UNIT 4

FUNDUMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION AND

TRANSDUCERS

SIGNALS
A time dependent function which conveys some information can be called as signals.
Signals can be generally classified as continuous time signal and discrete time signal.
Some of the continuous time signals are shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1
Some of the discrete time signals are shown in figure 2 below
There are several elementary signals which play an important role in our life.
These are
1) Unit step signal
2) Unit Impulse signal
3) Unit ramp signal
4) Unit parabolic signal
5) Sinusoidal signal
6) Real exponential signal
7) Complex exponential signal

Unit Step Signal

A continuous time unit step signal is defined as:

1, 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢(𝑡) = | |
0, 𝑡 < 0
where ‘t’ represent continuous time.
A continuous time unit step signal is shown in figure 3

Figure 3
A unit step signal delayed by ‘a’ can be expressed as:
1, 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = | |
0, 𝑡 < 𝑎
A delayed unit step signal is given in figure 4.

Figure 4
A discrete time unit step signal is defined as :
1, 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢(𝑛) = | |
0, 𝑛 < 0
where ‘n’ represent discrete time instant as shown in figure 5

Figure 5
A delayed discrete time unit step signal is defined as :
1, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘
𝑢(𝑛 − 𝑘) = | |
0, 𝑛 < 𝑘

A delayed discrete time unit step signal is shown in figure 6

Figure 6

Unit Impulse Signal

A continuous time unit step signal is defined as:

1, 𝑡 = 0
𝛿(𝑡) = | |
0, 𝑡 ≠ 0
Its amplitude is infinity so that the area under the curve is unity A unit
impulse function is given in figure 7 below.

Figure 7
A delayed unit impulse signal can be represented as
1, 𝑡 = 𝑎
𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) = | |
0, 𝑡 ≠ 𝑎
A delayed unit impulse signal is shown in figure below.

Figure 8

A discrete time unit impulse signal is defined as :

1, 𝑛 = 0
𝛿(𝑛) = | |
0, 𝑛 ≠ 0
where ‘n’ represent discrete time instant as shown in figure 9

Figure 9
A delayed discrete time unit step signal is defined as :
1, 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘) = | |
0, 𝑛 ≠ 𝑘

A delayed discrete time unit step signal is shown in figure 10 where k=3.

Figure 10

Unit Ramp Signal

A continuous time unit ramp signal is defined as:

𝑡, 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑟(𝑡) = | |
0, 𝑡 < 0
where ‘t’ represents continuous time. 𝑟(𝑡) can also be represented as
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡). A delayed ramp signal can be defined as
 𝑡 − 𝑎, 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎
𝑟(𝑡 − 𝑎) = | |
0, 𝑡 < 𝑎
or 𝑟(𝑡 − 𝑎) = (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎).

A continuous time unit ramp signal and a delayed unit ramp signal are
shown in figure 11.a and figure 11.b respectively.

Figur 11

A discrete time unit step signal is defined as :

𝑛, 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑟(𝑛) = | |
0, 𝑛 < 0
It can also be written as 𝑟(𝑛) = 𝑛𝑢(𝑛) where ‘n’ represent discrete time
instant as shown in figure 12.a.
A delayed discrete time unit step signal is defined as :
𝑛 − 𝑘, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘
𝑟(𝑛 − 𝑘) = | |
0, 𝑛 < 𝑘
It can also be written as 𝑟(𝑛 − 𝑘) = (𝑛 − 𝑘)𝑢(𝑛 − 𝑘)

A discrete time unit ramp signal and a delayed unit ramp signal are shown in
figure 12.a and figure 12.b respectively.

Figure 12
 Unit Parabolic Signal

A continuous time unit ramp signal is defined as:

𝑡2
𝑝(𝑡) = | 2 , 𝑡 ≥ 0|
0, 𝑡 < 0
where ‘t’ represents continuous time. 𝑟(𝑡) can also be represented as 𝑟(𝑡) =
𝑡2
𝑢(𝑡). A delayed ramp signal can be defined as
2
(𝑡 − 𝑎)2
𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑎) = | 2 , 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎|
0, 𝑡 < 𝑎
(𝑡−𝑎)2
Delayed parabolic signal can also be written as 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎).
2

A continuous time unit ramp signal and a delayed unit ramp signal are
shown in figure 13.a and figure 13.b respectively.

Figure 13

A discrete time unit step signal is defined as :

𝑛2
𝑝(𝑛) = | 2 , 𝑛 ≥ 0|
0, 𝑛 < 0
where ‘n’ represent discrete time instant as shown in figure 14.a
A delayed discrete time unit step signal is defined as :
(𝑛 − 𝑘)2
𝑝(𝑛 − 𝑘) = | , 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘|
2
0, 𝑛 < 𝑘
Delayed parabolic signal can also be written as
 (𝑛−𝑘)2
𝑝(𝑛 − 𝑘) = 𝑢(𝑛 − 𝑘). A discrete time unit ramp signal and a delayed
2
unit ramp signal are shown in figure 14.a and figure 14.b respectively.

Figure 14
SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL

The continuous time sinusoidal signal is given by the equation 𝑥(𝑡) =

𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where as a discrete time sinusoidal signal is given by the
equation 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 + 𝜙). Continuous and discrete time signals are
shown in the figures 15 and 16 respectively.

Figure 15

Figure 16
Real Exponential Signal
A real time continuous time exponential signal can be generally written in
the form 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 . Signal can be in one of the three forms depending on
the value of α. These are given in figure 17.a, 17.b and 17.c

Figure 17
A real time discrete time exponential signal can be generally written in the
form 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 for all n. The form of the signal for different possible range
of values of ‘a’ is shown in figure 18.

Figure 18

Complex Exponential Signal

A complex continuous time exponential signal can be generally written in
the form 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 . Where 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔. Wave form for different possible
values of ‘s’ is given in figure 19 below.
 Figure 19

A complex discrete time exponential signal can be generally written in the

form 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑛+𝜙) .Possible waveform for various values of a and ω
are shown in figure 20 below.

Figure 20

Both continuous and discrete time signals can further be classified as

1) Deterministic and random signals
2) Periodic and Non periodic signals
 3) Energy and power signals
4) Causal and non-causal signals
5) Even and odd signals
Deterministic and random signals
A signal exhibiting no uncertainty in its magnitude and phase at a given instant are
called as deterministic signals. Signals characterized by uncertainty in its occurrence
is called as random signal.

Figure 21
In figure 21, figures a and b are deterministic while c and d are random signals.
Periodic and non periodic signals
A periodic signal is one that repeats the sequence of values exactly
after a fixed length of time, known as the period. In mathematical terms
a signal x(t) is periodic if there is a number T such that for all t) x ( t ) =
x ( t + T ). Similarly for discrete time signal x(n)=x(n+N) where N
represent the period of discrete time signal. If the signal is not periodic,
then it is called Non periodic.

Figure 22
 Figure 23
Figure 22 shows periodic signals and figure 23 shows non periodic signal.

Energy and power signals

A signal is said to be energy signal if and only if its total energy is finite. Average
power of energy signals is zero. Egs. Non periodic signals
A signal is said to be power signal if its average power is finite. For a power signal,
energy will be infinite. Periodic signals are power signals
Causal and non-causal signals
A continuous time signal is said to be causal if x(t)=0 for 𝑡 < 0. Otherwise, signal
is called non causal. A discrete time signal is said to be causal if x(n)=0 for 𝑛 < 0.
Otherwise, signal is called non causal.
Even and odd signals
A continuous time signal x(t) is said to be even signal x(t)=x(-t) for all values of t.
A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be even signal x(n)=x(-n) for all values of n.A
continuous time signal x(t) is said to be odd signal x(t)= -x(-t) for all values of t.A
discrete time signal x(n) is said to be odd signal x(n)= -x(-n) for all values of n.
Examples of even and odd signals are shown in figures 24 and 25 respectively
 Figure 24

Figure 25

Communication
Radio communication means the radiation of radio waves by the transmitting
station, the propagation of these waves through space and their reception by the
radio receiver. Figure below shows the general principles of radio broadcasting,
transmission and reception.
 Figure 26
1. Transmitter. Transmitter is an extremely important equipment and is housed in
the broadcasting station. Its purpose is to produce radio waves for transmission into
space. The important components of a transmitter are microphone, audio amplifiers,
oscillator and modulator.
a) Microphone. A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into
electrical waves. When the speaker speaks or a musical instrument is played, the
varying air pressure on the microphone generates an audio electrical signal which
corresponds in frequency to the original signal. The output of microphone is fed to
a multistage audio amplifier for raising the strength of weak signal.
b) Audio amplifier. The audio signal from the microphone is quite weak and requires
amplification. This job is accomplished by cascaded audio amplifiers. The amplified
output from the last audio amplifier is fed to the modulator for rendering the process
of modulation.
c) Oscillator. The function of oscillator is to produce a high frequency signal, called
a carrier wave. Usually, a crystal oscillator is used for the purpose. The power level
of the carrier wave is raised to a sufficient level by radio frequency amplifier stages.
Most of the broadcasting stations have carrier wave power of several kilowatts. Such
high power is necessary for transmitting the signal to the required distances.
d) Modulator. The amplified audio signal and carrier wave are fed to the modulator.
Here, the audio signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in a suitable manner. The
resultant waves are called modulated waves or radio waves and the process is called
modulation. The process of modulation permits the transmission of audio signal at
the carrier frequency. As the carrier frequency is very high, therefore, the audio
signal can be transmitted to large distances. The radio waves from the transmitter
are fed to the transmitting antenna or aerial from where these are radiated into space.

2. Transmission of radio waves. The transmitting antenna radiates the radio waves
in space in all directions. These radio waves travel with the velocity of light i.e. 3 ×
108 m/sec. The radio waves are electromagnetic waves and possess the same general
properties. These are similar to light and heat waves except that they have longer
wavelengths. It may be emphasized here that radio waves are sent without
employing any wire. It can be easily shown that at high frequency, electrical energy
can be radiated into space.
3. Radio receiver. On reaching the receiving antenna, the radio waves induce tiny
e.m.f. in it. This small voltage is fed to the radio receiver. Here, the radio waves are
first amplified and then signal is extracted from them by the process of
demodulation. The signal is amplified by audio amplifiers and then fed to the speaker
for reproduction into sound waves.

Modulation
The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of
a carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation.
Modulation means to “change”. In modulation, some characteristic of carrier wave
is changed in accordance with the intensity (i.e. amplitude) of the signal. The
resultant wave is called modulated wave or radio wave and contains the audio signal.
Therefore, modulation permits the transmission to occur at high frequency while it
simultaneously allows the carrying of the audio signal.
Need for modulation. Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system
due to the following reasons :
(i) Practical antenna length. Theory shows that in order to transmit a wave
effectively, the length of the transmitting antenna should be approximately equal to
the wavelength of the wave.
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3 𝑥 108
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = meters.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Types of Modulation
As you will recall, modulation is the process of changing amplitude or frequency
or phase of a carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal.
Accordingly, there are three basic types of modulation, namely ;
(i) amplitude modulation (ii) frequency modulation (iii) phase modulation
In India, amplitude modulation is used in radio broadcasting. However, in television
transmission, frequency modulation is used for sound signal and amplitude
modulation for picture signal. Therefore, our attention in this chapter shall be
confined to the first two most important types of modulation.

Amplitude Modulation
When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with
the intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation.
In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of the signal. However, the frequency of the modulated
wave remains the same i.e. carrier frequency. Fig. 27 shows the principle of
amplitude modulation. Fig. 27 (i) shows the audio electrical signal whereas Fig. 27
(ii) shows a carrier wave of constant amplitude. Fig. 27 (iii) shows the amplitude
modulated (AM) wave. Note that the amplitudes of both positive and negative half-
cycles of carrier wave are changed in accordance with the signal. For instance, when
the signal is increasing in the positive sense, the amplitude of carrier wave also
increases. On the other hand, during negative half-cycle of the signal, the amplitude
of carrier wave decreases. Amplitude modulation is done by an electronic circuit
called modulator. The following points are worth noting in amplitude modulation :
(i) The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the intensity of the
signal.
(ii) The amplitude variations of the carrier wave is at the signal frequency fs.
(iii) The frequency of the amplitude modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier
frequency fc.

Figure 27
The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier
wave is called the modulation factor, m.
𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞
Modulation factor, 𝐦 =
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞

The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at signal frequency fs. Therefore, the
amplitude of AM wave is given by :
Amplitude of AM wave = EC + m EC cos ωs t = EC (1 + m cos ωs t)
The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is : 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 ∗ cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
= EC (1 + m cos ωs t) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡= ECcos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡+ EC m cos ωs t cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑚𝐸𝑐
= ECcos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡+ (2cos ωs t cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡)
2
𝑚𝐸𝑐 𝑚𝐸𝑐
= ECcos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡+ {cos(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑠 ) 𝑡]+ {cos(𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑠 ) 𝑡]
2 2

The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of three sinusoidal waves; one having
amplitude EC and frequency fc, the second having amplitude mEC/2 and frequency
(fc + fs) and the third having amplitude mEC/2 and frequency fc − fs.

Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

Although theoretically highly effective, amplitude modulation suffers from the
following drawbacks:
(i) Noisy reception. In an AM wave, the signal is in the amplitude variations of the
carrier. Practically all the natural and man made noises consist of electrical
amplitude disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude
variations that represent noise and those that contain the desired signal, therefore,
reception is generally noisy.
(ii) Low efficiency. In amplitude modulation, useful power is in the sidebands as
they contain the signal. As discussed before, an AM wave has low sideband power.
For example, if modulation is 100%, the sideband power is only one-third of the
total power of AM wave. Hence the efficiency of this type of modulation is low.
(iii) Small operating range. Due to low efficiency of amplitude modulation,
transmitters employing this method have a small operating range i.e. messages
cannot be transmitted over larger distances..
(iv) Lack of audio quality. This is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation.
In order to attain high-fidelity reception, all audio frequencies up to 15 kHz must
be reproduced. This necessitates bandwidth of 30 kHz since both sidebands must
be reproduced. But AM broadcasting stations are assigned bandwidth of only 10
kHz to minimize the interference from adjacent broadcasting stations. This means
that the highest modulating frequency can be 5 kHz which is hardly sufficient to
reproduce the music properly.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of
the signal, it is called frequency modulation (FM).
In frequency modulation, only the frequency of the carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the signal. However, the amplitude of the modulated wave remains
the same i.e. carrier wave amplitude. The frequency variations of carrier wave
depend upon the instantaneous amplitude of the signal as shown in Fig. 28 (iii).
When the signal voltage is zero as at A, C, E and G, the carrier frequency is
unchanged. When the signal approaches its positive peaks as at B and F, the carrier
frequency is increased to maximum as shown by the closely spaced cycles. However,
during the negative peaks of signal as at D, the carrier frequency is reduced to
minimum as shown by the widely spaced cycles.

Figure 28

The following points about frequency modulation (FM) may be noted carefully:
(a) The frequency deviation of FM signal depends on the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
(b) The centre frequency is the frequency without modulation or when the
modulating voltage is zero.
(c) The. frequency of modulating signal does not determine frequency.
 In frequency modulation (FM), the amplitude of the carrier is kept constant
but the frequency fc of the carrier is varied by the modulating signal. The carrier
frequency fc varies at the rate of the signal frequency fs ; the frequency deviation
being proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. Note
that maximum frequency deviation is (fc (max) – fc) and occurs at the peak voltage
of the modulating signal.

Suppose a modulating sine-wave signal es (= Es cos ωs t) is used to vary the

carrier frequency fc. Let the change in carrier frequency be kes where k is a constant
known as the frequency deviation constant. The instantaneous carrier frequency
fi is given by ; fi = fc + k es= fc + k Es cos ωs t
The factor k Es represents the maximum frequency deviation and is denoted by Δf
i.e.
Max. frequency deviation, Δf = k Es
Therefore, fi = fc + Δ f cos ωs t.
The modulation index mf is the ratio of maximum frequency deviation (Δf) to the
frequency (= fs) of the modulating signal.
∆𝜔 𝑓 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)−𝑓𝑐 ∆𝑓
Modulation index, 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑐 = 𝑐 =
𝜔𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠

Advantages : The following are the advantages of FM over AM :

(i) It gives noiseless reception. As discussed before, noise is a form of amplitude
variations and a FM receiver will reject such signals.
(ii) The operating range is quite large.
(iii) It gives high-fidelity reception.
(iv) The efficiency of transmission is very high.
 Demodulation
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as
demodulation or detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over
larger distances to a receiver. When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio
receiver, it is necessary to recover the audio signal from it. This process is
accomplished in the radio receiver and is called demodulation.
Necessity of demodulation.
It was noted previously that amplitude modulated wave consists of carrier and
sideband frequencies. The audio signal is contained in the sideband frequencies
which are radio frequencies. If the modulated wave after amplification is directly fed
to the speaker as shown in Fig. 29, no sound will be heard. It is because diaphragm
of the speaker is not at all able to respond to such high frequencies. Before the
diaphragm is able to move in one direction, the rapid reversal of current tends to
move it in the opposite direction i.e. diaphragm will not move at all. Consequently,
no sound will be heard.

Figure 29
From the above discussion, it follows that audio signal must be separated from
the carrier at a suitable stage in the receiver. The recovered audio signal is then
amplified and fed to the speaker for conversion into sound.
Essentials in Demodulation
In order that a modulated wave is audible, it is necessary to change the
nature of modulated wave. This is accomplished by a circuit called detector. A
detector circuit performs the following two functions:
1) It rectifies the modulated wave .
Negative half of the modulated wave is eliminated.
(2) It separates the audio signal from the carrier.
The rectified modulated wave contains the audio signal and the carrier. It is desired
to recover the audio signal. This is achieved by a filter circuit which removes the
carrier frequency and allows the audio signal to reach the load.
A.M. Diode Detector
Fig. 30 shows a simple detector circuit employing diode and filter circuit. The
modulated wave of desired frequency is selected by the parallel tuned circuit LC and
is applied to the diode. During the positive half-cycles of modulated wave, the diode
conducts while during negative half-cycles, it does not. The result of this rectifying
action is that output of the diode consists of positive half-cycles of modulated wave
as shown.

Figure 30

The rectified modulated wave contains radio frequency and the signal and cannot be
fed to the speaker for sound reproduction. If done so, no sound will be heard due to
the inertia of speaker diaphragm. The r.f. component is filtered by the capacitor C
shunted across the speaker. The value of this capacitor is sufficiently large to present
low reactance to the r.f. component while presenting a relatively high reactance to
the audio signal. The result is that the r.f. component is bypassed by the capacitor C
and the signal is passed on to the speaker for sound reproduction.
Diode detector advantages:
Low cost: The diode detector only requires the use of a few low cost components.
This made it ideal for use in transistor (and valve / vacuum tube ) radios using
discrete components.
Simplicity: Using very few components, the Diode AM detector was easy to
implement. It was reliable and did not require any setup.
Envelope detector disadvantages:
Distortion: As the diode detector is non-linear it introduces distortion onto the
detected audio signal.
Selective fading: One of the issues often experienced on the short and medium
wavebands where the AM transmissions are located is that of selective fading. The
diode envelope detector is not able to combat the effects of this in the way that some
other detectors are able, and as a result, distortion occurs when selective fading
occurs.
Sensitivity: The diode detector is not as sensitive as some other types. If silicon
diodes are used, these have a turn on voltage of around 0.6 volts as a result,
germanium or Schottky diodes are used which have a lower turn on voltage of
around 0.2 to 0.3 volts. Even with the use of the Schottky diode, the diode envelope
detector still suffers from a poor level of sensitivity.

FM Detectors:
When circuits employing discrete components were more widely used, the Ratio and
Foster-Seeley detectors were widely used. Of these the ratio detector was the most
popular as it offers a better level of amplitude modulation rejection of amplitude
modulation.
Ratio Detector

Figure 31
The operation of the ratio detector centres around a frequency sensitive phase shift
network with a transformer and the diodes that are effectively in series with one
another. When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit the diodes act to produce a
steady voltage across the resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as a
result.
The transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in the frequency of the
incoming signal. It has three windings. The primary and secondary act in the normal
way to produce a signal at the output. The third winding is un-tuned and the coupling
between the primary and the third winding is very tight, and this means that the
phasing between signals in these two windings is the same.
The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly coupled. This means that
there is a phase difference of 90 degrees between the signals in these windings at the
centre frequency. If the signal moves away from the centre frequency the phase
difference will change. In turn the phase difference between the secondary and third
windings also varies. When this occurs, the voltage will subtract from one side of
the secondary and add to the other causing an imbalance across the resistors R1 and
R2. As a result, this causes a current to flow in the third winding and the modulation
to appear at the output.
The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any remaining RF signal which may appear across
the resistors. The capacitor C4 and R3 also act as filters ensuring no RF reaches the
audio section of the receiver.
Advantages of ratio detector
• Simple to construct using discrete components
• Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity
Disadvantages of Ratio FM discriminator:
• High cost of transformer
• Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete components and
not integrated within an IC
Slope Detector
Slope detection is the very simplest form of frequency modulation, FM
demodulation. An FM slope detector consists of a tuned circuit where the centre
frequency is tuned to a frequency slightly offset from the carrier of the signal. In this
way the frequency modulated signal sits on the slope of the response curve, giving
rise to the name of FM slope detector.
As the frequency of the signals varies up and down in frequency according to its
modulation, so the signal moves up and down the slope of the tuned circuit response
curve. This causes the amplitude of the signal to vary in line with the frequency
variations. In fact, at this point the signal has both frequency and amplitude
variations.
 Figure 32

It can be seen from the diagram that changes in the slope of the filter, reflect into the
linearity of the demodulation process. The linearity is very dependent not only on
the filter slope as it falls away, but also the tuning of the receiver - it is necessary to
tune the receiver off frequency and to a pint where the filter characteristic is
relatively linear.
The final stage in the process is to demodulate the amplitude modulation and this
can be achieved using a simple diode circuit. One of the most obvious disadvantages
of this simple approach is the fact that both amplitude and frequency variations in
the incoming signal appear at the output. However the amplitude variations can be
removed by placing a limiter before the detector.
A variety of FM slope detector circuits may be used, but the one below shows one
possible circuit with the applicable waveforms. The input signal is a frequency
modulated signal. It is applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination)
which is offset from the centre carrier frequency. This converts the incoming signal
from just FM to one that has amplitude modulation superimposed upon the signal.
 Figure 33

This amplitude signal is applied to a simple diode detector circuit, D1. Here the diode
provides the rectification, while C3 removes any unwanted high frequency
components, and R1 provides a load.
Advantages of FM slope detectors
• Simple - can be used to provide FM demodulation when only an AM
detector is present.
• Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages of FM slope detectors
• Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve of a filter.
• Not particularly effective as it requires the signal to be centred on the falling
response of a filter. This means that the signal cannot be received at its
maximum signal strength.
• Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated and this means
that much higher levels of noise and interference are experienced.

TRANSDUCERS
A device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another. Often in
a different form.

Resistive Transducer

In resistive transducer resistance changes due to change in some physical

phenomenon. Change in the value of resistance with a change in the length of the
conductor can be used to measure displacement. Strain gauges work on the principle
that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor changes when strained. This
principle can be used for the measurement of displacement, force and pressure. The
resistivity of the materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can
be used for the measurement of temperature.

1. Potentiometer

A resistive potentiometer (POT) consists of a resistance element provided with a

sliding contact, called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translator
or rotational or combination of both with resistive element in the form of a helix (
known as helipots).Translatory resistive elements are linear device. Rotational
resistive devices are circular and are used for measurement of angular displacement.
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the
measurement of either translatory or rotational motion. A potentiometer is a passive
transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation.

Figure 34
Advantages
•They are inexpensive.
•Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are
not particularly severe.
•They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
•Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficientoutput to allow
control operations.

Disadvantages
When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding
contacts.

The sliding contacts can wear out , become misaligned and generate noise.

2. Resistance Pressure Transducer

•Change in pressure results in a resistance change in the sensing elements.
•Two types : -
a. Electromechanical Resistance Transducer:
Change in pressure, stress, position, displacement or other mechanical variation is
applied to a variable resistor.
b. Strain Gauge:
Stress acts directly on the resistance. Most commonly used for stress and
displacement measurement in instrumentation. The sensitive resistance element may
take other forms, depending on the mechanical arrangement on which the pressure
is caused to act. In fig, two ways by which the pressure acts to influence the sensitive
resistance element i.e. by which pressure varies the resistance. Those are bellow type
and diaphragm type. The element moved by the pressure change is made to cause a
change in resistance. This resistance change can be made part of a bridge circuit and
then taken as either ac or dc output signal to determine the pressure indication.
 Figure 35
Strain gauges uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on the wires. Stress ( force/unit area) and strain ( elongation or
compression/ unit length) in a member or portion of any object under pressure is
directly related to the modulus of elasticity .If a metal conductor is stretched or
compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that both the length and
diameter of the conductor changes. Resistivity of the conductor also changes when
subjected to strain. This property is called the piezo resistive effect. Therefore,
resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges. When a gauge is
subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of cross section
decreases. Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
and inversely proportional to its area of cross section, the resistance of the gauge
increases with positive strain. The change in resistance value of a conductor under
strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to its dimensional changes. This
property is called the piezo-resistive effect.
Types of Strain Gauges
[Link] Strain Gauges
a)Resistance Wire
i. Unbounded ii. Bounded
b) Wire Types
i. Grid ii. Rossette ii. Torque iv. Helical
2. Foil Strain Gauges
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges
 Figure 36

Advantages of strain gauges

• High gauge factor of about +130. This allows measurement of very small
strains, of the order of 0.01 micro strain.
• Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent i.e.
less than 0.05%.
• Life in excess of 10 X 10^6 operations and a frequency response of 10^12
Hz.
• Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size, ranging in length
from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

Disadvantages of strain gauges

•They are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
•Linearity of semiconductor strain gauges in poor.
•They are more expensive.

Variable Inductance type Transducer

Inductive Transducers:
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit where a change in the current
flowing through that circuit induces an electromotive force (EMF) that opposes the
change in current. In electrical circuits, any electric current I produces a magnetic
field and hence generates a total magnetic flux Φ acting on the circuit. This magnetic
flux, according to Lenz's law tends to oppose changes in the flux by generating a
voltage (a counter emf) that tends to oppose the rate of change in the current. The
ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the self-inductance which is usually
simply referred to as the inductance of the circuit.
Mutual Inductance: When the varying flux field from one coil or circuit element
induces an emf in a neighboring coil or circuit element, the effect is called Mutual
Inductance
.Magnetic reluctance or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an
electrical circuit. In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current to
follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow
the path of least magnetic reluctance. Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance.

When a single coil is used as a transducer element, the mechanical input

changes the permeance of the flux path generated by the coil, thereby changing its
inductance. This change can be measured by a suitable circuit, indicating the value
of the input. As shown in fig. below, the flux path may be changed by a change in
the air gap.
 Figure 37
The Two Coil arrangement, is a single coil with a center tap. Movement of the core
alters the relative inductance of the two coils. These transducers are incorporated in
inductive bridge circuit in which variation in inductance ratio between the two coils
provides the output. This is used as a secondary transducer for pressure
measurement.

Figure 38
In mutual inductance type, the flux from a power coil is coupled to a pickup coil,
which supplies the output. Input information in the form of armature displacement,
changes the coupling between the coils. The air gap between the core and the
armature governs the degree of coupling.
 Figure 39

Variable Reluctance Transducers

A variable reluctance Transducers are used for dynamic applications, where the flux
lines supplied by a permanent magnet are cut by the turns of the coil. Some means
of providing relative motion is included in to the device. The fig shows a simple type
of reluctance pickup consisting of a coil wound on a permanent magnetic core. Any
variation of the permeance of the magnetic circuit causes a change in the flux, which
is brought about by a serrated surface subjected to movement. As the flux field
expands or collapses, a voltage is induced in the coil.

Figure 40
 Figure 41

Figure 42
The LVDT is a transformer with a mechanically actuated core. The primary coil is
driven by a sine wave (excitation signal) having a stabilized amplitude. The sine
wave eliminates error-related harmonics in the transformer. An ac signal is induced
in the secondary coils. A core made of a ferromagnetic material is inserted coaxially
into the cylindrical opening without physically touching the coils. The two
secondaries are connected in the opposed phase. When the core is positioned in the
magnetic center of the transformer, the secondary output signals cancel and there is
no output voltage. Moving the core away from the central position unbalances the
induced magnetic flux ratio between the secondaries, developing an output. As the
core moves, the reluctance of the flux path changes. Hence, the degree of flux
coupling depends on the axial position of the core. At a steady state, the amplitude
of the induced voltage is proportional, in the linear operating region, to the core
displacement. Consequently, voltage may be used as a measure of a displacement.

Capacitive Transducers
The principle of these type is that variations in capacitance are used to produce
measurement of many physical phenomenon such as dynamic pressure,
displacement, force, humidity, etc.

Figure 43

Capacitive Transducer (Torque meter)

The fig. above shows a device used for the measurement of liquid level in a
container. The capacitance between the central electrode and the surrounding hollow
tube varies with changing dielectric constant brought about by changing liquid level.
Thus, the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication of the liquid level.
Variation in dielectric constant can also be utilized for measurements of thickness,
density, etc.
 Capacitance changes depending on the change in effective area. This principle
is used in the secondary transducing element of a Torquemeter. This device uses a
sleeve with serrations cut axially and a matching in ternal member with similar
serrations as shown in the figure below.

Torque carried by an elastic member causes a shift in the relative positions of

the serrations, thereby changing the effective area. The resulting capacitance change
may be calibrated to read the torque directly.

Figure 44
Capacitive Transducer (Capacitive Type Pressure Transducer)

The capacitance varies inversely as the distance between the plates. The figure shows
a capacitive type pressure transducer where the pressure applied to the diaphragms
changes the distance between the diaphragm & the fixed electrode which can be
taken as a measure of pressure.

Figure 45
Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1)Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive.
(2)They have good frequency response and hence useful for dynamic
measurements.
(3)High resolution can be obtained.
(4)They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5)These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless.

Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers

(1)Metallic parts must be properly insulated and the frames must be earthed.
(2)They show nonlinear behavior due to edge effects and guard rings must be used
to eliminate this effect.
(3)They are sensitive to temperature affecting their performance.
(4)The instrumentation circuitry used with these transducers are complex.
(5)Capacitance of these transducers may change with presence of dust particles &
moisture.