ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Electrical Circuit Elements

Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on
the ability of delivering power. Active Elements can deliver power to other elements,
which are present in an electric circuit. Sometimes, they may absorb the power like
passive elements. That means active elements have the capability of both delivering
and absorbing power.

Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.

Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however

they can absorb power. That means these elements either dissipate power in the form
of heat or store energy in the form of either magnetic field or electric field.

Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements

We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their

characteristic to obey the property of linearity. Linear Elements are the elements that
show a linear relationship between voltage and current. Examples: Resistors,
Inductors, and capacitors.
Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between
voltage and current. Examples: Practical Voltage sources and current sources,
Diode.

Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements

Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based

on the direction of current flows through the network elements. Bilateral Elements
are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same
impedance in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and
capacitors. Elements which behave differently in both directions are called as
Unilateral elements.
Egs. Diode, UJT
 Voltage Source
Voltage sources are the elements which supply power to the load at constant
voltage. Voltage sources are two types.
i) Independent Voltage Source
ii) Dependent Voltage Source
Independent Voltage Source
If the value of the voltage source is not a function of any variable, then the voltage
source is called independent voltage source. Symbolic representation of
independent voltage source is given below.

Dependent Voltage Source

If the value of the voltage source is a function of any variable(branch voltages
or branch currents), then the voltage source is called dependent voltage source.
Symbolic representation of dependent voltage source is given below.
Practical Voltage Source
In a practical voltage source, there will be a slight drop in the terminal voltage of
the voltage source. Therefore, a practical voltage source can be represented as an
ideal voltage source in series with its internal resistance.

Current Source
Current sources are the elements which supply power to the load at constant
current. Current sources are two types.
i) Independent Current Source
ii) Dependent Current Source
Independent Current Source
If the value of the current source is not a function of any variable, then the
current source is called independent current source. Symbolic representation of
independent current source is given below.
Dependent Current Source
If the value of the current source is a function of any variable(branch voltages
or branch currents), then the current source is called dependent current source.
Symbolic representation of dependent current source is given below.

Practical Current Source

In a practical current source, there will be a slight drop in the terminal current of
the current source. Therefore, a practical current source can be represented as an
ideal current source in parallel with its internal resistance.
Resistor
The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force. This
opposition, due to the collisions between electrons and between electrons and other
atoms in the material, which converts electrical energy into another form of energy
such as heat, is called the resistance of the material. The unit of measurement of
resistance is the ohm, for which the symbol is Ω, the capital Greek letter omega. The
circuit symbol for resistance is shown in figure below.

Resistance is the property of a material due to which it opposes the flow of

electric current through it. Certain materials offer very little opposition to the flow
of electric current and are called conductors, e.g. metals, acids and salt solutions.
Certain materials offer very high resistance to the flow of electric current and are
called insulators, e.g. mica, glass, rubber, Bakelite, etc.

The SI unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol W. A

conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if a potential difference of one volt
across its terminals causes a current of one ampere to flow through it.

The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors:

(i) It is directly proportional to its length.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
𝒍 𝒍
Hence, 𝑹 ∝ or 𝑹 = 𝝆 where l is length of the conductor, A is the cross
𝑨 𝑨
sectional area and 𝜌 is a constant known as the specific resistance, or resistivity of
the [Link] Resistance The specific resistance, or the resistivity of a
material, is the resistance offered by unit length of the material of unit cross section.
If the length is in metres and the area of cross section in square metres, then the
resistivity is expressed in ohm metres (Ωm). Resistivity of some of the materials are
shown in figure below.
Capacitor

It is a passive circuit element that stores electrical energy in its electric field
and this is why it is known as energy storing device. It consists of two metallic plates
having area of 𝐴 m2. A dielectric material with dielectric constant of 𝜀𝑟 is placed
between the two plates. The distance between the two plates of the capacitor is
denoted by 𝑑. The symbol of a capacitor is shown in figure below.

𝑨∈
Parallel plate can be expressed as 𝑪 = where 𝐴 is the area of the metallic
𝒅
plate, 𝜀 is the permittivity of the dielectric material and 𝑑 represents separation
between the plates. A time varying voltage is applied across the capacitor as shown
in figure below.

Charge starts accumulating on the plates of the capacitor and it depends on the
applied voltage. By increasing voltage across the capacitor charge on the plates will
increase linearly and vice versa.
𝑞 ∝ 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 where 𝐶 is the constant of proportionality.
Differentiating both sides of the above equation with respect to time, we obtain
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉𝐶
=𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉𝐶
= 𝑖 .Therefore, i= 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1 1
𝑑𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 or 𝑉𝐶 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
Inductor and Faraday’s Law
An Inductor is basically a coil of 𝑁 turns as shown in figure below.

A simple straight conductor also behaves like inductor but its inductive effect is very
small as compared to a coil having 𝑁 turns. When a time varying voltage is applied
across the inductor, current starts flowing and this current generates time varying
magnetic flux of ∅ weber in the vicinity of the inductor. This time varying magnetic
flux can be calculated with the equation.
𝐿 𝑁∅
𝜙 = 𝑖 and the Inductance, L is given by 𝐿 = .
𝑁 𝑖
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑖
Differentiating both the side we get 𝑁 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The variation in the strength of the magnetic field will induce some voltage across
this inductor, which is given by the mathematical model of Faraday’s Law.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑖
The voltage across the inductor, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑁 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 1
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑖 = ∫ 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
 Ohm’s Law
According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference across any two points on a
conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided the
physical conditions such as material length, cross sectional area and temperature of
the conductor remain constant.

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction in an electric circuit is
zero.

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of potential rises and potential drops around any closed path in
an electric circuit is zero.
Question 1
Find the currents in all the branches of the network shown in figure.

Solution
Let us name various junctions and mark various currents
Let IAF=x
Then, IFE=x-30, IED=x+40, IDC=x-80, ICB=x-20, IBA=x-80
Apply KVL around the loop
-0.02x-0.01(x-30)-0.01(x+40)-0.03(x-80)-0.01(x-20)-0.02(x-80)=0
Simplifying we get, x=41 A
IAF=41 A, IFE=11 A, IED=81 A, IDC=39 A, ICB=21 A, and IBA=-39 A

Question 2
Find the potential difference between the terminals x and y in the circuit given below.

Solution
2𝑉
Current in first loop, 𝐼1 = (2+3)Ω = 0.4 𝐴
4𝑉
Current in second loop, 𝐼2 = (3+5)Ω = 0.5 𝐴
Potential 𝑉𝑥𝑦 = 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉𝑥𝑃 + 𝑉𝑃𝑄 − 𝑉𝑄𝑦 = 3𝐼1 + 4 − 3𝐼2 = 3 ∗ 0.4 + 4 − 3 ∗
0.5 = 3.7 𝑉

Question 3
For the circuit of Figure
a. Determine V2 using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
b. Determine I.
c. Find R1 and R3.
Answer
a. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (clockwise direction):
-E + V3 + V2 + V1 = 0
or E = V1 + V2 + V3
and V2 = E - V1 - V3 = 54 V - 18 V - 15 V = 21 V
𝑉 21
b. I= 2 = =3 A
𝑅2 7
𝑉1 18
c. 𝑅1 = = = 6Ω
𝐼 3
𝑉3 15
𝑅3 = = = 5Ω
𝐼 3

Time Domain Response of RL Circuit

Let us take a simple RL network subjected to external DC excitation as shown in
the figure. The circuit consists of a battery whose voltage is V in series with a
switch, a resistor R, and an inductor L. The switch is closed at t = 0.
 When the switch is closed current tries to change in the inductor and hence a
voltage VL(t) is induced across the terminals of the Inductor in opposition to the
applied voltage. The rate of change of current decreases with time which allows
current to build up to it’s maximum value.
It is evident that the current i(t) is zero before t = [Link] we have to find out
current i(t)for time t >0. We will find i(t) for time t >0 by writing the appropriate
circuit equation and then solving it by separation of the variables and integration.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the above circuit we get :
V = vR(t)+ vL(t)
i (t) = 0 for t <0 and
Using the standard relationships of Voltage and Current for the Resistors and
Inductors we can rewrite the above equations as
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 for 𝑡 > 0 or
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑉
We can wright + 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
The solution for the first order differential equation of this form has two parts.
𝑅
The natural solution or complementary function can be written as 𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
Where K is a constant to be determined.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉
The forced response or particular solution is 𝑖𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ∫ 𝑒 + 𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡=𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ∗
𝐿
𝑅
+ 𝑡 𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑒 𝐿 ∗ ∗ 𝑅⁄ =
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅

𝑅
𝑉
Complete solution, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) + 𝑖𝑃 (𝑡)= 𝐾𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 +
𝑅
Current through an inductor does not change instantaneously.
Therefor, 𝑖(0 −) = 𝑖(0 +) = 0
V V
Therefore, 0= Ke0 + =K+
R R
V
Hence, K=-
R
𝑅 𝑅
V 𝑉 𝑉
Current, 𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 + = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
R 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝑉
The time instant at which current reaches (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) =0.632 is called as the
𝑅 𝑅
𝐿
time constant of the circuit. Time constant 𝜏, of series RL circuit is .
𝑅
L
τ=
R
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 − 𝑡 − 𝑡
Voltage across the resistor, 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 ∗ (1 − 𝑒 ) = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 𝐿 )
𝐿
𝑅
 𝑅
𝑉 − 𝑡
𝑑( (1−𝑒 𝐿 ))
𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑉
Voltage across the inductor, 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)= 𝐿 =𝐿∗ =𝐿∗ ∗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
− 𝑡 𝑅 − 𝑡
−𝑒 *− = 𝑉𝑒
𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
At time constant τ, 𝑣𝐿 (𝜏) = 𝑉𝑒 −1 = 0.368𝑉
At time constant τ, 𝑣𝑅 (𝜏) = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.632 𝑉

Transient current response

Transient voltages across the resistor and inductor

Time Domain Response of RC Circuit

A series RC circuit with external DC excitation V volts connected through a switch
is shown in the figure below.
 If the capacitor is not charged initially i.e. it’s voltage is zero, then after the
switch S is closed at time t=0, the capacitor voltage builds up gradually and reaches
it’s steady state value of V volts after a finite time. The charging current will be
maximum initially (since initially capacitor voltage is zero and voltage across a
capacitor cannot change instantaneously) and then it will gradually comedown as
the capacitor voltage starts building up. The current and the voltage during such
charging periods are called Transient Current and Transient Voltage.
Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write
Supply voltage, 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
1
Voltage across the capacitor, 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶
1
Therefore, 𝑉 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑖(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
Differentiate with respect to time, we get 0 = 𝑅 ∗ + 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
Or + 𝑖(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
1
Solution i(t) is of the form 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
At the time of switching capacitor acts like a short circuit
𝑉
Therefore, 𝑖(0 +) =
𝑅
𝑉 0
Hence, = Ke =K
𝑅
1
𝑉
Current through the circuit, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
𝑅
1 1
𝑉
Voltage across the resistor, 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 =V𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
𝑅
1
1 1 𝑉
Voltage across the capacitor, 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾2 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾2
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅
1 1
1 𝑉 1
Hence, 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = ∗ ∗ 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 ∗ −1 + 𝐾2 = −𝑉𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 + 𝐾2
𝐶 𝑅 ⁄𝑅𝐶
since voltage across the capacitor does not change instantaneously, 𝑣𝐶 (0 +)=0, we
can write -V𝑒 −0 + 𝐾2 =0
 1
Therefore, 𝐾2 = 𝑉 or 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 )
Time constant of series RC circuit is RC
𝑉 𝑉
At time constant 𝜏, 𝑖(𝜏) = 𝑒 −1 = 0.368
𝑅 𝑅
At time constant 𝜏, 𝑣𝑅 (𝜏) = 0.368 𝑉
At time constant 𝜏, 𝑣𝐶 (𝜏)=𝑉(1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.632 𝑉

Current transient

Voltage across the resistor and capacitor

Question

Given the circuit of Figure below, assume the switch is closed at time t=0. Determine
the charging time constant, the amount of time after the switch is closed before the
circuit reaches steady-state, and the inductor voltage and current
at t=0, t=2 microseconds and t=1 millisecond. Assume the inductor is initially
uncharged.
Answer

400𝜇𝐻⁄
τ=L/R= 150Ω=2.667 μS
Steady-state will be reached in five time constants, or approximately 13.33
microseconds.
𝑅 𝑅
V 𝑉 𝑉 9
𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 + = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )= (1 − 𝑒 −375000𝑡 )
R 𝑅 𝑅 150
𝑅
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)= 𝑉𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 =9𝑒 −375000𝑡
At t=0 μS ,
i(0 μS)= 0A
𝑣𝐿 (0 𝜇𝑆)= 9 V
At t=2 μS ,
i(2 μS)=0.06(1- 𝑒 −0.75 )=0.031 A
𝑣𝐿 (2 𝜇𝑆)=9𝑒 −0.75 = 4.251 𝑉Since
At t=1ms
Since 1ms>13.33 μS, circuit already is in steady state
𝑉 9
i(1 mS)= = = 0.06 𝐴
𝑅 150
At 1mS, 𝑣𝐿 (2 𝜇𝑆)=0V since inductor will act as short circuit in steady state
condition.

Representation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

Wave forms which change its polarity (direction) alternately are called as
alternating wave forms. Some examples are given below
Cycle- One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity
is termed a cycle.
Frequency -The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is known as
its frequency. It is denoted by f and is measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
(c/s).
Time Period- The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called its time period. It is denoted by T and is measured in seconds.
Amplitude -The maximum positive or negative value of an alternating quantity is
called the amplitude.
Phase The phase of an alternating quantity is the time that has elapsed since the
quantity has last passed through zero point of reference.
Phase Difference- This term is used to compare the phases of two alternating
quantities. Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase when they reach their
maximum and zero values at the same time. Their maximum value may be
different in magnitude.

vA = Vm sin ωt
vB = Vm sin (ωt + Φ)
Here, the quantity B leads A by a phase angle Φ.

Average Value of Sinusoidal Waveform

Consider the sinusoidal wave form given in figure below.
 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 , 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋
Average value is calculated for half cycle since average value for the full
cycle will be zero.
1 𝜋 𝑉 2𝑉
Average voltage, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫0 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃= 𝑚 [− (cos 𝜋 − cos 0)] = 𝑚
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

RMS Value of Sinusoidal Waveform

Consider the sinusoidal wave form given in figure below.

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 , 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋

R.M.S (Root mean square value) of the signal can be calculated as
2 𝜋
𝜋
1 𝑉𝑚 ∫ [1−cos 2𝜃]𝑑𝜃
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫0 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃=√ 0 =
𝜋 2𝜋
1 sin 2𝜋 sin 0 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 √ [(𝜋 − ) − (0 − )] =
2𝜋 2 2 √2

Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor: It is defined as the ratio of maximum value

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
to rms value of the given quantity. Peak factor, 𝑘𝑝 =
𝑅.𝑀.𝑆. 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Question 1
An alternating current takes 3.375 ms to reach 15 A for the first time after becoming
instantaneously zero. The frequency of the current is 40 Hz. Find the maximum value
of the alternating current. Also, determine the average and r.m.s values of the
current.
Answer

i = 15 A at t = 3.375 ms
f = 40 Hz
i = Im sin 2π f t
15 = Im sin (2*π*40*3.375*10-3)
15 = Im *0.75
15
Im = = 20 𝐴
0.75
2𝐼𝑚 2∗20
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =12.73 A
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 20
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = =14.14 A
√2 √2

Question 2
An alternating current of 60 Hz frequency has a maximum value of 110 A.
Calculate (i) time required to reach 90 A after the instant current is zero and
1
increasing positively, and (ii) its value second after the instant current is zero
600
and its value decreasing thereafter.

Solution
F=60Hz
Im=110 A
i) Time required to reach 90 A after the instant current is zero and increasing
positively.
i = Im sin 2π f t
90=110 sin 2π*60*t
Sin 21600 t=0.818
T=2,54 ms
ii)
𝑇 1 1 1
T= + = + = 0.01 𝑠
2 600 2𝑓 600
i=110 sin 2π*60*0.01 =64.66 A

Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Waves

Phasor
A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in an anticlockwise direction at a
constant angular velocity ω. The length of a phasor is equal to the maximum value
of the alternating quantity, and the angular velocity is equal to the angular velocity
of alternating quantity.
As shown in Figure below, consider a phasor OP = Im, where Im is the
maximum value of the alternating current. Let this phasor rotate in an anticlockwise
direction at a uniform angular velocity of ω radians/second. The projection of the
phasor OP on the Y-axis at any instant gives the instantaneous value of that
alternating current.

OM = OP sin ωt
= Im sin ωt = i
Therefore instantaneous current i can be represented as 𝐢 = 𝐈 < ±𝛉 where I
represent the r.m.s value of the current and Φ represent the instantaneous angular
positin. This form of representation is called as polar form of representation. The
above can also be represented as 𝒊 = 𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 ± 𝒋 𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. This representation is
called as rectangular form of representation. 𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 is the real part of the current
and ±𝒋 𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 is the imaginary part of the current. The operator j is used in
rectangular form. It is used to indicate anticlockwise rotation of a phasor through
90°. Mathematically, 𝑗 = √−1 .

Phasor Diagram using rms Values: Sinusoidal alternating currents and voltages
can be represented by phasors. Electrical measuring instruments like ammeters and
voltmeters are calibrated to read the rms values of ac quantities. Hence, instead of
using maximum values, it is more convenient to draw phasor diagrams using rms
values of alternating quantities. However, such a phasor diagram will not generate a
sine wave of proper amplitude unless the length of the phasor is multiplied by 2 .

Question
𝜋 𝜋
Two currents i1 and i2 are given by 𝑖1 = 10 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) and 𝑖2 = 8 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ).
4 3
Find i1+i2 and express the result in the form of 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅).

Solution
Current i1 in polar form is 10 < 450

Current i2 in polar form is 8 < −600

10 < 450 = 10 cos 45 + 𝑗 sin 45=7.07+j 7.07

8 < −600 = 8 cos(−60) + 𝑗8 sin(−60)=4-j6.93

i1+i2 = (7.07+j 7.07)+( 4-j6.93) = 11.07 +j 0.14 =11.07< 0.7250

 Pure Resistive (R) Circuit
Consider a pure resistor R connected across an alternating voltage source v as
shown in figure below. Let the alternating voltage be 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑣 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉
The alternating current i is given by 𝑖 = = 𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑚 .
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
From the voltage and current equation, it is clear that the current is in phase with
the voltage in a purely resistive circuit.
The voltage and current waveforms are shown in Figure below.

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure below. The voltage and current phasors are
drawn in phase and there is no phase difference.

Impedance: It is the resistance offered to the flow of current in an ac circuit. In a

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
purely resistive circuit. 𝑍 = = 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅
𝐼 𝐼𝑚 ⁄𝑅
Phase Difference: Since the voltage and current are in phase with each other, the
phase difference is zero. Φ=00.
Power Factor: It is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and
current phasors.
Power factor =cos Φ=cos 00=1
𝑉 𝐼
Instantaneous power p is given by p = vi=𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝑚 (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
p= − cos 2𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = since the average value of the fluctuating part of the power is zero.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = =VI where V and I are the RMS values of voltage and
2 √2 √2
current.
 Pure Inductor In an ac Circuit
Consider a pure inductor L connected across an alternating voltage v as shown in
Figure below.
Let the alternating voltage be v = Vm sin ω t.

1
The alternating current i is given by 𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐿
1 𝑉 𝑉 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡= 𝑚 [− cos 𝜔𝑡] = 𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿 2 2
Waveforms: The voltage and current waveforms are shown below.

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure below. Here, voltage V is chosen as

reference phasor. Current I is drawn such that it lags behind V by 90°.

𝑉<00
Impedance, 𝑍 = = |𝑋𝐿 | < 900 = 𝑗𝑋𝐿 where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐼<−900
Power Factor : It is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and
current phasors.
Power factor=cos(900)=0 (lag)
Instantaneous powers p is given by p = vi=−𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑉 𝐼
− 𝑚 𝑚 sin 2𝜔𝑡.
2
Pavg for one full cycle is zero.

Pure Capacitor In an ac Circuit

Consider a pure capacitor C connected across an alternating voltage v as shown in
Figure below
Let the alternating voltage be v = Vm sin ω t.

𝑑𝑣
The alternating current i is given by 𝑖 = 𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝜋 𝜋
𝐶 =𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑑𝑡 2 2

Waveforms: The voltage and current waveforms are shown in Figure below.

Phasor Diagram: The phasor diagram is shown in Figure below. Here, voltage V
is chosen as reference phasor. Current I is drawn such that it leads V by 90°.

𝑉<00 1 1
Impedance, 𝑍 = = |𝑋𝐿 | < −900 = −𝑗𝑋𝐶 where 𝑋𝐶 = =
𝐼<+900 𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Instantaneous powers p is given by p = vi=𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 = sin 2𝜔𝑡.
2
Pavg for one full cycle is zero.
Power factor=cos(900)=0 (lead)

Series R-L Circuit

Figure shows a pure resistor R connected in series with a pure inductor L across an
alternating voltage v.
Let V and I be the rms values of applied voltage and current.
Potential difference across the resistor = VR = R I
Potential difference across the inductor = VL = XL I
The voltage VR is in phase with the current I whereas the voltage VL leads the
current I by 90°.
Since the same current flows through series circuit, I is taken as reference phasor.
Draw VR in phase with I .
Draw VL such that it leads I by 90°.
Add VR and VL by triangle law of vector addition such that V = VR +VL
Mark the angle between I and V as 𝜙.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗𝑉𝐿

It is clear from phasor diagram that current I lags behind applied voltage V by an
angle f (0° < 𝜙 < 90°).
Impedance
Dividing all the sides of voltage triangle by I, we get impedance triangle.

Impedance, 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
Magnitude of impedance, |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
 𝑋
Power factor angle, 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐿)
𝑅
Instantaneous current, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Wave form
Wave form of voltage and current are shown in figure.

Power
Instantaneous power is given by 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) =
cos 𝜙−cos(2𝜔𝑡−𝜙) 𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [ ] = 𝑚 𝑚 cos 𝜙 − 𝑚 𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
2 2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power consisting of a constant part cos 𝜙 and the fluctuating part
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙). Average value of the fluctuating part is zero.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Therefore, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙
2 √2 √2
Power Triangle
Multiplying all the sides of voltage triangle by I, we get power triangle.

𝑉𝑅 𝐼 + 𝑗𝑉𝐿 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐼 or P+jQ=S
Where P is called active power, Q is called reactive power and S is called apparent
power. Unit of active power is watt, unit of reactive power is VAR and unit of
apparent power of VA.
𝑃 𝑅 𝑉
Power factor of RL series circuit=cos 𝜙 = = = 𝑅
𝑆 𝑍 𝑉
In case of an R-L series circuit, the power factor is lagging in nature since the
current lags the voltage by an angle 𝜙.

Series R-C Circuit

Figure below shows a pure resistor R connected in series with a pure capacitor C
across an alternating voltage v.
Let V and I be the rms values of applied voltage and current.
Potential difference across the resistor = VR = R I
Potential difference across the capacitor = VC = XC I
The voltage VR is in phase with the current I whereas voltage VC lags
behind the current I by 90° as shown in figure.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑗𝑉𝑐 or 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑅 − 𝑗𝐼𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼 (𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 )

𝑽
Impedance, 𝑍 = = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝑰
Dividing all the sides of voltage triangle by I, we get impedance triangle.

Impedance, 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
Magnitude of impedance, |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2
−𝑋
Power factor angle, 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐶 )
𝑅
Instantaneous current, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Wave form
Wave form of voltage and current are shown in figure.
Power
Instantaneous power is given by 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) =
cos 𝜙−cos(2𝜔𝑡+𝜙) 𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [ ] = 𝑚 𝑚 cos 𝜙 − 𝑚 𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power consisting of a constant part cos 𝜙 and the fluctuating part
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙). Average value of the fluctuating part is zero.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Therefore, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙
2 √2 √2
Power Triangle
Multiplying all the sides of voltage triangle by I, we get power triangle.

𝑉𝑅 𝐼 − 𝑗𝑉𝐶 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐼 or P-jQ=S
Where P is called active power, Q is called reactive power and S is called apparent
power. Unit of active power is watt, unit of reactive power is VAR and unit of
apparent power of VA.
𝑃 𝑅 𝑉
Power factor of RL series circuit=cos 𝜙 = = = 𝑅
𝑆 𝑍 𝑉
In case of an R-C series circuit, the power factor is leading in nature since the
current leads the voltage by an angle 𝜙.
Series R-L-C Circuit
Figure below shows a pure resistor R, pure inductor L and pure capacitor C
connected in series across an alternating voltage v.
Let V and I be the rms values of the applied voltage and current.
Potential difference across the resistor = VR = R I
Potential difference across the inductor = VL = XL I
Potential difference across the capacitor = VC = XC I
The voltage VR is in phase with the current I , the voltage VL leads the current I by
90° and the voltage VC lags behind the current I by 90° as in phasor diagram
below.

XL>XC XC>XL

Two cases are shown in figure i) XL>XC & ii) XC>XL

Impedance
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 ) or 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝐼𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ))
𝑽
Impedance, 𝑍 = = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑰
Magnitude of impedance, |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑋 −𝑋
Power factor angle, 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐿 𝐶 )
𝑅
Instantaneous current, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)
Wave form
Wave form of voltage and current are shown in figure.
Instantaneous power is given by 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙) =
cos 𝜙−cos(2𝜔𝑡±𝜙) 𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [ ] = 𝑚 𝑚 cos 𝜙 − 𝑚 𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)
2 2 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power consisting of a constant part cos 𝜙 and the fluctuating part
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
cos(2𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙). Average value of the fluctuating part is zero.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Therefore, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙
2 √2 √2
Power Triangle
Multiplying all the sides of voltage triangle by I, we get power triangle.

𝑃 𝑅 𝑉
Power factor of RL series circuit=cos 𝜙 = = = 𝑅
𝑆 𝑍 𝑉
In case of an R-L-C series circuit, the power factor is lagging or leading in nature
depending on current lags behind the voltage or current leads the voltage.

If 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪 the circuit behaves like a pure resistor since voltage across the
inductor and voltage across capacitor are equal and opposite. Then, the
circuit is said to be in resonance.