up 27% of original waste stream, but has been decreasing
●​ Organic waste and food scraps make up 28% -> 34% of MSW compostable
●​ Plastics are 13%
●​ 35% of material that could end up in landfill or incinerator recovered (usually paper and yard
waste)
●​ After Sorting:
○​ Compostable material makes up most (less composting programs)
○​ Plastic to 18%
○​ Durable, hard to decompose material 20% of waste stream
E-Waste
●​ 2% of waste stream, but big impact
●​ Older tech can contain heavy metals which may leach out into water
●​ Recycling e-waste generally harder and more expensive-> much sent to Asia where they separate
metals using fire and acids without protection
Module 52: The Three Rs and Composting
The Three Rs Divert Materials From the Waste Stream
●​ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3 R’s)-
Reduce
 ●​ First choice bc reducing inputs best way to reduce solid waste generation
○​ Waste minimization/prevention
●​ Source Reduction- cuts waste by reducing use of potential waste materials in the early stages of
design and manufacture
○​ Can also increase energy efficiency- less waste to handle
○​ EX: printing out double sided
■​ New packaging that has same protection but less material
○​ Material Substitution:
■​ Reusable mug instead of single disposal
■​ Changing to different less toxic material: oil based paint with petroleum to latex
pain
Reuse
●​ Reuse- using a product or material that was intended to be discarded
○​ Increasing resident time
●​ May involve repairing something, time and money in moving it to be used by someone else, etc
Recycle
●​ Recycling- process by which material destined to become municipal solid waste are collected and
converted into raw materials that are then used to produce new objects
●​ Closed-loop Recycling- recycling a product into the same product
○​ Ex: aluminum cans
●​ Open-loop Recycling- one product is recycled into another
○​ Ex: plastic bottles into clothing, fabric
●​ Recycling increasing-> about a third of MSW today
●​ Single-Stream recycling– mix all types of recyclables into one container, which is then sorted into
specific categories
○​ Glass and plastic volatile; metal always in demand
●​ Recycling needs time, processing, cleaning, transporting, and possible modification before usable
○​ Costs may not be worth it-> NY shut it down
●​ Works well, but costs cause us to use reduce and reuse first
Composting is Becoming More Popular
●​ Composting- creation of organic matter (humus) by decomposition under controlled conditions to
produce an organic-rich material hat enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity and
fertility
●​ Rapid decomposition by having 30:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio
○​ Layering dry material with wet material, and frequent turning or agitation to make sure it
is aerobic and retain correct moisture
●​ Large-scale Composting Facilities: waste dumped, sorted, organic material put into long narrow
rows of compost
○​ Turned frequently with correct combination of material, heat from microbes kill
bacteria-> may need to turn if too hot, Eventually compost and transported for use
●​ Composting Downsides: time, space, source separation inconvenience, vermin and lies
Module 53: Landfills and Incineration
●​ Open dumps replaced with landfills
Landfills are the primary Destination for MSW
 ●​ 53% of MSW to landfills, 35% reuse, recycle or compost; 12% combustion for energy
●​ Leachate- liquid that contains elevated levels of pollutants as a result of having passed through
municipal solid waste or contaminated soil
Landfill Basics
●​ Landfills have lack of decomposition (proven by William Rathje)
●​ Sanitary Landfills- engineered ground facility designed to hold MSW with as little contamination
of surrounding environment as possible
○​ Lined with clay to impede water flow and retains positively charged ions like metals
○​ Pipes below to collect leachate which may be recycled back into landfill
○​ Finally after filling up is covered by soil and clay- “Cap”
●​ Input of water kept to min-> increases anaerobic decomposition, if too much can leave as leachate
●​ Controlling inputs: no metals, toxic materials, electronics, appliances, organic waste
●​ Waste compacted into compartments to increase capacity and covered with soil to limit water and
odor
●​ Landfill cap designed to have water flow off, can be reclaimed, construction usually restricted for
years, but eventually can
●​ Tipping Fee- fee charged for disposing of material in landfill or incinerator
○​ Incentive to reduce amount of waste
Choosing a Site for Sanitary Landfill
●​ Siting- designation of landfill location, through regulatory process involving studies, written
reports, public hearings
●​ Needs to located in loam or clay loam soil lined with clay or plastic, far away from water source,
far from population centers (animals and waste risks, not desirable from smell or scenery)
●​ Because so controversial, ppl have NIMBY (not in my backyard) attitude and choose a site less
optimal
Environmental Consequences of Landfills
●​ Leaching is always a risk
●​ Methane and organic gas release (can e explosive
○​ Landfills vented so it doesn’t accumulate, can also collect it to generate heat or electricity
Incineration is Another Way to Treat Waste Materials
●​ Incineration- process of burning waste materials to reduce volume and mass, sometimes to
generate electricity or heat
○​ Usually paper, organic material, plastic
Incineration Basics
●​ Waste dumped, sorted, then a grate, crane, or delivery system moves it to a furnace, burned which
converts to CO2 and water and heat
●​ Ash- residual nonorganic material material that does not combust during incineration
●​ Bottom Ash- residue collected underneath furnace
●​ Fly Ash- residue collected from chimney or exhaust pipe
●​ Disposal depends on concentration of toxic metals by leaching with weak acid
○​ Low in Pb and Cd then disposed in landfill, used in road construction, cement, toxic goes
to special landfill
●​ Waste-to-energy system: system in which heat generated used as energy source than released
Environmental Consequences of Incineration
 ●​ Tipping fees of around $70 (more than landfill)
●​ Air pollution and toxic concentration of ash, NIMBY issue, need large quantity of MSW to be
profitable
●​ May not burn everything-> can result in organic compounds from incomplete combustion
●​ Toxic Material will remain in ash
Module 54: Hazardous Waste
Hazardous Waste Requires Proper Handling and Disposal
●​ Hazardous Waste- liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans,
ecosystems, or materials
○​ Ignitability- catches on fire (waste oils)
○​ Corrosivity- can cause materials to corrode or degrade (battery acid)
○​ Reactivity- not stable under normal conditions (explosives, lithium sulfur batteries)
○​ Toxicity- is toxic when ingested (cleaning chemicals)
○​ Toxic waste is category of hazardous waste-> toxic through chemical means
●​ Usually from industrial processes but can from small businesses or homes
○​ Oven cleaners, batteries, lawn fertilizer
●​ More expensive and difficult that normal and must be treated-> altered by chemical procedures
●​ Sorted into categories- fuels solvents, lubricants
●​ Landfills more expensive and need monitoring and best way is to avoid hazardous waste
Legislation Oversees and Regulates the Treatment of Hazardous Waste
●​ Laws and Acts covering hazardous waste
Regulation and Oversight of Handling Hazardous Waste
●​ Resource conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
○​ Reduce or eliminate generation of hazardous waste by making lists of hazardous wastes
and working with authorities to minimize generation and tracked until disposal
○​ Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)- waste minimization and phase out
disposal of hazardous waste on land+ more enforcement
●​ Superfund Act (Comprehensive environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA))
○​ Federal act that imposes tax on chemical and petroleum industries, funds cleanup of
abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites, and authorizes fed gov to respond
directly to release or threatened release of substances that harm human or environment
○​ Tax used to clean up waste sites
○​ National Priorities List of contaminated sites to cleanup
■​ Love Canal- became a city when cancer causing waste found in basements (built
on top of hazardous waste landfill)
●​ Lois Gibs draws attention and eventually cleaned up
Brownfields
●​ Brownfields- contaminated industrial or commercial sites that require environmental cleanup
before the can be redeveloped or expanded
○​ Old factories, industrial areas, gas stations, etc
●​ Criticized to be inadequate, lacks liability controls to make polluters rehabilitate their properties,
management varies from region since controlled by state and local gov
International Consequences
 ●​ Hazardous waste sometimes is shipped to developing countries (too much regulations)
○​ Khian Sea ship sends ash to Haiti and dumps in ocean
●​ But can be sent to developed countries for proper disposal- India sends mercury to Europe and
US
Module 55: New Ways to Think About Solid Waste
●​ Life cycle analysis and holistic approach are 2 strategies to determine what to do
Life-Cycle Analysis Considers Materials Used and Released Throughout the Lifetime of a Product
●​ Life-Cycle Analysis (Cradle-to-grave analysis)- systems tool that examines materials used an
released throughout lifetime of product
○​ Raw materials used during manufacture, use and disposal
●​ Not possible to directly compare landfill v. incineration for every specific product
●​ Economics- tipping fee for waste disposal, recycling usually less, amount depends on market
Integrated Waste Management is a More Holistic Approach
●​ Integrated Waste Management- approach to waste disposal that employs several waste reduction,
management, and disposal strategies to reduce environmental impact
●​ Source reduction, recycling, composting, use of landfills, incineration depending on situation
○​ Source Reduction- reduce as much before during and after manufacture, but also make
components when no longer useful as little as possible
●​ Make something easy to recycle, inspiration from natural world to create things that are not toxic,
Upcycle to create something of higher quality
Working Toward Sustainability: Recycling E-Waste in Africa
●​ Large fraction of waste ending up in landfills-> toxic metals and carcinogenic organic compounds
common
●​ Fate of 76% of e-waste “unknown”- with MSW or recycled in unsafe areas
●​ South Africa:
○​ Private company: New Earth Waste Solutions- increase recycling, comply with
regulations, extract metals from waste, provide jobs
●​ Rwanda: national company
○​ E waste recycling facility constructed by gov, recycles less percentage, but can keep
growing
Chapter 17: Human Health and Environmental Risks
Module 56: Human Disease
There are Different Types of Human Diseases
●​ Disease- any impaired function of the body with a characteristic set of symptoms
●​ Infectious Disease- disease caused by pathogen
○​ ¼ of deaths, regular disease is ¾
●​ Pathogens: Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protiss, Helminths (parasitic worms)
●​ Disease categorized as:
○​ Acute Diseases- rapidly impairs functioning of person’s body
○​ Chronic Diseases- slowly impair functioning of body

Numerous Risk Factors Exist for Chronic Disease in Humans

 ●​ Low Income Countries: risks from poverty- underweight children, unsafe water, poor sanitation,
malnutrition (esp. Pneumonia under 5)
●​ Higher income: risk from tobacco, less active lifestyles, poor nutrition, obesity, high blood
pressure
●​ As country becomes richer, modern risks overtake while traditional risks decrease
Some Infectious Diseases Have Been Historically Important
●​ Pathogens infect via food, water, other humans, other animals, air
●​ Epidemic- situation in which pathogen causes rapid increase in disease
●​ Pandemic- epidemic occurs over large geographic region
●​ EX:
Plague
●​ Plague- infectious disease caused by bacterium carried by fleas which can travel on rodents
●​ Bubonic plague, black death
●​ Humans living near rodents, flea bites or handling rodent can spread
●​ Last major plague in 1900s, but small infections do still occur-> pain, swollen glands, black spots
Malaria
●​ Malaria- infection from several species of protists in genus Plasmodium
●​ Mosquito into humans
●​ Extremely present in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Middle East, South and Central America
●​ Solution- eradication of mosquitoes
Tuberculosis
●​ Tuberculosis- Highly contagious disease caused by bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infecting primarily the lungs
●​ Coughing spreads bacteria in air, although can be infected but not afflicted with disease
●​ Antibiotics-> Developing world is leading cause of death
●​ Symptoms: feeling weak, sweating at night, coughing up blood
Emergent Infectious Diseases Pose New Risks to Humans
●​ Emergent Infectious Diseases- infectious diseases that has not been previously described or has
not been common for at least 20 years
●​ Usually from pathogens in other animals mutating and spreading to humans
HIV/AIDS
●​ AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)- infectious disease caused by HIV causing
weak immune systems
●​ From chimps
●​ Solution: antiviral drugs maintain low populations of HIV to extend life-> can cause resistant
strains and expensive
Ebola Hemorrhagic Diseases
●​ Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever- infectious disease with high death rates form Ebola virus
●​ Large outbreak in 2014-> 50-90% death rate
●​ New drugs and vaccines
Mad Cow Disease
●​ Mad Cow Disease- disease in which prions mutate into deadly pathogens that slowly damage a
cows nervous system
○​ Prions- small beneficial proteins in brains of cattle
 ●​ Can only be spread by eating infected cows nervous system->stopped feeding cows beef
Swine Flu and Bird Flu
●​ Swine Flu- type of flu caused by H1N1 virus (normally infects only pigs
○​ Causes outbreaks when jumps to humans
●​ Bird Flu- type of flu caused by H5N1 virus (typically birds-> usually kills domesticated birds)
○​ Can jump and with little evolutionary defenses and infect many
SARS and MERS
●​ SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)- type of flu caused by a coronavirus
●​ MERS (middle eastern respiratory syndrome)
West Nile Virus
●​ West Nile Virus- a virus that lives in hundreds of species of birds and is transmitted among birds
by mosquitos
○​ Most birds survive infection, but started infecting ppl
●​ Causes inflammation of brain leading to illness and death
Lyme Disease
●​ Lyme Disease- disease caused by bacterium transmitted by ticks
○​ Babies live on birds or rodents-> if host in infected, ticks also get it, then transfer the
bacteria
●​ Symptoms: things like flu, arthritis, neurological disorders
Zika Virus Disease
●​ Zika Virus Disease- disease caused by pathogen causing fetuses to be born with unusually small
heads and damaged brains
●​ Transmitted via mosquito or sexual contact-> most dangerous for pregnant women
Human Health Faces a Number of Future Challenges
●​ Disease combat- know causes and risk factors, try to reduce them and educate ppl
●​ Pathogens continue to grow resistant and need to develop more drugs
●​ Antiseptic cleaners also cause pathogens to grow stronger, plain soap same
●​ Developing rapid response plans in event of disease

Module 57: Toxicology and Chemical Risks

●​ Creation and release of any chemical can have adverse side effects on humans and environment
Many Types of Chemicals can Harm Organisms
●​ 5 categories: neurotoxins, carcinogens, teratogens, allergens, endocrine disruptors
Neurotoxins:
●​ Neurotoxins- chemical that disrupts nervous system
○​ Insecticides,- become paralyzed and cannot obtain oxygen
○​ Mercury, lead
Carcinogens
●​ Carcinogens- chemicals that cause cancer
○​ Impact normal cell metabolism or damage genetic material
●​ Mutagens- carcinogen that causes damage to genetic material of cell
●​ Asbestos, radon, formaldehyde
Teratogens
●​ Teratogens- chemical that interferes with normal development of embryos or fetuses
 ○​ Thalidomide, alcohol
Allergens
●​ Allergens- chemical that causes allergic reactions
○​ Produce abnormally strong response from immune system
Endocrine Disruptors
●​ Endocrine Disruptors- chemical that interferes with normal functioning of hormones in an
animal’s body
○​ Hormones in bloodstream, bind to cell which causes it to react in a certain way that
regulates functioning of body
●​ Reproductive hormones in wastewater-> male fish, lizards, amphibians becoming feminized
○​ Estrogen higher than testosterone
Scientists can Determine the Concentrations of Chemicals that Harm Organisms
●​ 3 techniques to determine: dose-response studies, prospective studies, retrospective studies
Dose-Response Studies
●​ Dose-Response Studies- study that exposes organisms to different amounts of a chemical and
observes the response (mortality, changes in behavior or reproduction)
●​ Acute Studies- experiment that exposes organisms to an environmental to environmental hazard
for short time
●​ Chronic Studies- experiment exposing organisms to hazard for lon period of time
●​ Find the LD50- lethal dose of chemical that kills 50% of individuals in the study
○​ Usually S shaped curve
●​ Studies dont need to measure lethal dose-> carcinogen, teratogen, neurotoxin, see behavior
change
○​ Sublethal Effects- effect where hazard is not lethal, but may impair behavior, physiology,
or reproduction
■​ Find ED50- effective dose that causes 50% to display harmful effect
●​ Also determine No-observed-Effect Level (NOEL)- highest concentration without lethal/sublthal
effect
Testing Standards
●​ Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976- EPA regulates many chemicals, but not pesticides, food,
cosmetics
○​ Pesticides under Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1996- has to
prove pesticide will not cause unreasonable adverse effects on environment
●​ Test on bird, mammal, fish, invertebrate (no reptile or amphibian bc little interest before hand to
protect)
●​ Safe concentration is LD50 divided by 10
●​ Humans much more conservative-> rats and mice divided by 10, then 10 again for humans
Retrospective Versus Prospective Studies
●​ Alternative- examine large populations with exposure and any effects
●​ Retrospective Studies- study that monitors ppl who have been exposed to the hazard in the past
○​ Find a group exposed and a control group and monitored for years
●​ Prospective Studies- monitor ppl who might become exposed to hazard at some time in future
○​ Select participants and monitor things they do, eat, use (tobacco, alcohol) and record
effects
 ○​ Can be hard to actually find out what is causing what: many factors, Synergistic
Interactions (2 risks together cause more harm than expected if they were separate; ex:
asbestos and tobacco)
Factors that determine the Concentrations of Chemicals that Organisms Experience
●​ Have to know concentration in environment and at what concentration harms organism
Routes of Exposure
●​ Routes of Exposure- the way in which an individual might come into contact with an
environmental hazard, such as a chemical
Solubility of Chemicals, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification
●​ Solubility- how well chemical dissolves in liquid
○​ If soluble in water, easily washed off where not soluble tend not to be in bodies of water,
but bound to soils
●​ Bioaccumulation- increased concentration of a chemical within organism over time
○​ Fish obtains more mercury overtime swimming in it
●​ Biomagnification- the increase in chemical concentration in animal tissues as chemical moves up
food chain
○​ Low prey have accumulated toxin, goes up (eats multiple), goes up consumer (eats more)
○​ DDT more and more concentration which causes birds to have 276,000 times higher
concentration that water
Persistence
●​ Persistence- length of time chemical remains in environment
○​ Depends on temp, pH, where chemical is
●​ Measure by half life
●​ Synthetic carbon based molecules that break down slowly are known as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs)
Module 58: Risk Analysis
●​ 3 Steps: Risk Assessment, Risk Acceptance, Risk Management
Risk Assessment Estimates Potential Harm
●​ Risk Assessment- Qualitative and Quantitative
○​ Qualitative usually perceptions, not actuality-> Quantitative
●​ Identify Environmental Hazards- anything in environment that can cause harm
Quantitative Risk Assessment
●​ Risk= probability of being exposed to hazard x probability of being harmed if exposed
○​ High exposure but low rate of harm can equal low exposure but high rate of harm
●​ Can be determined from data of experiments, studies, finding exposure areas
A Case Study in Risk Assessment
●​ EPA identifies PCB as potential hazard
○​ Collected data from previous studies, ran experiments with rats, case studies
○​ Examined concentrations in environment, routes of exposure
●​ Finds fish eating with PCB to be highest risk-> no fishing
Risk Acceptance Determines how Much Risk can be Tolerated
●​ Most difficult- everyone has difference in amount of risk they allow
Risk Management Balances Potential Harm Against Other Factors
 ●​ Uses both risk information and economic, social, ethical, and political factors to determine best
course of action
●​ EX: EPA and arsenic, increasing bc companies and cities lobbied, but later reduced with new
studies
Worldwide Standards of Risk can be Guided by Two Different Philosophies
●​ 2 Principles on Chemical Regulation:
○​ Innocent-until-proven-guilty Principle- principle based on belief that potential hazard
should not be considered as such until scientific data says that it can create harm
■​ Pros- beneficial chemicals available easier
■​ Cons- dangerous chemicals can be used for decades before confirmation
○​ Precautionary Principle- principle based on belief that action should be taken against a
plausible environmental hazard
■​ Pros- fewer harmful chemicals enter use
■​ Cons- introduction can be delayed, reduce financial motivation of companies
●​ Ex: Asbestos- if precautionary, would have less deaths and financial cleanup needed
International Agreements on Hazardous Chemicals
●​ Stockholm Convention- 2001 agreement among 127 nations concerning 12 chemicals to be
banned, phased out, or reduced
○​ “Dirty Dozen”- DDT, PCBs, etc (endocrine disruptors)
●​ REACH- 2007 agreement on European Union chemical regulation (Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals)
○​ Uses precautionary principle
Working Toward Sustainability: The Global Fight Against Malaria
●​ Bill Gates challenges to eradicate malaria
●​ Hard:
○​ Mosquito populations reduced quickly rebound (even few can regrow population,
neighboring countries can enter)
○​ Resistance to pesticides, malaria pathogen resistant to drugs
○​ Expensive- some unable to afford all measures
●​ Governments and Bill and Melinda Gates foundation fund mosquito net with pesticides
○​ Hard to distribute, remote areas hard to access
●​ Effective cheap drug- resistance signs
●​ Vaccine-46% less cases of malaria than unvaccinated children
●​ Beneficial- more ppl beneficial to countries to boost economies, reducing health costs, bigger
workforce
Chapter 18: Conservation of Biodiversity
Case Study: Modern Conservation Legacies
●​ Conservation Efforts in the US: national parks, national forests, protecting marine habitats
●​ Papaha-naumokua-kea Monument: hurt by commercial fishing, pollution at bottom of ocean
○​ Working to remove debris, invasive algae
●​ More and more marine conservation efforts
Module 59: The Sixth Mass Extinction
●​ 6th Mass Extinction- short time period and first with humans
We are Experiencing Global Declines in the Genetic Diversity of Wild Species
●​ Prefer High Genetic Diversity:
○​ Higher chance of survival, easier to adapt
●​ Can be caused naturally or by humans
We Are Also Experiencing Global Declines in the Genetic Diversity of Domesticated Species
●​ Breeding for best traits-> leads to genetic diversity loss
●​ Crops: used to be varied, but breeding focused on increased productivity-> less diversity
○​ Open to crop loss
●​ Started Seed Vaults to hold these breeds to conserve diversity
Species Diversity has Declined Around the World
●​ Threatened Species- According to IUCN has high chance of extinction in future
●​ Near-threatened Species- species likely to become threatened in the future
●​ Least-Concern Species- species that are widespread and abundant
●​ Conifers:
○​ None extinct since 1500
○​ 50% LC, 16% NT, 34% Threatened
●​ Birds:
○​ 156 species extinct
○​ 77% LC, 23% NT or threated
●​ Reptiles
○​ 28 extinct
○​ 68% LC, 8% NT, 24% threatened
●​ Mammals
○​ 83 Extinct
○​ 67% LC, 8% NT, 25% Threatened
●​ Amphibians (greatest declines)
○​ 25 extinct
○​ 50% LC, 8% NT, 41% threatened
●​ Fish
○​ 70 extinct
○​ 77% LC, 4% NT, 18% Threatened
●​ Hard to access- money, time, not all species discovered, constantly finding more
Ecosystem Values and the Global Declines in Ecosystem Function
●​ Intrinsic Values- value independent of any benefit to humans
○​ Religion, philosophical reasons, moral obligations, etc
●​ Instrumental Values- worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal
○​ Value that benefits humans- crops, lumber, natural resources
●​ Calculating Instrumental Values: 5 categories…
Provisions
●​ Provisions- goods produced by ecosystems that humans can use directly
○​ Natural resources, drugs
Regulating Services
●​ Natural ecosystems help regular environmental conditions
○​ Natural sequestration, moderating climate, nutrient cycles
Support Systems
●​ Natural ecosystems provide numerous support systems that humans depend on and would be
costly without
○​ EX: pollination, natural filtration of water
Resilience
●​ Resilience- ability for ecosystem to continue in current state (remains beneficial to humans)
Cultural Services
●​ Ecosystems provide cultural or aesthetic benefits​
○​ Ppl pay to see nature, scientists get grants to do studies which brings benefits
○​ Not “tangible”, but brings value to some
The Monetary Value of Ecosystem Services
●​ Hard to put ecosystem services into a number-> $125 trillion
The Decline of Ecosystem Services
●​ Ecosystems in declining state-> leads to decline of services and functions provided
Module 60: Causes of Declining Biodiversity
Habitat Loss is the Major Cause of Declining Species Diversity
●​ Habitat Loss- mostly from human development
○​ Even worse for species with limited habitat, small area they can live
○​ EX: deforestation, celine in woodland, shrubland, grasslands, wetlands
●​ Marine: decline in corals with bleaching
●​ Smaller habitats (not even completely lost) can cause problems- genetic diversity suffers, restrict
movement of migratory species
○​ Increased interaction between species that may hurt chances of survival
Exotic Species are Moving Around the World
●​ Native Species- species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for
thousands or millions of years
●​ Exotic Species- species living outside of its historical range (Alien Species)
●​ Species moving:
○​ On purpose by humans, accidentally
○​ Can either: a) not be able to survive
■​ B) survive but have no impact
■​ Or c) survive and cause harmful effects (Invasive Species)
●​ Natural enemies not there, not adaptations against it
●​ Ex:
○​ Kudzu- quick growing vine which outcompetes basically anything
○​ Zebra Mussel- movies through ship hills and spread rapidly-> outcompete other native
mussels
○​ Silver Carp- fish that outcompetes other fish, jumps out of water (can harm ppl on boats)
●​ Invasive Exotic Species threat to biodiversity- outcompetes
Overharvesting Causes Declines in Populations and Species
●​ Overharvesting- removing individuals at rate faster than they can be replenished
○​ Ex: dodo bird, hunted and rats ate birds and young-> extinct
○​ Ex: Passenger Pigeon
●​ Regulations to stop: certain periods of time of year to hunt, limit on number, international treaties
Plant and Animal Trade
●​ Lacey Laws- US act that prohibits interstate shipping of illegally harvested plants and animals
●​ CITIES- 1973 treaty formed to control international trade of endangered plants and animals
●​ Red List (by the IUCN)- list of worldwide threatened species
●​ Still Illegal trade:
○​ Body parts, pets, lumber, medicine (sold at high prices)
●​ Demand can also cause pressure on population: cacti for xeriscaping
Pollution can have Harmful Effects on Species
●​ Toxic contaminants can kill or hurt development of species
●​ Algal blooms can cause declines in biodiversity
●​ Ex: Oil spill and the oil dispersant cause many animals to die
Climate Change has the Potential to Affect Species Diversity
●​ Changes in temp, weather patterns can hurt species
○​ May need to move to find better adapted area, decreasing habitat size while unable to
move
○​ More exotic species moving outwards
Module 61: The Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation Legislation Often Focuses on a Single Species
●​ Single Species- declining significantly; more habitat, reducing what is harming them
○​ Can be taken into captivity
The Marine Mammal Protection Act
●​ The Marine Mammal Protection Act- 1972 US Act to protect declining populations of marine
mammals
○​ No killing in US and no importing or exporting any body parts
The Endangered Species Act
●​ Authorizes US Fish and Wildlife Service to determine threatened or endangered species and
prohibits harming them
○​ Threatened Species (US)- species that is likely to become endangered in foreseeable
future all throughout or in a significant portion of its range
○​ Endangered Species- species likely to become extinct
●​ Able to purchase land for habitat critical to the conservation of species, develop recovery plans
●​ Controversy: companies that are stopped by gov
○​ Try to denounce it by doing human jobs vs. some animal
The Convention on Biological Diversity
●​ Convention on Biological Diversity- international treaty to help protect biodiversity
○​ Objectives: Conserve, sustainably use, equitably share the benefits of biodiversity
●​ Trends after convention: some habitat loss has slowed, others till high
○​ Many fish overharvested, species moving closer to extinction, natural habitats smaller
Some Conservation Efforts Focus on Protecting Entire Ecosystems
●​ National Parks, Marine Reserves, continue to protect land and biodiversity
●​ Factors to Consider when Protecting Ecosystems:
The Size, Shape, and Connectedness of Protected Areas
●​ Theory of Island Biogeography: larger islands more species, less susceptible to extinction, more
habitats, niches
 ○​ Distance to mainland- closer, more species can make it
●​ National Parks like islands in middle of human development-> protected areas less far apart
○​ Multiple also Meta-population: more habitat corridors to move through and more
protected from extinction
●​ SLOSS- single large or several small debate
●​ Edge Habitat- habitat that occurs where 2 different communities come together, typically forming
an abrupt transition, such as a grassy field meeting a forest
○​ Some species thrive and live in this area, but can overtake other species if too much
■​ Detrimental to multiple small sections
Biosphere Reserves
●​ Biosphere Reserves- protected area consisting of zones which vary in the amount of permitted
human impact
○​ Central Zone: minimal human impact (best for biodiversity)
○​ Buffer Zone: Around core area, moderate human impact allowed like tourism,
environmental education, scientific research facilities
○​ Transition Area: Outside- sustainable logging, agriculture, some local residences
Working Toward Sustainability: Swapping Debt for Nature
●​ Preserving Biodiversity Expensive- lost resources, time, money to manage
●​ Developing Countries use loans-> instead of sending to loaner country, they agree to invest into
environmental organizations
○​ Ex: Guatemala- and US, Philippines, Costa Rica
Chapter 19: Global Change
Case Study: Sea Turtle Responses to a Warming World
●​ Small changes in temperature-> cause sea turtles to change from male to female
○​ 99.8% of turtles on northern beaches female
●​ Other reptiles also off- tuatara
●​ Sex ratio change- reduces amount of eggs, more males means they fight each other more and
harass females more
Module 62: Global climate Change and the Greenhouse Effect
Global Change Includes Global Climate Change and Global Warming
●​ Global Change- Change that occurs in chemical, biological, physical properties of the planet
○​ Some natural: temperature historically
○​ Some anthropogenic: emissions, pollutants
●​ Global Climate Change: changes in average weather over period of time
○​ Global Warming
Solar Radiation and Greenhouse Gases Make Our Planet Warm
The Sun-Earth Heating System
●​ Solar radiation (light mostly with UV rays) hits Earth, warming
○​ ⅓ of radiation reflected back into space
○​ Radiation Hits surface-> reflected back into space, other absorbed
●​ Earth sends radiation (infrared light) back to atmosphere
○​ Absorbed by gases, reemitted back to earth (Greenhouse Effect)
 ●​ Normally equal input and output, but small fluctuations can c Bause incoming to be greater than,
changing temp
The Gases that Cause the Greenhouse Effect
●​ Most common: Water vapor, CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs
●​ Greenhouse Warming Potential- how much a molecule can contribute to global warming relative
to CO2
○​ Based on how much energy it absorbs and how long it says in atmosphere
○​ Water least, CO2=1, Methan x25, N2O x300, CFCs x13000
●​ Overall contribution also includes concentration (CO2 highest, most greenhouse effect)
Sources of Greenhouse Gases are Both Natural and Anthropogenic
Natural Sources:
Volcanic Eruptions
●​ Add CO2, ash (reflects solar radiation and cools Earth)
Decomposition and Digestion
●​ Aerobic Decomposition: CO2; Anaerobic Decomposition: Methane
●​ Certain animals digesting plant matter: needs bacteria which produces methane (termites)
Denitrification
●​ Denitrification in low oxygen environments-> N2O
Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
●​ Water released by plants or evaporation (H2O)
Anthropogenic Sources:
Burning Fossil Fuels
●​ Burning releases CO2, some more than others (coal v. natural gas)
●​ Also releases soot, can land on ice and cause it to absorb more energy by lowering albedo
○​ Melting and more concentration of particulates-> more absorption (Positve feedback loop
Agricultural Practices
●​ Purposely flooded fields for crops like rice: Methane, N2O (little oxygen)
●​ Fertilizers, manures, crops that fixate nitrogen can eventually create more N2O
●​ Livestock- release of methane, manure decomposition releases CO2 or methane
Deforestation
●​ Forests removed cannot take up CO2, net increase of CO2 in atmosphere
●​ Burning wood releases more, eventually decomposes, releasing CO2
Landfills
●​ Little oxygen->methane
Industrial Production of New Greenhouse Chemicals
●​ New industrial chemicals may be harmful (CFCs, HCFCs)
Ranking the Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gas
●​ Methane: Digestion from livestock, landfills, production of natural gas and petroleum products
●​ Nitrous Oxide: agricultural soil with nitrogen from fertilizer, combustion, industrial production of
fertilizer and others
●​ CO2: industrial process and burning of fossil fuels
Module 63: The Evidence for Global Warming
●​ Comparison of gas concentrations and temperatures
CO2 Concentrations Have Been Increasing for the Past 7 Decades
 ●​ IPCC- group of scientists working to access climate change and effects
Measuring CO2 Concentrations in the Atmosphere
●​ Keeling Curve- CO2 Concentrations vary seasonally and are increasing yearly
○​ Seasonal: spring, trees turn green and absorb more CO2, bodies of water warming->
algae and plants photosynthesize
■​ Take up CO2, in fall stop and CO2 increases
CO2 Emissions Differ Among Nations
●​ Developing Countries greatest, then developed (total)
○​ EX: India, China, US
●​ Per Capita- Saudi Arabia, US, Canada
Global Temperatures Have Steadily Increased Since Records Began in 1880
●​ Global Temperatures increased by 1.1 C since 1880
○​ Not evenly distributed around globe: extreme north increasing 1-4 C
Scientists Can Estimate Global Temperatures and Greenhouse Gas Concentrations for over 500,000 Years
●​ No actual records, but can estimate using species composition and air bubbles
Changing Species Compositions
●​ Protist species: Foraminifera- leave hard shells after death, preferring specific temperatures
○​ When find foraminifera, can guess likely temperature of ocean during period
Air Bubbles in Ancient Ice
●​ Snow compresses to make ice-> traps air bubbles
●​ Scientists extract tubes and determine associated time period
●​ Oxygen (Temperature): test isotopes of O-16 and O-18, warmer temps have O-18 more
●​ CO2: concentrations, methane and N2O too
○​ All varied, but after 1800 starts sharp increase (Industrial Revolution)
○​ Sharp changes relate to ice ages start or end, caused by slight shifts in Earth position to
Sun
Greenhouse Gases Versus Increased Solar Radiation
●​ Changes in Temp Possibilities: Increased Solar Radiation, Increased CO2
●​ Checking CO2: periods of more CO2 will cause greater increases in temp
○​ Winter, at night, in Arctic( no trees) -> Arctic works
●​ Checking Solar Radiation: more sun= more hotter (summer, day, low latitudes, cause these times
to warm more)
○​ Less consistent than CO2
Climate Models and the Prediction of Future Global Temperatures
●​ Computer models can more accurately (than humans) predict changes using climate models,
showing increasing temperatures depending on CO2 output
Feedbacks Can Increase or Decrease the Impact of Climate Change
●​ Positive Feedback- increases and amplifies change; Negative- dampens change
Positive Feedbacks
●​ Higher temps-> more decomposition-> releases more CO2 from soil-> higher temps
●​ Increasing temp-> melts permafrost-> standing water little oxygen to decompose-> methane
release
Negative Feedbacks
●​ Increase in CO2=> more plants grow-> takes up CO2
 ●​ Increase in CO2-> Oceans absorb more CO2 (causes ocean acidification)
Limitations of Feedbacks
●​ Other limiting factors: Soils only hold so much CO2 (less carbon, lower rate)
○​ CO2 uptake by plants limited by other nutrients
Module 64: Consequences of Global Climate Change
Global Climate Change is Already Affecting the Environment
●​ Warming temps
Polar Ice
●​ Reduction of Ice Cap size in North Pole (overall trend of 13% decline)
●​ Ice thinning-> vulnerable to more melting
●​ “Benefits”- new shorted shipping routes, fossil fuels under ice exposed
Glaciers
●​ Glaciers- lose aesthetic value, also source of water in spring as starts to melt
Permafrost
●​ Lakes can drain further into ground-> become smaller
●​ Effect infrastructure that relies on hard ground of permafrost
●​ Massive decomposition creating methane
Sea Levels
●​ Melting glaciers and ice sheets adds water, temperature expands water-> sea levels rise
●​ Endanger coastal cities and islands, flooding
Global Climate is Already Affecting Organisms
●​ Changing timings of blooms, reproduction, changing behavior, ability to move to more hospitable
habitats
●​ Growing, flowering season earlier, migrations earlier, ranges expanding toward poles
○​ Fragmentation can cause species to not be able to move to more favorable climates
●​ Ex: Pied Flycatcher- caterpillar source peaks 2 weeks earlier than normal, no food for babies
●​ Ex Corals- bleaching where they eject mutualistic algae
●​ Arctic: Polar bears unable to go on ice to kill seals (other animals cannot feed off of the
carcasses)
○​ Threatened now, agreements banning hunting, trade
Global Climate Change is Predicted to Have Additional Effects in the Future
Heat Waves
●​ Temperature increase- hot weather more frequent
○​ Increase demand for cooling and energy, death, damage to crops
Cold Spells
●​ Fewer cold days and freezing: less deaths, decrease in crop damage, more areas able for
agriculture
○​ Less heating needed
●​ Range of some invasive species may increase: Hemlock woody adelgid
○​ Kill off hemlock trees in warm areas
Precipitation Patterns
●​ Areas can receive more or less rain
○​ More: recharging aquifers, higher crop yields
■​ Bad: flooding, landslides, erosion
 ○​ Less: harder to grow crops, harder to obtain water
Storm Intensity
●​ Warmer waters: hurricanes worse
Ocean Currents
●​ Thermohaline Circulation: brings warmer water up to Europe, colder water down to equator
●​ Melting of ice can dilute salt water and stop it from sinking: shut down circulation, making
Europe colder
Effects on Humans
●​ Ppl rebuilding homes or moving away from coastlines and rising sea levels
○​ Natural disasters (flooding, saltwater intrusion)
●​ Warming: diseases can become more widespread, heat waves
○​ Ex: mosquitos with West Nile virus and malaria
●​ Economic Consequences: tourism (Alps with less snow)
○​ Coral reefs bleached
Assessing Uncertainty
●​ Global warming is true
International Agreements Address Climate Change
●​ Global Issue- internationally need to work together
●​ Kyoto Protocol- 1997 agreement to set goal for global emissions of greenhouse gasses from all
industrialized nations to be reduced by 5.2% lower than 1990 levels by 2012
○​ Precautionary
●​ Changing energy sources to greener sources
●​ Carbon Sequestration- taking cO2 from atmosphere
○​ Storing in soil, forests
●​ US decides not to join Kyoto Protocol:
○​ Hurt financially, did not stop India or China, needs more scientific evidence
●​ EPA starts regulating greenhouse gasses and how to reduce CO2
○​ Fuel efficiency car average raised
●​ Kyoto Protocol: most decreasing including US, Australia increased by 80%
●​ Paris Climate Agreement: pledge by 195 countries to keep global warming less than 2 C above
pre industrial levels
WTS: Cities, States, and Businesses Lead the Way to Reduce Greenhouse Gases
●​ US Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement- US mayors agree to reduce city ggg
output by 7%
●​ Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative: controls regional production of greenhouse gases
●​ Companies decide to reduce emissions, scientific research and tech, investing
Chapter 20: Sustainability, Economics, and Equity
Case Study: Assembly Plants, Free Trade, and Sustainable Systems
●​ Maquiadora/assembly plants along US and Mexico border- helps sustain good trade
●​ Bad: industrial pollution, unsafe working conditions
○​ Dump toxic chemicals and heavy metals, no sewage treatment, social abuse
○​ Money mostly goes to foreign country where factory is owned by
Module 65: Sustainability and Economics
●​ Trying to fulfill needs and well-being takes resources
Achieving Sustainability Requires Both Sound Environmental Science and Economic Analysis
●​ Economics- study of how humans allocate scarce resources in the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services
Supply, Demand, and the Market
●​ Market Economy: Balance Price and Demand
○​ Increase quantity/supply, decrease price
○​ Decrease quantity/supply, increase price
●​ Fossil Fuels- only shows “price in money”, leaves out externalities unless there is something like
tax to account for it
○​ Raising price, lowering demand
Measuring Wealth and Productivity
●​ To examine health of an economy
GDP
●​ Gross Domestic Product- value of all the products and services produced by a country in one year
○​ Things it doesn’t show: healthiness (sickness-> growth in medical industry), externalities
like pollution
●​ Increasing GDP- population growth slows, reducing environmental degradation, can put
environmental conservatism higher on task list
The GPI
●​ Genuine Progress Indicator- measure of economic status including personal consumption,
income distribution, levels of higher education, resource depletion, pollution, health of population
●​ Most developed countries: overall wealth when adding in human and environmental welfare
remained constant
The Kuznets Curve
●​ As per capita income increases, first go up a curve increasing environmental degradation, then
after turning point environment improves
●​ Controversial: not easily applicable to all situations
○​ Technology Transfer- less developed countries adopting technological innovations
developed in wealthy countries
■​ Leapfrogging- less developed countries using new tech without first precursor
tech
●​ Can use cell phones without old landline phones
●​ Photovoltaic cells- can help reduce fossil fuel dependency
Economic Health Depends on the Availability of Natural Capital and Basic Human Welfare
●​ Natural Capital- resources of the planet
●​ Human Capital- human knowledge and abilities
●​ Manufactured Capital- all goods and infrastructure that humans produce
Environmental and Ecological Economics
●​ Market Failure- when the economic system does not account for all costs (doesn’t hold ppl
accountable to degradation)
●​ Environmental Economics- subfield of economics which examines costs and benefits of
environmental regulations and policies
 ●​ Ecological Economics- study of economics as a component of ecological systems
●​ Valuation- assign monetary value to intangible benefits and natural capital
○​ Ex: location of a dam, species of animal
●​ Economics can assign value to externalities and incorporate it into cost of production
Sustainable Economic Systems
●​ Current Economics System: maximize using resources, energy, human labor and generate lots of
waste
●​ More Sustainable: use more ecosystem services and less resource extraction and energy with
waste stream recycling to reduce waste
○​ Renewable energy, lessen negative externalities reuse/recycle more products
●​ Cradle-to-cradle: some waste disposal, but most used as raw material again to create new material
Module 66: Regulations and Equity
●​ Environmental Equity- freedom from exposure to environmental harm for all people
Agencies, Laws, and Regulations are Designed to Protect Our Natural and Human Capital
●​ How people view the world: important factor that shapes policy making
Environmental Worldviews and Regulatory Approaches
Worldviews
●​ Environmental Worldview- worldview that encompasses how one thinks the world works, now
one views one’s role in the world, and what tone believes to be proper environmental behavior
●​ Anthropocentric Worldview- worldview focused on human welfare and well-being
○​ Stewardship- careful and responsible management and care for Earth and its resources
●​ Biocentric Worldview- life-centered view and holds that humans are just one of many species
which all have equal intrinsic value
○​ Some believe should protect one, others believe all
●​ Ecocentric Worldview- Earth centered worldviews that places equal value on all living organisms
and ecosystems in which they live
The Precautionary Principle
●​ Ppl downplay scientific evidence using scientific uncertainty
●​ Companies avoid implementing measures to mitigate environmental harm using scientific
uncertainty
●​ Precautionary Principle comes into play: even though scientific uncertainty, should still
implement just in case
World Agencies
●​ United Nations (UN)- global institution dedicated to world peace between nations
○​ Created 4 organizations relating to environment
The United Nations Environment Programme
●​ UNEP- program of UN responsible for gathering environmental information, conducting
research, assessing problems
○​ Global Environmental Outlook reports, negotiated treaties like Montreal Protocol
The World Bank
●​ World Bank- global institution that provides technical and financial assistance to developing
countries with the objectives of reducing poverty and promoting growth especially in poorest
countries
The World Health Organization
 ●​ WHO- global institution dedicated to improvement of human health by monitoring and assessing
health trends and providing medical advice to countries
The United Nations Development Programme
●​ UNDP- international program that advocates change that will help ppl find better life through
development
○​ Poverty reduction, environment/energy issues, democratic governance
Other Agencies
●​ NGOs- non governmental organizations that help
US Agencies
●​ Santa Barbara Oil Spill and Rachel Carson Silent Spring bring new attention and environment
and shift US outlook
The EPA
●​ EPA- oversees all governmental efforts relating to environment and works to enforce regulations
around them
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
●​ OSHA- agency of Department of labor that is responsible for enforcement of health and safety
regulations
○​ Prevent illnesses, injuries, death in workplace (ex: limiting chemicals and pollutants)
The Department of Energy
●​ DOE- advances energy and economic security of US
○​ Goals: Scientific Discovery, innovation and environmental responsibility
There are Several Approaches to Measuring and Achieving Sustainability
●​ Multiple indexes to evaluate sustainability
Measuring Human Status
●​ Measurements that include noneconomic parameters like health or level of education
The Human Development Index
●​ HDI- measurement index combining health expectancy, knowledge and education, and standard
of living (per capita GDP and purchasing power)
○​ Ranks countries in terms of development
The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index
●​ MPI- index that measures education, health, and living standards to measure poverty levels
The Policy Process in the US
●​ Should have scientific indicators to show which is best for environment
●​ Five Steps to Create Policy:
○​ Problem identification, policy formation, policy adoption, policy implementation, policy
evaluation
Legislative Approaches to Encourage Sustainability
●​ Command and Control Approach- strategy for pollution control that involves regulations and
enforcement mechanisms
●​ Incentive-based Approach- constructs financial and other incentives for lowering emissions
based on profits and benefits
●​ Green Tax- tax placed on environmentally harmful activities or emissions in an attempt to
internalize some of the externalities that may be involved in the production or life cycle of a
product/activity
 ○​ Can also gives rebates or tax credits as benefit to companies with green things
●​ Triple Bottom Line- approach to sustainability that considers 3 factors: economic, environmental,
and social
○​ Intersection of 3 factors is sustainability-> all three are equal
US Policies for Promoting Sustainability
●​ National Environmental Policy Act- enhance environmental, monitor it with toolks, The EIA
(environmental impact assessment
●​ OSHA- prevent harm from work
●​ ESA (endangered species act)- protect species from extinction
●​ Clean Air Act- promote clean air
●​ Clean Water Act
●​ Resource Conservation and Recovery Act- govern tracking and disposal of solid and hazardous
waste
●​ CERCLA (Superfund)- force or implement cleanup of hazardous waste sites
Two Major Challenges of Our Time are Reducing poverty and Stewarding the Environment
●​ Jobs vs the environment
Poverty and Inequality
●​ ⅙ of ppl in unsanitary conditions; 1/10 below international poverty line
●​ UN’s MDG (Millennium Development Goals) set of things to reach including eradicating
extreme poverty, education, gender equality, environmental sustainability
●​ Ex: Dr. Maathai and the Green Belt- paying ppl to plant trees, eventually harvest and use for fuel
Environmental Justice
●​ Environmental Equity- everyone has equal distribution and access to Earth’s resources
○​ More ppl wanting better quality of life- need more resources
●​ Inequitable distribution of pollution and environmental degradation
●​ Environmental Justice- equal enforcement of environmental laws and elimination of disparities in
exposure to pollutants and other environmental harms between ethnic and socioeconomic groups
Individual and Community Action
●​ Individuals trying to help without any assistance or laws
○​ Creating green jobs, nonprofits
Working Toward Sustainability: Sustainable Housing, Sustainable Living
●​ India architect- design Aranya Township
○​ Direct sunlight during parts of the day, hottest times trees and plants blocked sun
●​ Housing made of low environmental impact materials
●​ Resiliency plan to make sure they were less impacted by climate change
Science Applied 8: How Can We Bring Back Biodiversity
●​ New Zealand- no land mammals (except bats) at first
○​ Ppl introduced rats, opossums, weasels-> birds driven to extinction
●​ Announce plan to rid of all of them by 2050
Zealandia-the First Step
●​ Zealandia- sanctuary without the invasive species-> increased biodiversity of native birds
●​ Plan: Using poisons and self resetting traps to kill many rats
Opposition to the Predator-Free 2050 Plan
●​ Opponents: killing of thousands of animals not way to conserve the environment
 ○​ Not their fault they were here
●​ Should just live with it- already part of ecosystem for a long time
●​ Does not address other non native species and dogs and cats
Looking forward
●​ Needs support of massive public
●​ Points:
○​ Saves money from crop losses due to these invasive species
○​ Ecotourism may bring in a lot of money in the future