CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Assam, situated in the Northeastern part of India, represents a region of profound

historical antiquity and cultural diversity. Geographically located South of the Eastern
Himalayas and traversed by the fertile plains of the Brahmaputra River and the Barak
Valley, Assam has historically functioned as a corridor of cultural exchange between the
Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Covering an area of 78,438 square kilometres, it
is the second-largest state in Northeast India and the most populous in the region. The
historical landscape of Assam is richly reflected in its archaeological remains, temples,
and urban centres. The most significant phase of architectural and political development
is associated with the Ahom period.

The Ahoms after whom Assam derives its present name, played a crucial role in
shaping the political, cultural, and economic history of the Brahmaputra Valley for nearly
six centuries (1228–1826 CE). The Tai Ahoms belonged to the larger Tai (Tai-Yai) group
of Southeast Asia and are believed to have migrated around the early thirteenth century
from Mong Mao or Mong Mao-lung, located in present-day Yunnan province of China.
Under the leadership of Sukaphaa (Chaulung Siukapha), a Mao Shan prince, they entered
the Brahmaputra Valley through the Patkai Hills and gradually established their authority
in Upper Assam. Sukaphaa assumed the title of Chao-Pha or Swargadeo (Lord of the
Heavens) and founded the Ahom dynasty in 1228 CE by establishing his first capital at
Charaideo, which remained both a political and sacred centre of the Ahom state
(Acharyya, 1992).

Over time, the Ahoms expanded their political influence through a combination of
military strength, diplomatic negotiation, and strategic alliances. Indigenous communities
were gradually incorporated into the Ahom administrative structure. An important feature
of Ahom political organization was the shifting of capitals, which reflected changing
administrative needs, strategic considerations, and environmental conditions. Following
the establishment of the first capital at Charaideo by Sukaphaa, subsequent rulers shifted
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the capital to Charagua under Sudangpha (Bamuni Konwar) in the late fourteenth century.
In the sixteenth century, the capital was moved to Garhgaon under Suklenmung
(Garhgayan Raja), which became an important centre of political and administrative
activity. Further developments took place during the reign of Sukhampha (Khora Raja),
indicating a gradual consolidation of Ahom authority in the region. (Buragohain L. ,
2020).

The most significant transformation occurred during the reign of Rudra Singha (1696–
1714 CE), when the capital was shifted to Rangpur, corresponding to present-day
Sivasagar. This marked an important phase in the evolution of the Ahom state, as Rangpur
developed into a well-planned urban centre and became the focal point of extensive
architectural activity. It is noteworthy that several of the later Ahom capitals were located
within or around the present Sivasagar region, thereby establishing it as the core area of
Ahom political power and architectural development.

In this context, Sivasagar (formerly Sibsagar) emerges as the principal centre of Ahom
political authority and architectural activity, making it the most appropriate focus for a
historical study of Ahom architecture. Sivasagar, located in Upper Assam at
approximately 26.9826°N latitude and 94.6425°E longitude, corresponds to the medieval
city of Rangpur, the capital of the Ahom kingdom during the late seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. (Chowdhury, 2021, pp. 151-157).

The name “Sivasagar,” meaning “the ocean of Lord Shiva,” is derived from the great
Sivasagar Tank constructed in the eighteenth century by Queen Ambika, the consort of
Siva Singha. Surrounded by temples such as the Sivadol, Devidol, and Vishnudol, the
tank not only gave the town its name but also established it as a major religious and
cultural centre. The concentration of monumental structures in and around Sivasagar,
jaysagar, Gaurisagar, highlights its unique importance as a centre of architectural activity.

Ahom architecture represents a distinctive phase in the architectural history of Assam,

reflecting the political stability, cultural adaptability, and technological skill of the Ahom
rulers. It developed from the use of perishable materials such as bamboo, wood, and

2
thatch to more permanent constructions using burnt bricks and lime mortar. Ahom
architecture may broadly be divided into two categories secular and religious. secular
structures such as the Rang Ghar, one of the earliest amphitheatres in Asia; the Talatal
Ghar, known for its underground passages and defensive features; and the Kareng Ghar,
which served as the royal palace. Religious architecture is represented by temples such
as the Sivadol, Devidol, and Vishnudol, which reflect the gradual adoption of
Brahmanical Hinduism and the integration of new religious practices into Ahom culture
(Gogoi D. , 1976).

The significance of Sivasagar for architectural study lies in the remarkable

preservation, variety, and density of Ahom-period monuments. Unlike earlier phases,
where structures made of perishable materials have largely disappeared, the monuments
of Sivasagar represent the mature phase of Ahom architecture, constructed using durable
materials such as burnt bricks and lime mortar. These structures provide valuable insights
into the technological, artistic, and cultural achievements of the Ahom period.

However, following the political disturbances caused by the Moamoria rebellion, the
capital was eventually shifted to Jorhat under the leadership of Purnananda Buragohain.
Throughout their long rule, the Ahom kings undertook extensive construction activities,
both secular and religious, many of which continue to survive across Assam, with their
highest concentration in Sivasagar. In the early phase, Ahom architecture was primarily
characterized by the use of perishable materials such as bamboo, wood, and thatch,
reflecting adaptation to the climatic conditions of the region. However, from the time of
Rudra Singha onwards, there was a significant transition to the use of more durable
materials such as burnt bricks and lime mortar, marking the beginning of the mature phase
of Ahom architecture (Acharyya, 1992).

A particularly remarkable aspect of Ahom architectural practice is its adaptation to the

seismic conditions of Northeast India. The region falls within a highly earthquake-prone
zone, and historical records indicate that at least fourteen major earthquakes occurred in
Assam between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries. Despite these frequent and often
devastating seismic events, many Ahom monuments especially those located in Sivasagar

3
have survived with relatively minor damage. This resilience suggests that the Ahoms
possessed a sophisticated understanding of construction techniques and material use,
enabling them to build structures capable of withstanding environmental stresses
(Buragohain L. , 2020).

The survival of these monuments after the 1950 earthquake reflects the strong
engineering skills of the Ahoms, though their exact construction techniques still need
further study. The political stability and efficient administration of the Ahom kingdom
supported the growth of a distinctive architectural tradition, the best examples of which
are found in Sivasagar. An important feature of Ahom architecture is its rich sculptural
tradition. Sculptures found on temples, palaces, bridges, and pavilions display a synthesis
of indigenous motifs and external influences from Koch Behar and Mughal art. These
include representations of deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, scenes from epics
and Puranas, mythical creatures like the makara, stylized lions, and symbolic motifs such
as the flying dragon, the royal insignia of the Ahom state. Executed in materials such as
stone, stucco, and terracotta, these sculptures often imitate wood carving and reflect both
artistic innovation and continuity (Chowdhury, 2021, p. 152).

Thus, Sivasagar represents a unique architectural landscape where the evolution of

Ahom architecture can be studied in a comprehensive manner. It provides a rare
combination of political history, cultural synthesis, and material remains, making it an
ideal region for focused academic [Link] this context, the present dissertation, titled
“Ahom Architecture in Sivasagar District: A Historical Study,” seeks to examine the
architectural heritage of Sivasagar in a systematic and analytical manner. The study
focuses on both secular and religious structures, analysing their structural features,
stylistic characteristics, and historical significance.

The architectural heritage of Sivasagar constitutes a vital component of Assam’s

historical legacy. These monuments are not only expressions of artistic excellence but
also important historical sources that illuminate the political stability, cultural synthesis,
and technological advancement of the Ahom period. The focused study of this region is

4
therefore essential for a deeper understanding of the historical and architectural evolution
of the Ahom kingdom.

1.01 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The study of regional architecture provides valuable insights into the historical processes,
cultural practices, and technological advancements of a particular society. In the context of
Assam, the architectural legacy of the Ahom period occupies a prominent place, reflecting a
synthesis of indigenous traditions and external influences developed over several centuries of
rule. The Sivasagar district, which was once the capital of the Ahom kingdom, has many
important monuments such as Rang Ghar, Shiva dol, and Talatal Ghar. These structures show
the architectural skill, building techniques, and cultural traditions of the Ahom rulers.

However, even though these monuments are very important, they have not been
studied in detail. Most of the studies mainly focus on a few famous monuments and give
only general descriptions. Many important aspects such as construction methods, use of
materials, design patterns, and decorative elements have not been properly studied. The
deeper meanings of these structures, related to religion, society, and politics, are also not
fully explored. Moreover, the present condition of many of these monuments has become
a matter of serious concern. Environmental factors such as heavy rainfall, high humidity,
vegetation growth, and natural weathering are gradually contributing to their
deterioration. In addition to these natural causes, human negligence, lack of proper
maintenance, and inadequate conservation measures have further accelerated the decay of
these structures. The impact of increasing urban development in and around the historical
sites is also altering the original landscape of the former Ahom capital, thereby affecting
the historical setting, authenticity, and integrity of these monuments

In addition, many smaller or lesser-known structures are still neglected and not
properly documented. Because of this, valuable historical and architectural information is
gradually being lost. There is also a lack of a proper and systematic study that combines
both historical and architectural analysis. Therefore, there is a need for a detailed and
systematic study of Ahom architecture in the Sivasagar district. This study aims to

5
understand its architectural features, historical development, and present condition. It also
seeks to highlight the importance of preserving and protecting this valuable heritage for
the future.

1.02 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Ahom architecture occupies a significant place in the cultural and historical heritage of
Assam. The Ahoms ruled the region for nearly six centuries (13th to 19th century), and
during this long period they developed a distinctive architectural style that reflected a
synthesis of indigenous traditions and external influences. Their contributions are visible
in both religious and secular structures, including temples, tanks, palaces, bridge and
administrative buildings. Among all regions of Assam, Sivasagar district stands out as the
most important centre of Ahom architectural activity, as it served as the political and
cultural capital of the Ahom kingdom for a considerable period.

Dr. Maheswar Neog’s “Pavitra Assam” is a valuable source of information regarding

the religious and historical background of Sivasagar during the Ahom dynasty the book
mentions prominent temples and ponds like the Sivasagar pond ,shiva dol, and Joysagar
along with other Ahom religious spots in the region but the book is more inclined towards
the religious and cultural aspects and does not provide a detailed architectural study
secular architecture is also not dealt with in depth hence the book is a good source of
required.

Shekhar Bhattacharjee in his book “Assam history, Art, Culture” present a broad
overview of Ahom religious architecture within the larger content of Assam’s history and
culture. However, the study remains general in nature and does not provide in-depth,
monument specific analysis of temples in Sivasagar district. Architectural descriptions are
brief, with limited discussion on structural design, material and spatial planning. secular
Ahom architecture is minimally discussed, limiting its value for in depth architectural
study.

6
 Dr. P. C. Sarma’s Architecture of Assam is one of the most significant scholarly works
on the architectural traditions of the region. It provides a systematic study of architectural
styles, construction techniques, and artistic elements across different historical periods.
The book is particularly useful in understanding only the stylistic characteristics of Ahom
temple architecture, including the use of brick masonry, domical structures, and decorative
motifs. However, the scope of the work is broad, covering the entire region of Assam
rather than focusing specifically on Sivasagar district. As a result, the discussion of
individual monuments is limited. Furthermore, while the book touches upon historical and
cultural contexts, it does not explore in detail the socio-political or administrative
functions of the architectural structures

H.K Barpujari’s “The comprehensive history of Assam, vol III” this work provides
important historical information of Ahom secular architecture such as Rang ghar, Talatal
ghar, and Kareng ghar. Construction techniques and planning are briefly mentioned in this
book while Ahom religious architecture is largely not discussed.

Dr. N. N. Acharyya’s “The History of Medieval Assam (13th to 17th Century) “is
another important historical source that provides a comprehensive account of the political,
social, and administrative developments of the Ahom period. The book is valuable for
understanding the historical background in which many architectural structures were
constructed. It helps in contextualizing the development of architecture within the broader
framework of state formation and cultural interaction. However, the work does not focus
specifically on architecture and lacks detailed descriptions or analysis of monuments,
particularly those located in Sivasagar district.

S. Biswas’s “Sibsagar” is particularly relevant to the present study as it deals

specifically with the region that forms the core of Ahom architectural heritage. The book
provides historical descriptions of important monuments, including temples, tanks, and
palaces, along with their cultural significance. It serves as a useful guide to the historical
importance of Sivasagar as the Ahom capital. However, the approach of the book is largely
descriptive, and it does not engage in detailed architectural analysis. Discussions on

7
structural design, building materials, engineering techniques, and stylistic evolution are
limited, which restricts its analytical value.

The article “Ahom Architecture: Indigenous and External Influence” by Sanjay Das offers
an important perspective on the evolution of Ahom architecture. The study highlights the
interaction between indigenous building traditions and external influences, such as
Mughal and Southeast Asian elements. It emphasizes the syncretic nature of Ahom
architecture and provides a theoretical understanding of its development. However, the
article does not focus on detailed case studies of individual monuments in Sivasagar
district, which limits its applicability for localized architectural analysis.

Another relevant study is the article “Secular Sculptures of the Temples of Sibsagar in
Assam, India” by Priyanka Chowdhury. This work focuses on the sculptural and
decorative aspects of temple architecture in Sivasagar. It provides valuable insights into
iconography, artistic motifs, and craftsmanship. However, the scope of the study is
confined to sculptural elements and does not address broader architectural concerns such
as structural planning, construction techniques, or spatial organization.

Dipamjyoti Buragohain’s thesis “Ahom Temples of Assam” provides a detailed study

of the origin, development, architectural style, and cultural significance of Ahom temples
in Assam. The work examines the influence of Ahom political power, religion, and socio-
cultural traditions on temple construction during the Ahom period. The researcher
analyses important temples, their structural designs, building materials, decorative motifs,
and the blend of indigenous and external architectural influences, especially Islamic and
regional styles. The thesis also highlights the religious and historical importance of these
temples in shaping Assamese heritage and identity. By using historical sources,
archaeological evidence, and field studies, the research contributes significantly to the
understanding of Ahom architectural traditions and fills an important gap in the study of
medieval Assam’s temple architecture.

Overall, the existing literature provides valuable information on Ahom history, religion,
and culture, but detailed studies on the architectural heritage of Sivasagar remain limited.

8
Most works focus mainly on general history or specific themes, while aspects such as
architectural design, construction techniques, spatial planning, and functional features of
monuments have not been studied systematically. Therefore, the present dissertation aims
to address this research gap through a focused historical and architectural study of the
monuments of Sivasagar district.

1.03 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1 To study historical background of the Ahom dynasty.
2 To analyse secular and religious architectural structures of Ahom period in
Sivasagar district.
3 To identify basic architectural features of Ahom temples

1.04 RESEARCH QUESTION

1 What are the main features of Ahom architecture in Sivasagar?
2 What are the major characteristics and variations of secular and religious
architectural structures of the Ahom period in Sivasagar district?
3 What are the basic characteristics of Ahom temple architecture?

1.05 METHODOLOGY

The present study aims to examine the architectural developments of the Ahom period
in the Sivasagar district, which served as an important political and cultural centre of the
Ahom kingdom. The study has been conducted on the basis of both primary and secondary
sources, adopting a historical, descriptive, and analytical approach.

For the collection of primary data, field visits to various historical sites in Sivasagar
district have been undertaken. Important monuments such as temples, and palace remains
have been closely observed. During these visits, attention has been given to structural
design, construction techniques, and decorative features. Photographs and notes have been
systematically recorded to support the analysis. In addition, the Buranjis have been used
as important primary textual sources to understand the historical background, patronage,

9
and construction activities related to Ahom architecture. Secondary data has been
collected from various books, research articles, journals, and other scholarly works related
to the history and architecture of Assam. Relevant information has also been gathered
from dissertations and reliable online sources. These materials have been critically
examined and compared in order to support the findings of the study.

The collected data has been analysed using descriptive and comparative methods. The
descriptive method has been used to present the architectural features of the monuments,
while the comparative method helps in identifying similarities and variations among them.
At the same time, a historical approach has been applied to place these developments
within their proper context. In this way, by combining field-based observations with
textual and secondary sources, the study attempts to present a systematic analysis of Ahom
architecture in the Sivasagar district.

1.06 Chaptalization
The present dissertation entitled “Ahom Architecture in Sivasagar District” is divided into
five chapters for a systematic and comprehensive study of the subject. Each chapter deals
with a specific aspect of the topic, progressing from general background to detailed
analysis and conclusion. The organization of the study is as follows:

Chapter I:
Introduction
This chapter introduces the theme of the study and highlights its historical and cultural
significance. It outlines the aims, objectives, scope, and research methodology of the
dissertation, along with a brief review of existing literature to identify earlier scholarly
contributions and the research gap.

Chapter II: Historical Background of the Ahom Rule in Sivasagar

This chapter provides the historical background necessary for the study of architecture.
It discusses the origin and migration of the Ahoms, their political expansion, and the
establishment of their rule in Assam. Special emphasis is given to the rise of Sivasagar as
the political and cultural centre of the Ahom kingdom.
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Chapter III: Religious Architecture of the Ahoms in Sivasagar
This chapter examines the religious architecture of the Ahoms, focusing on temples and
related structures. It analyses their architectural style, layout, construction materials, and
decorative features, while also exploring the influence of Shaivism, Shaktism, and
Vaishnavism on temple construction.

Chapter IV: Secular Architecture of the Ahoms in Sivasagar

This chapter focuses on the secular architecture of the Ahom period, including palaces,
pavilions, and other public structures. It highlights their functional and administrative
importance, while also discussing construction techniques and the role of the state in
organizing large-scale architectural activities.

Chapter V: Conclusion
This chapter summarises the major findings of the study and evaluates the overall
significance of Ahom architecture in Sivasagar. It highlights the cultural, historical, and
architectural importance of these monuments and emphasizes the need for their
preservation and conservation for future generations.

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 CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF AHOM RULE IN

SIVASAGAR

The history of Sivasagar is closely connected with the rise and expansion of the Tai-
Ahoms in the Brahmaputra valley. The architectural remains of the region reflect a long
process of migration, political consolidation, urban development, and state formation
under Ahom rule. Since the Ahom capitals shifted several times according to strategic and
geographical needs, these changes reveal the adaptive nature of Ahom administration and
statecraft. Eventually, Rangpur (present-day Sivasagar) emerged as an important political
and cultural centre and developed into a well-planned capital city during the later Ahom
period. This chapter examines the origin and migration of the Ahoms, their settlement in
the Brahmaputra valley, and the gradual establishment of their kingdom in Assam. It also
discusses the shifting of capitals and the emergence of Rangpur as a permanent
administrative centre. In addition, the chapter briefly analyses the historical foundation of
architecture in the region, showing how political stability and organized urban planning
contributed to the growth of monumental architectural traditions in Sivasagar.

12

Figure 1: Google map of Sivasagar

2.01 Origin and Migration of the Ahoms:

The history of early Assam is deeply connected with processes of migration, cultural
interaction, and political transformation. Although geographically situated in the
northeastern frontier of the Indian subcontinent, Assam was never isolated; rather, it
remained historically linked with Southeast Asia through important passes such as the
Patkai hills. These routes acted as channels not only for trade and communication but also
for the movement of various ethnic groups. Over centuries, different communities entered
the Brahmaputra valley and contributed to its composite culture. Among these migrating
groups, the Tai-Ahoms stand out as the most influential, as their arrival in the thirteenth
century marked the beginning of a new political era in Assam.

Assam, known in ancient times as Kamrup, was a land of great fertility and attraction.
Its rich resources, favourable environment, and strategic position made it a desirable
region for settlement and political expansion. Even before the arrival of the Ahoms, this
land had witnessed the rise and fall of several powers, often resulting in a fragmented
political condition. Yet, it continued to remain a centre of cultural vitality and human
activity. It was into this situation that The Ahoms entered under the leadership of sukapha.

Originally belonged to the great Tai or Shan branch of Southeast Asia. Their original
homeland lay in the region covering Upper Burma (Myanmar) and the adjoining areas of
Western Yunnan in China. As observed, they were a branch of the great Tai race… which
occupied the northern and eastern hill tracts of Upper Burma and Western Yunnan. This
wide geographical spread indicates that the Tai people were not confined to a single
territory but formed a dynamic and mobile population. Another study further supports this
by noting that the Tai people were distributed from Assam to Yunnan in southern China,
and from Bangkok to Vietnam (Gohain, 2009, p. 2). Thus, the Ahoms must be understood
as part of a broader historical movement of Tai populations across Southeast Asia.

According to Dr. S. K. Chatterjee, the arrival of the Ahoms in India was part of a larger
movement of Tai (Thai) peoples from South China during the second half of the first
millennium A.D. These migrating groups gradually spread across Southeast Asia, forming
13
different branches such as the Lao in Indo-China (modern Vietnam), the Siamese in
northern Thailand, and the Shans in northern Burma. From the Shan region, a group of
these Sino-Tibetan hill tribes moved westward into Assam. They followed the Lohit River
and other eastern tributaries of the Brahmaputra, crossed the Patkai Hills, and entered the
eastern Brahmaputra Valley. The first group of Tai migrants is believed to have numbered
around nine thousand, mostly adult males. Over time, they established contact and
intermarried with local Bodo tribes. This interaction led to cultural and ethnic fusion,
which played an important role in the formation of the early Ahom society in Assam
(Acharyya, 1992, p. 39).

According to Suryya Kumar Bhuyan, the Ahoms belong to the Shan branch of the Tai
(Thai) family, which spread from the Gulf of Siam to Yunnan and Assam and includes
groups like the Siamese, Laos, Shans, Khamti, and Ahom. The term “Tai” meaning
“celestial origin” remained important to them even after their conversion to Hinduism.
(Acharyya, 1992, p. 39). He further states that the Tai migrated from the Shan region of
Myanmar into Assam, and their strength led locals to call them “Asam,” meaning
“unequal” or “peerless,” a term linked with the origin of both “Ahom” and possibly
“Assam” (Bhuyan, p. 1).

According to Edward Albert Gait, in the early thirteenth century a group of hardy
hillmen entered the eastern extremity of the Brahmaputra Valley, more by chance than by
any deliberate plan, unaware that their descendants would eventually dominate the entire
valley and check the eastward expansion of the Mughal Empire. These people, the
ancestors of the Ahoms, were an offshoot of the Tai or Shan race, widely spread across
Further India and into China. The Shans mainly inhabited the hill tracts of Upper Burma
and Western Yunnan, forming several states, among which the main kingdom of the Mau
branch was known as Mung Mau, or Pong as referred to by the Manipuri’s. (Acharyya,
1992, p. 38).

The term “Tai” has been interpreted differently by scholars some see it as meaning
“free” or “independent people,” while others link it to a higher or divine status. In Ahom
tradition and the Buranjis, the Tai were regarded as of celestial origin, which helped justify

14
royal authority. According to myth, Khunlung and Khunlai descended from heaven on a
golden chain and settled at Mungrimungram (Basu, 1970, p. 17), Similarly, Suryya Kumar
Bhuyan notes that the Ahoms traced their origin to Indra and considered themselves a
divine race like other great dynasties (Bhuyan, p. 2). These traditions show that Ahom
origins are closely connected with mythological ideas used to legitimize kingship. Ahom
traditions say that Lengdon gave divine gifts like the Somdeo idol, a magic sword, drums,
and cocks for omens (Basu, 1970, p. 17). These symbols represented royal power,
protection, and ritual authority. The Ahom kings worshipped Somdeo and believed they
were descendants of divine beings, which is why they were called Swargadeo or
“Heavenly King.”

Ahom traditions (Deodhai) and Brahmanical accounts both ascribe a divine origin to
the Ahoms. They are described as descendants of Lengdon, identified with Indra in Hindu
tradition. According to Deodhai priests, Lengdon sent his grandsons Khunlung and
Khunlai from heaven to earth to rule among the Tai/Shan people, giving the Ahoms a
sacred lineage that legitimized their kingship (Dutta, 1962, p. 74).

The legends describe early Tai polities like Mungri-Mungram and Mungkang and trace
a royal lineage that leads to Sukapha, who migrated to Assam and founded the Ahom
kingdom. The Brahmanical account parallels this but adds divine elements involving
Vasistha and Indra, reinforcing sacred ancestry. Stripped of myth, these traditions point to
a historical origin of the Ahoms as a Tai/Shan group from Upper Burma (Myanmar).
Sukapha’s migration into Assam, possibly after internal conflict, reflects the movement
of Tai peoples into the Brahmaputra valley, preserving the memory of their Southeast
Asian roots (Dutta, 1962, p. 75).

Beyond mythology, modern historians explain the Tai origin of the Ahoms in historical
terms. D. G. E. Hall states that the Shans, Laos, and Siamese belong to the broader Tai
group, originally related to Chinese populations living south of the Yangtze River. Chinese
records from the 6th century B.C. refer to them as people inhabiting regions south of
China. Over time, they came under Chinese influence but frequently rebelled for
independence. In the 7th century A.D., they formed the Nanchao kingdom, an important

15
power in early Burmese history. Later, various Tai groups migrated across Southeast Asia,
including the Shan regions of Burma and parts of South China. One branch eventually
moved into Assam, where Sukapha led Tai immigrants to establish the Ahom kingdom in
1228–1229 A. D (Acharyya, 1992, p. 38).

Bhuyan traces a continuity of Tai rulers for about forty generations before Sukapha,
linking mythic ancestors with historical reality (Bhuyan, p. 3).. Sukapha, a prince of
Maulung from the Khunlung lineage, came to power at Mongrimongram and later
migrated to Assam in 1215 A.D. due to a family dispute. This suggests that the Ahom
migration was influenced mainly by internal political conflicts in their original homeland.
Sukapha’s migration into Assam was a planned and organized movement rather than a
sudden one. He carried the sacred symbol of sovereignty, the Somdeo, signifying divine
authority and kingship. The Ahom Buranjis record that Sukapha left Mong Mao with
around 9,000 followers, including nobles, soldiers, artisans, and common people
(Acharyya, 1992, p. 60). This shows that the migration was a deliberate effort to establish
a new settled kingdom, not just a military expedition.

However, there is some variation in the numerical estimates. Suryya Kumar Bhuyan
provides a more conservative figure, stating that Sukapha entered Assam around 1228–
1229 CE with approximately 500 followers, including key nobles such as the Burhagohain
and Borgohain, along with priests and warriors (Bhuyan, p. 3). Despite the difference in
numbers, both accounts agree on the structured composition of the migrating group. These
accompanying elites later formed the nucleus of the Ahom aristocracy and administrative
system.

The journey from Maulung to Assam was long and carefully organized. Sukapha and
his followers are said to have spent nearly thirteen years crossing the difficult Patkai Hills
and moving gradually westward, reflecting both the harsh terrain and planned settlement
strategy. Around 1228 CE, he finally crossed the Patkai and Naga hills and entered the
Saumar region of ancient Kamarupa. The migration included important noble houses such
as the Burhagohain, Borgohain, the Moran house, and the Raj-pandit (Barpandit), along
with their attendants, forming the core of the early Ahom administration. Ahom traditions

16
also ascribe divine origins to these groups the king from Indra, the Burhagohain from the
Solar lineage, the Borgohain from the Lunar lineage, the Moran house from Kubera, and
the royal priest from Brihaspati. These beliefs helped legitimize Ahom political authority
within a sacred cosmological framework (Bhuyan, p. 3).

This long migration reflects the geographical difficulties faced by the Ahoms and their
determination to find a suitable homeland. During this journey, Sukapha encountered
several indigenous groups, particularly the Nagas, and some of these interactions involved
conflict. Resistance from local groups was reportedly suppressed, which helped secure
passage and establish early control over the region. At the same time, these events also
highlight the harsh and often violent nature of migration and territorial expansion in the
medieval period (Bhuyan, p. 3).

After crossing the Patkai hills, Sukapha entered the Brahmaputra valley in 1228 A.D.,
marking the beginning of Ahom rule in Assam and a major turning point in the region’s
history. The valley was inhabited by tribes such as the Morans, Borahis, and others living
in small fragmented political units. According to Bhuyan, these local chiefs were
gradually subdued and accepted Sukapha’s authority, leading to a more unified political
system. Instead of immediately founding a capital, Sukapha carefully searched for a
suitable settlement, moving through regions like Namrup, the Dihing valley, Tipam,
Abhaypur, Habung, and Dikhu (Baruah, 1997, p. 18) This. Finally, in 1253 A.D., he
established his capital at Charaideo, marking the end of the migration phase and the
beginning of a stable Ahom political centre. Bhuyan also notes that the Ahoms, though
originally a distinct ethnic group with their own language, gradually adopted Assamese
and later elements of Hinduism for administrative and social integration. This process of
assimilation helped in building a more unified society and strengthening the Ahom state.

The migration of the Ahoms can be understood through push and pull factors, where
internal conflicts, political instability, and environmental pressures in their homeland
acted as push factors, while the fertile land and favourable conditions of the Brahmaputra
valley served as pull factors. Modern interpretations highlight that Assam’s natural
resources and strategic location attracted the Ahoms, shaping their settlement process.

17
Overall, the origin and migration of the Ahoms reflect a blend of mythology, historical
reality, and socio-political dynamics.

Their movement from the Tai-Shan regions to the Brahmaputra valley was not just a
migration but a transformative process that reshaped Assam’s history. Through
adaptation, integration, and strong leadership, they established a powerful kingdom that
lasted for nearly six centuries.

2.02: Development of Sivasagar as the Capital of the Ahom Kingdom

Assam, located in the northeastern part of India, extends between 24°8′ N to 27°25′ N
latitude and 89°42′ E to 96° E longitude, and its physiographic divisions namely the
Brahmaputra Valley, Barak Valley, and hill regions played a crucial role in shaping the
historical trajectory of the Ahom kingdom (Buragohain L. , 2020, p. 12) Among these, the
Brahmaputra Valley served as the nucleus of Ahom political power. This valley, formed
by the deposition of alluvial soil by the Brahmaputra and its numerous tributaries,
provided a fertile agricultural base that sustained population growth and economic
expansion (Buragohain 2020:2).

The presence of swamps, river channels, and occasional hillocks also influenced
settlement patterns, making the selection of elevated and strategically secure locations a
necessity for capital establishment. Assam’s climate, with heavy rainfall and high
humidity, supported rich agriculture and ecological abundance. Its forests provided
valuable timber like sal, sissoo, and gamari, along with other natural resources
(Buragohain L. , 2020, pp. 12-13) These environmental factors strengthened the Ahom
economy and influenced the choice of capital and settlement sites.

Sivasagar, formerly known as Rangpur, stands as the crowning jewel of the Ahom
Dynasty's 600-year reign in the Brahmaputra Valley. Established by the visionary
Swargadeo Rudra Singha in the late 17th century, the city transitioned from a strategic
military outpost into a sophisticated capital of architectural and cultural brilliance.
Through its massive man-made 'sagars' (tanks) and sky-piercing 'dols' (temples),

18
Sivasagar reflects the pinnacle of Ahom engineering and their unique ability to blend
indigenous Tai-Ahom traditions with the evolving influences of mainland India.

The development of Sivasagar, historically known as Rangpur, as the capital of the

Ahom Kingdom represents the culmination of a long process of political consolidation,
geographical adaptation, and administrative evolution within the Brahmaputra valley. The
Ahom state did not emerge as a centralized power immediately but gradually evolved
through a series of strategic decisions regarding settlement, expansion, and capital
formation. The shifting of capitals from Charaideo to Charagua, Gargaon, Rangpur, and
finally Jorhat reflects the dynamic nature of Ahom statecraft and its response to changing
political, environmental conditions (Buragohain L. , 2020, p. 13).

The establishment of the Ahom kingdom by Sukapha in 1228 CE marked the

beginning of a new political order in the Brahmaputra valley. His migration from Mong
Mit and gradual movement through regions such as Namrup, Tipam, Habung, and
Simaluguri reflect a process of careful exploration and adaptation to the local
environment. These early settlements mainly functioned as agricultural bases,
highlighting the importance of subsistence and economic stability in the initial phase of
Ahom state formation (Acharyya, 1992).

The establishment of Charaideo as the first capital of the Ahom kingdom marks a
significant phase in the process of state formation under Sukapha. In 1253 CE, Sukapha
constructed a town at Charaideo, situated adjacent to a small hill. According to the
Deodhai Asom Buranji, he founded the city near the Lankuri hill in Lakni Mungkeu and
performed ritual sacrifices to propitiate the gods, including the offering of a horse in the
north and another in the south. He also worshipped the three tutelary spirits Kamle,
Rangle, and Rangmlao near a sacred tree (Baruah G. C., 1930, p. 47). The term
“Charaideo” itself is derived from Tai words: Che meaning town or city, Rai meaning to
shine or dazzle, and Doi meaning hill or mountain, thus signifying “a shining town
situated on a hilltop”.

19
 After entering the Brahmaputra valley, Sukapha initially moved through several places
such as Tipam, Salaguri, Habung, Santak, and Simaluguri in search of a suitable location
for his capital. However, these regions were predominantly low-lying and prone to
flooding. Consequently, he selected Charaideo due to its elevated terrain, which ensured
protection from inundation. The availability of abundant cultivable land further
strengthened its suitability. Sukapha also introduced advanced wet rice cultivation
techniques from his homeland, which proved to be more productive than the existing
shifting cultivation practices. To facilitate this, he established agricultural fields such as
Gosikolakhat, Borakhowakhat, and Angerakhat for paddy cultivation (Bakatial, 2009, pp.
26-27) Thus, agricultural productivity became an important factor in the choice of
Charaideo.

Apart from its geographical and economic advantages, Charaideo also held political
and administrative importance. Its central location within the territories occupied by
Sukapha helped in effective administration and consolidation of power. Thus,
environmental suitability, agricultural potential, and administrative convenience together
made Charaideo an ideal capital for the early Ahom state (Buragohain, 2025). However,
with the territorial and demographic expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the limitations of
Charaideo became apparent. The need for stronger administration, better security, and
improved communication led Sudangpha (Bamuni Konwar) to shift the capital to
Charagua (Buragohain D. , 2025), Located on flood-free highland, Charagua had
cultivable land, fishing tanks, and grasslands suitable for animal husbandry. Its strategic
location near the Chutiya frontier also helped Sudangpha strengthen the defence of the
Ahom kingdom. Nevertheless, Charagua functioned more as an administrative centre, as
most of the population continued to reside in Charaideo. Furthermore, during the early
years of his reign, Sudangpha remained preoccupied with conflicts involving the Nagas
and the Ahoms and was often absent from the capital. According to Arup Kumar Dutta,
another reason for shifting the capital was Sudangpha’s personal disinclination towards
Charaideo due to painful memories associated with the Kareng, along with his desire to
expand Ahom influence in the Brahmaputra valley (Sarma, 1988).

20
 A more significant development occurred during the reign of Suklenmung (Garhgayan
Raja), who established Garhgaon (Che-hung) as the capital in 1540 CE, making it the third
capital of the Ahom kingdom. The shift from Charagua to Garhgaon was motivated by
both strategic and administrative considerations. Garhgaon was centrally located within
the Ahom territory, making governance more efficient, while its location also offered
advantages in communication and transportation. (Gogoi L. , 2006, p. 261). It is also
believed that Queen Nang Sao Seng is believed to have influenced the decision to shift
the Ahom capital. Garhgaon was strongly fortified with three defensive embankments,
including Rajgarh, along with deep moats and bamboo barriers for protection. Structures
like the Talatal Ghar contained underground escape routes leading to the Dikhow river
and the Brahmaputra, highlighting its strategic importance. The fertile land and river
proximity also made the area suitable for agriculture, making Garhgaon a strategically and
economically efficient capital (Buragohain D. , 2025).

In 1699 CE, Rudra Singha shifted the Ahom capital from Garhgaon to Rangpur
because of overpopulation and the availability of more cultivable and habitable land
(Buragohain D. , 2025). Rangpur soon emerged as an important urban centre with major
architectural and cultural developments, including the construction of the Rang Ghar. The
city was extensively fortified and remained the Ahom capital until the late eighteenth
century. Rangpur, near present-day Sivasagar, had significant geographical and strategic
advantages. Located close to the Dikhow River, it ensured access to water and supported
communication and trade. Its fertile surrounding plains allowed agricultural expansion,
sustaining the growing population and economy. Unlike earlier capitals, it also provided
space for planned urban development, reflecting the political strength and cultural
ambitions of the Ahom rulers.

The development of Rangpur under Rudra Singha marks the peak of Ahom urban and
architectural growth. Monuments like Talatal Ghar and Rang Ghar reflect advanced
engineering and cultural refinement, while large tanks such as Joysagar, Sivasagar
(Borpukhuri), and Gaurisagar were built for water supply, irrigation, and religious
purposes using the Paik labour system. The city was well planned with roads like Bar Ali,
and its ramparts, gates, granaries, and military structures made it both secure and
21
administratively efficient. the Paik system played a crucial role in the development of
Rangpur by providing a steady supply of labour for construction, agriculture, and
administration (Buragohain D. , 2025). This system not only enabled the rapid
development of infrastructure but also ensured the integration of the population into the
state apparatus. As a result, Rangpur emerged as the political, economic, and cultural
centre of the Ahom kingdom, symbolizing its peak of power and prosperity.

Historians such as Lila Gogoi, Hiteswar Barua, and Luhit Buragohain have emphasized
the influence of geography, economy, and political strategy in the development of Ahom
capitals. The Ahom Buranjis also provide important information about the administrative
and cultural life of the kingdom. Overall, the development of Sivasagar as the capital of
the Ahom kingdom resulted from a combination of geographical suitability, political
strategy, economic potential, and cultural growth. From Charaideo to Rangpur, the Ahom
rulers showed remarkable adaptability in selecting and developing their capitals. Thus,
the evolution of Sivasagar represents both the culmination of Ahom state formation and
an important contribution to the historical and cultural heritage of Assam.

22
 Chapter III
Religious Architecture of Ahoms in Sivasagar

3.01 Architecture development under Ahom rule

The architectural development of the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826 CE) represents a

gradual, uneven, and historically conditioned process shaped by political authority,
technological innovation, and cultural interaction. Unlike regions with continuous
monumental traditions, Ahom architecture emerged late and developed through long
experimentation, gradually reaching maturity before entering a phase of decline. The
absence of early structural remains followed by a later expansion of monuments shows
that it was not an inherited tradition but a slowly developed architectural culture.

In the early period of Ahom rule, architectural activity is almost invisible in the
material record. From the time of Sukapha’s arrival in 1228 CE, most buildings were
temporary in nature and made of bamboo, wood, reeds, and thatch, which suited the
climatic conditions of Assam but could not survive over time (Sarma, 1988, p. 100).
During this time, the Ahom state was mainly engaged in territorial expansion, political
consolidation, and administration, so large-scale construction was not a priority. However,
religious practices existed, and the construction of Deoshal for worship of deities and
ancestral spirits is recorded from early times. Sukapha is believed to have established a
Deoshal at Charaideo in 1253 CE (Bhuyan S. K., 1930, p. 7), and early stone remains at
Charaideo suggest this tradition continued.

Gradually, references to temple construction begin to appear in chronicles, although

many are uncertain or lack surviving evidence. Suhsenpha is traditionally credited with
the construction of Nagshankar Devalaya, but the present structure shows later
modifications, indicating reconstruction rather than original construction (Sarma, 1988,
p. 100). Similar claims are associated with other early rulers, but these remain historically
unverified. A more visible phase of architectural activity appears during the reign of
Pratap Singha (1603–1641 CE), when temple construction becomes more clearly
documented. Structures such as Maheshwar Ghar and Garakhia Dol are attributed to this

23
period (Sharma, 2005, p. 38). This phase also reflects the introduction of skilled craftsmen
from outside Assam, bringing new techniques such as arches and octagonal forms
influenced by Islamic architecture. However, the structures remained simple, with limited
ornamentation, showing that Ahom architecture was still in an experimental stage (Sarma,
1988, p. 103).

Over time, this experimental phase gradually developed into a transitional stage, where
builders began improving masonry techniques and experimenting with stone construction.
Structures like Maghnowa Dol show better craftsmanship, improved stonework, and the
introduction of decorative niches (Sarma, 1988, p. 104). However, progress was uneven
due to political instability and frequent changes of rulers, which prevented continuity in
architectural development. A major shift occurred from the late seventeenth century when
political stability encouraged large-scale construction. Under Gadadhar Singha, temple-
building activity became more systematic, and important temples such as Umananda
Temple (1681 CE) and Biswanath Dol (1685 CE) were constructed (Sarma, 1988, p. 107).
From this time, architecture expanded rapidly across the kingdom, supported by both
royal and administrative patronage.

The reign of Rudra Singha (1696–1714 CE) represents one of the highest points in
Ahom architectural development. Temple architecture during this time became more
decorative and sophisticated, with geometric and floral designs as well as sculptural
depictions of deities. The Joysagar temple complex, built in 1698 CE, reflects large-scale
planning and religious integration, particularly the growing importance of Siva worship
in Ahom religious life (Sharma, 2005, p. 70). Different architectural forms such as square,
octagonal, and Ratha-style designs were experimented with, marking a phase of creative
exploration.

The highest point of architectural achievement was reached during the reign of Siva
Singha, often considered the golden age of Ahom architecture. Temple construction
became more organized, and complexes of temples were built together rather than isolated
structures. New geometric forms were introduced while maintaining aesthetic balance and
traditional values (Sharma, 2005, p. 71). Mughal influence also became visible in the use

24
of arches and domes, especially in temples at Hajo and Fakuwa Dol (Sarma, 1988, pp.
112-114). However, after this peak, a gradual decline began. During the reign of Pramatta
Singha and later Rajeshwar Singha, construction continued but became less innovative.
Structures were smaller, simpler, and more repetitive in style, and the Nilachal style
became dominant, reflecting continuity rather than creativity (Sharma, 2005, p. 86).

The final phase of Ahom architecture, from the late eighteenth century to 1826 CE, is
marked by clear decline due to political instability, internal conflicts, and external
invasions. Architectural patronage weakened significantly, and most structures built
during this period were simple and lacked ornamentation. Temples at Na-Pukhuri,
Gaurisagar, and Namti reflect this declining trend (Sarma, 1988). Overall, the history of
Ahom rule in Sivasagar reflects a long process of political consolidation, cultural
adaptation, and architectural growth beginning with Sukapha’s migration and
establishment of the Ahom state in the Brahmaputra valley. Over time, the Ahoms
expanded, assimilated with local communities, and built a stable kingdom. Sivasagar
emerged as an important capital during rulers like Rudra Singha and Siva Singha,
developing as a centre of administration, economy, religion, and culture with planned
urban features such as tanks, roads, and public structures.

3.2 Religious Background and Temple Development under the Ahoms

The religious architecture of the Ahom kingdom, especially in the Sivasagar region,
developed alongside the evolution of Ahom polity, religion, and cultural integration.
Founded in 1228 CE by Chaolung Sukaphaa, the Ahom kingdom lasted for nearly six
centuries and unified diverse tribal and non-tribal communities in the Brahmaputra valley,
forming a composite cultural tradition. The Ahom rulers claimed divine ancestry from
Khunlung, a heavenly ancestor, which strengthened the sacred legitimacy of kingship and
influenced the religious and symbolic character of their architecture (Bhattacharjee,
2021).

The early religious system of the Ahoms was indigenous in nature, centered on the
worship of celestial deities, natural forces, and ancestral spirits. They believed in a
supreme creator god, Pha-Tu-Ching or Pha-Lai-Bet, regarded as the highest divine

25
authority. Along with this, several other deities such as Langdon, Thenkham, Yashingpha,
Läokhri, Phai (God of fire), and Phuratara were worshipped, forming a structured
pantheon Gogoi, 1976, p. 14). This religious system was maintained by a well-organized
priestly class including the Deodhai, Bailung, Mahan, and Chiring, who performed
rituals, astrology, and ceremonial duties. The presence of texts on rituals, astrology,
calendars, and social practices like horoscope matching highlights the sophistication of
Ahom religious traditions (Gogoi D. , 1976, p. 15).

This early religion was its aniconic nature, as the Ahoms did not worship idols or
images of gods. Instead, religious ceremonies such as Om-pha, Sai-pha, and Rik-khan
were performed with elaborate rituals and often involved animal sacrifices, indicating a
form of worship centered on symbolic and ritualistic practices rather than visual
representation (Gogoi D. , 1976, p. 15). The religious transformation of the Ahom
kingdom began with the introduction of Hindu elements into the court during the reign of
Sudangpha Bamuni Konwar, who was raised in a Brahmin environment. It further
developed under Suhungmung, when the Ahoms were declared Indravamsa Kshatriyas,
linking them with Hindu tradition (Bhattacharjee, 2021, p. 62).

A major turning point came during the reign of Jayadhvaj Singha, who formally
embraced Vaishnavism after initiation by Niranjandev. This marked the beginning of a
stronger Hindu influence in Ahom religious life, as Hindu practices became increasingly
prominent in the royal court. However, later rulers followed varied religious policies,
reflecting the continued evolution and plural character of Ahom religio-cultural traditions
(Doley, 2025, p. b352) .

This phase marked the growing influence of Vaishnavism in the Ahom court, though
religious policy remained flexible. Gadadhar Singha adopted Shaktism, controlled
Vaishnava institutions, and supported temple construction along with Brahmin land grants
(Doley, 2025, p. b353). Rudra Singha followed an inclusive approach, patronizing
Vaishnavism, Saivism, and Shaktism while preserving traditional Ahom practices. Later,
Shaktism gained dominance among the ruling class, while Vaishnavism became popular
among the masses. Under Siva Singha, especially through Queen Phuleswari, Shaktism

26
was strongly promoted, leading to tensions between Vaishnavism and Shaktism and
contributing to unrest like the Moamariya rebellion ( (Doley, 2025, p. b353)

The acceptance of Hinduism significantly influenced the cultural and architectural

development of the Ahom kingdom. It led to large-scale temple construction under royal
patronage, with kings dedicating substantial resources to temples of Siva and Durga
(Basu, 1970, p. 321), Most temples were Saivite, and indigenous deities were gradually
identified with Hindu gods, such as Langkuri with Siva and Keshayakotigo with Lakshmi
and Saraswati. Even semi-Hinduized rulers like Gadadhar Singha built Siva temples,
showing a gradual transformation process (Basu, 1970, p. 324).

The Ahom rulers actively promoted sculpture and architectural development in the
17th and 18th centuries by building new temples, renovating older structures, and reusing
earlier sculptural elements. Sivasagar emerged as a major centre of such activity. Pratap
Singha introduced Durga Puja after sending artisans to Cooch Behar to learn image-
making, which encouraged the growth of Devi temple construction in the kingdom
(Basu, 1970, p. 329). Temple architecture became a key feature of Ahom cultural
expression, especially in the later period. Temples served both religious and political
purposes, symbolizing royal authority. Ahom temple architecture was not a fully
independent style but a blend of Indian traditions, influenced by artisans from Bengal and
other regions (Baruah s. , 1986, p. 430).

Ahom temples mainly followed the Nagara style with regional adaptations based on
local materials and techniques. They are characterized by a linear axial layout in which
the entrance leads directly to the sanctum. The main components include the garbhagriha,
antarala, and jagamohana, with additional structures like the nat mandir and bhog ghar in
larger complexes (Buragohain D. , 2025). The garbhagriha is the most sacred space,
housing the deity, while other parts support rituals and congregational worship. The
presence of bhog ghar reflects the importance of offerings in temple practice. The temples
of Sivasagar are key examples of this tradition, showing the architectural skill and
planning of the Ahom period.

27
 At the end the development of temple architecture in the Ahom kingdom was closely
tied to its evolving religious traditions. The shift from an indigenous, aniconic belief
system to a Hinduized framework encouraged the growth of monumental temple
construction under royal patronage. This fusion of religious change, political authority,
and architectural innovation is best reflected in the temples of Sivasagar, which remain
lasting symbols of the Ahom legacy.

3.03 Materials Used in Ahom Temple Construction

The study of construction materials is essential for understanding the technological,

economic, and cultural foundations of Ahom temple architecture. The choice of materials
in temple construction was shaped by a complex interaction of environmental conditions,
availability of local resources, technical knowledge, labour organization, and religious
beliefs. In the Ahom kingdom, temple construction was not merely an engineering activity
but a sacred process, where each stage from the selection of materials to the consecration
of the structure was imbued with ritual significance. This close relationship between
technology and spirituality gave Ahom architecture its distinctive character (Hussain,
2023, p. 62).

The evolution of materials reflects the historical development of the kingdom. In the
early phase, due to warfare and territorial expansion, the Ahoms used mainly perishable
materials such as wood, bamboo, and earth. From the late seventeenth century, especially
under Rudra Singha, political stability enabled large-scale construction using durable
materials like brick, stone, and lime-based cement (karhal), marking both technological
and cultural advancement (Hussain, 2023, p. 63).Bricks were the most important
construction material in Ahom temple architecture. The alluvial soil of Assam, rich in iron
oxide and high plasticity, enabled the production of durable and well-fired bricks. These
bricks were generally rectangular, thin, smooth, and pale reddish in colour, Bricks were
extensively used in the construction of walls, floors, and roofs. Their size and shape varied
according to structural requirements, indicating a developed understanding of
architectural techniques. Different types such as fired and unfired bricks, as well as broken
and unbroken bricks, were used in construction (Handique, 1959, p. 35), In some cases,

28
bricks were treated with mustard oil to increase durability. A traditional practice also refers
to the use of leech blood for colouring bricks, particularly in areas like Joktali in Sivasagar
(Handique, 1959, p. 35).

Stone was used in foundations, structural support, and decoration. Types such as lothia
sil, pat sil, and bali sil were used. Stones were shaped using iron tools, chisels, and drilling
techniques, showing advanced craftsmanship. Skilled workers known as Silakutiya Paiks
were employed in temples, bridges, and maidams. (Handique, 1959, pp. 41-43). Wood
and bamboo were widely used in the early phase of Ahom construction due to their easy
availability. Even after the introduction of brick and stone construction, these materials
continued to be used in structural and supplementary components. Evidence from
structures such as the Joy Dol at Joysagar shows holes in the walls, indicating the use of
wooden or bamboo posts (Buragohain, 2025, p. 76). This reflects continuity in traditional
building practices. Terracotta was used mainly for decorative purposes, with important
examples like Ghanashyam Dol at Sivasagar (Buragohain, 2025, p. 77).

One of the most distinctive features of Ahom construction was the use of karhal, an
indigenous cementing system. It was essentially a modified lime mortar enriched with
organic and inorganic additives, reflecting a high level of technical knowledge. The main
component of karhal was lime, obtained by burning limestone or shells (CaCO₃). This
produced quicklime (CaO), which on adding water formed calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)₂).
It then reacted with carbon dioxide in the air to form calcium carbonate, creating a strong
and durable binding material (Saikia, 2022, p. 139). Unlike ordinary lime mortar, karhal
included several additives such as bora rice, black gram, eggs, jaggery, oil, fish, and plant
fibres, which improved its strength and durability (Saikia, 2022, p. 139). Each ingredient
had a specific function: bora rice improved bonding, black gram reduced water absorption,
oil increased workability, fish and egg proteins strengthened binding, jaggery improved
water resistance, and plant fibres reduced shrinkage and cracking. Eggshells and snail
shells, rich in calcium carbonate, were also added, enhancing strength and replacing sand
(Saikia, 2022, p. 142). The preparation of karhal is mentioned in Changrung Phukanar
Buranji, where these materials are listed. The system also shows similarities with other

29
 ancient lime-based technologies, such as sticky rice mortar in China, indicating a wider
tradition of composite construction techniques (Saikia, 2022, p. 143).

Lime plaster was used as a finishing layer to protect surfaces from moisture and
improve appearance in Assam’s humid climate (Hussain, 2023, p. 63). The materials used
in Ahom temple construction reflect a sophisticated integration of environmental
resources, traditional practices, and scientific knowledge. The transition from wood and
bamboo to brick and stone marks a significant stage in the architectural evolution of the
Ahom kingdom. The development of karhal as an indigenous cementing system
highlights the advanced technical understanding of the Ahoms. These materials and
techniques enabled the construction of durable and architecturally significant monuments,
many of which continue to survive today.

3.04 CLASSIFICATION OF AHOM RELIGIOUS TEMPLES IN

SIVASAGAR
Saivite Temples Vaishnavite Sakta temples Other temples
temples
1. Thaora Dol 1 Keshavnarayan 1. Devi Dol, 1 Surya
Vishnu Dol
2. Baidyanath Shiva Joysagar Temple,
Dol 2 Vishnu Dol, 2. Devi Dol, Joysagar
Gaurisagar
3. Ganesh Temple, Gaurisagar 2 Ghanshyam
Joysagar 3 Vishnu Dol, 3. Devi Dol, Dol
Sivasagar
4. Rangnath Dol Sivasagar 3 Fakuwa Dol
5. Gauri Ballavi
Devalaya
6. Siva Dol, Gaurisagar
7. Siva Dol, Sivasagar
8. Rudrasagar Dol

A) SAIVITE TEMPLES

30
 Shaivism is one of the major traditions of Hinduism that worships Lord Shiva as the
supreme deity, it emphasizes devotion, meditation, ascetic practices, and spiritual
liberation through the worship of Shiva. Shaivism has been one of the oldest and most
influential religious traditions in India, shaping various aspects of religious and cultural
life, The Ahom Shaivite temples of Assam represent an important aspect of the religious
and architectural heritage of the Ahom kingdom. With the gradual adoption of Hinduism,
especially Shaivism, the Ahom rulers constructed several temples dedicated to Lord Shiva
during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These temples, mainly found in Sivasagar
and other parts of Upper Assam, reflect a unique blend of indigenous Assamese building
traditions with Mughal and regional architectural influences. Apart from serving as centres
of worship, the temples also symbolized the cultural transformation and artistic
achievements of the Ahom rulers.

3.4.1: Thaora Dol: -

The evolution of temple architecture in Assam during the Ahom period marks a
significant shift from earlier traditions to a more developed architectural style. In this
context, the Thaora Dol of Sivasagar is an important early example of the later phase of
Ahom architecture. Though modest and simple in appearance, its value lies in its
transitional character and its association with the reign of Gadadhar Singha. It has been
noted that only two structures from his time have survived intact for study, and the Thaora
Dol is among the earliest surviving buildings of the second phase of Ahom architecture
(Sarma, 1988).

It is believed to have been constructed between 1683 and 1685 under the patronage of
Alun Burha Dihingia Borgohain. The growth of temple building during this period reflects
both religious devotion and the assertion of political and cultural identity, marking the
beginning of a new architectural phase in Assam (Sharma, 2005). Architecturally, the
temple is a square brick structure consisting of a single garbhagriha without a mandapa,
indicating an early developmental stage. As noted by Sharma (Sharma, 2005), its simple
ground plan reflects the early phase of Ahom temple architecture. Today, only the sanctum
remains, while other parts have either disappeared or been replaced by temporary
structures used in rituals.

31
 The Thaora Dol in elevation resembles the chauchala hut-type buildings of Bengal,
with a four-sided sloping roof that reflects the adaptation of local hut architecture into a
permanent brick structure. Its roof is pyramidal, relatively steep, and decorated with
dhenubhiria-type edges, giving it a distinct appearance (Sarma, 1988). The use of the
chauchala form is important for understanding external influences on Ahom architecture.
As Sarma (1988) notes, such roofing was already seen in structures like the Calanta (first
mandapa) of the Kamakhya temple. Its presence in Thaora Dol, near the Ahom capital,
indicates the influence of Bengal architectural traditions on Assamese monuments during
this period (Sarma, 1988).

This suggests that artisans from Bengal or nearby regions such as Cooch Behar may
have contributed to its construction. However, this architectural style did not develop into
a dominant tradition in later Ahom buildings, showing that such influences were limited
in long-term adoption (Sarma, 1988, pp. 106-107). The upper walls are decorated with
square panels containing lotus motifs in relief, above which are semi-circular devakoshtas
that are now empty, possibly once holding images. Below these are three plain horizontal
bands running around the structure (Sharma, 2005, pp. 49-50). The entrance has a semi-
circular arch, reflecting a blend of local and external styles. Built entirely of brick, the
temple also represents the important shift from perishable materials to more durable
construction, which helped such monuments survive over time (Sarma, 1988, p. 107).

Originally, no idol was installed in the Thaora Dol, suggesting that its early ritual
function may have differed from its present use. Later, local tradition holds that an image
of Narasimha was found in a nearby tank and brought to the temple. Narasimha, the fourth
incarnation of Vishnu, is depicted in a half-human, half-lion form symbolizing the
protection of dharma and destruction of evil. This stone idol, still worshipped today,
reflects the continuing religious significance of the temple. Comparatively, the Thaora
Dol shows similarities with other contemporary structures such as the Bishwanath Dol,
indicating a shared architectural tradition during the period, though regional variations
and experimental features were also present (Sarma, 1988).

32
 The Thaora Dol is a key transitional monument in Ahom architecture, showing early
experimentation where external influences blended with local traditions to form a regional
style. Its square plan, chauchala roof, and simple decoration with Bengal influence make
it important for understanding temple architectural development in late seventeenth-
century Assam (Sarma, 1988).

3.4.2 Baidyanath Shiva Dol: -

The Baidyanath Siva Dol, also known as the Major Dol or Khora Dol, is situated on
the northern bank of the Joysagar tank in Sivasagar and represents one of the important
temple monuments constructed during the reign of Swargadeo Rudra Singha (Buragohain
D. , 2025). Although contemporary with the Joy Dol complex, the temple appears
architecturally less refined and less ornamented in comparison to some of the later Ahom
temples (Sharma, 2005). Nevertheless, the monument remains significant for
understanding the transitional phase in the evolution of Ahom temple architecture.

The temple is oriented along an east-west axis and is constructed on a square base
measuring approximately 32.6 × 32.8 feet, The vimana rises to nearly 42 feet in height
and is connected to a rectangular mandapa covered with a traditional do-chala roof,
reflecting the influence of indigenous Assamese domestic architecture (Buragohain D. ,
2025). The temple plan combines features of both Hindu temple traditions and regional
building practices, though scholars observe that several elements also reveal the influence
of Islamic architectural ideas, especially in its plain geometric planning and reduced
ornamentation (Sarma, 1988). Architecturally, the temple consists of a square bada
supporting a circular or conical shikhara above it, Unlike the Joy Dol, the structure does
not possess clearly distinguished pābhāga and baranda divisions, though rows of
devakosthas are visible on the walls (Sharma, 2005). The walls remain comparatively
plain and massive, emphasizing solidity rather than ornamental richness.

One of the most striking architectural features of the Vaidyanath Siva Dol is the
arrangement of the angasikharas. Four subsidiary spires with square bases are attached
directly to the corners of the upper structure and surround the main shikhara (Buragohain
D. , 2025). However, these angasikharas are proportionately larger than the comparatively

33
narrow and conical central shikhara, giving the overall composition an imbalanced
appearance (Sarma, 1988). This disproportion between the main tower and the subsidiary
spires is often considered one of the major architectural weaknesses of the temple.

The shikhara itself differs significantly from the honeycomb-decorated superstructures

seen in temples such as the Joy Dol. Instead, it is ornamented with vertical wave-like
ridges, producing a simpler exterior treatment (Sharma, 2005). The geometric form of the
shikhara resembles the Joy Dol in general outline, yet its decorative scheme is entirely
different. The upper portion of the temple is crowned with a five-tiered mastaka
surmounted by a kalasha and trishula, symbolizing Shaivite religious identity (Buragohain
D. , 2025). The angasikharas terminate sharply without pinnacles, adding to the rigid and
massive appearance of the structure (Sarma, 1988).

The garbhagriha of the temple is square in plan. The sanctum serves as the sacred core
of the temple and originally enshrined the principal Shaivite deity. The mandapa attached
to the sanctum follows a rectangular plan and possesses a do-chala roof resembling
traditional Assamese hut (Sarma, 1988). Although structurally strong and technically
accomplished, the mandapa lacks the decorative refinement visible in later Ahom temples.
Adjacent to the temple stands a separate bhog ghar, which forms an important auxiliary
structure associated with ritual activities and offerings (Buragohain D. , 2025). The bhog
ghar consists of two rectangular chambers, each covered with a do-chala roof.

Although the Vaidyanath Siva Dol demonstrates technical skill and structural solidity,
it lacks the proportional harmony and ornamental sophistication achieved in later
monuments such as the Siva Dol of Sibsagar (Sarma, 1988). Scholars therefore regard the
temple as an experimental stage in the development of Ahom temple architecture, where
indigenous Assamese forms, Nāgara elements, and external stylistic influences were being
combined and tested. Despite its limitations, the temple remains an important monument
for understanding the architectural transition that eventually culminated in the mature
temple forms of the later Ahom period.

3.4.3 Ganesha Temple, Joysagar: -

34
The Ganesha Temple, situated close to the Joy Dol and the Surya Temple within the
Joysagar temple complex, follows the same architectural style and constructional
principles as the Surya shrine (Sharma, 2005). Like the Surya Temple, it reflects the
architectural innovations introduced during the reign of Rudra Singha, particularly the
incorporation of indigenous Assamese domestic forms into religious architecture.

The temple is aligned along an east–west axis and consists of a small single-cell
structure with a rectangular ground plan (Buragohain D. , 2025). It is covered with a
traditional do-chala roof, whose sloping sides and straight horizontal eaves resemble the
thatched houses of Assam (Sharma, 2005). The structure demonstrates the increasing
acceptance of local Assamese architectural traditions within Ahom temple design.
Although comparatively modest in scale and ornamentation, the Ganesha Temple played
an important role in popularising the do-chala architectural form, which later became
widely used in Ahom temple complexes, especially in the design of mandapas, antaralas,
and subsidiary shrines (Sarma, 1988). The temple holds significance not because of
monumental scale or elaborate decoration, but because of its contribution to the evolution
of a distinctly Assamese architectural identity.

3.4.4 Rangnath Dol: -

The Rangnath Dol, constructed in 1703 CE at Rangpur during the reign of Swargadeo
Rudra Singha, is one of the most distinctive and architecturally unusual temples of the
Ahom period. Situated near the Joysagar tank, the temple reflects an important phase of
experimentation and cultural synthesis in Ahom architecture, where indigenous Hindu
traditions were combined with elements derived from Islamic architectural forms (Sarma,
1988).

Unlike most traditional Indo-Aryan temples, the Rangnath Dol possesses an octagonal
ground plan, a feature rarely found in Hindu temple architecture but commonly associated
with Islamic architectural traditions (Sarma, 1988). The temple consists mainly of a
garbhagriha and an attached mandapa, forming a comparatively simple but technically
refined architectural composition, The octagonal vimana gives the monument a unique

35
visual identity among the temples of Assam (Buragohain D. , 2025). Architecturally, the
temple differs considerably from the richly ornamented structures of Joy Dol or Siva Dol.

The bada lacks elaborate devakosthas and heavy decorative mouldings, though the
baranda is carefully ornamented, this restrained decorative approach creates a massive
and compact appearance. The attached mandapa is also comparatively plain and devoid
of elaborate carvings, emphasizing structural solidity over ornamental richness (Sharma,
2005). The shikhara of the Rangnath Dol is octagonal and conical in form, but unusually
low in height compared to other Ahom temples (Buragohain D. , 2025). This
comparatively stunted superstructure gives the temple a compact and visually distinctive
profile.

Around the springing level of the dome appears one of the most remarkable
architectural features of the monument a row of battlement-like decorative motifs with
star-shaped patterns (Buragohain D. , 2025). Such battlement forms are generally
associated with Islamic fortifications and mausoleum architecture and are rarely seen in
Hindu temple construction, The presence of these features strongly suggests the influence
of western Indian or Bengali craftsmen employed during Rudra Singha’s reign (Sharma,
2005).

The mastaka of the temple differs significantly from those of the Joy Dol and
Vaidyanath Dol. Instead of multiple crowning elements, it consists primarily of a single
large kalasha and is divided into three sections: mekhala, kalasha, chupha (Sharma, 2005,
pp. 110-111). The three-tiered mastaka preserves certain earlier architectural features
while also maintaining the compact visual composition of the temple (Sarma, 1988).
During the field visit I got to know that the original kalasha suffered damage during the
1950 Assam earthquake and was later reconstructed during the tenure of Bimala Prasad
Chaliha, indicating the continued cultural importance of the monument in modern Assam.

The brick-built temple houses a Sivalinga and shows a symbolic blend of Shaiva and
Shakta traditions. during the field visit it was observed that the sanctum contains the Devi
Peetha at the base, the Shiva Linga above it, and a Sarpa Sena (cobra hood) symbolizing

36
protection and Shiva’s power, giving the structure both ritual and theological significance,
Though less monumental than other Ahom temples, the Rangnath Dol shows strong
technical skill and originality in planning and construction (Sharma, 2005, pp. 110-111).
Local traditions claim it was built in a single day and night, reflecting popular reverence
rather than historical fact. Architecturally, its octagonal plan, simple decoration, Islamic-
inspired features, and Shaiva–Shakta symbolism make it an important example of
experimentation and cultural synthesis during Rudra Singha’s reign.

3.4.5 Gauri Ballav Devalaya: -

The Gauri Ballav Devalaya, also known as the Na-Gosai Satra, is situated at Joysagar
in Sivasagar, one of the most important historical and cultural centres of the Ahom
kingdom. The temple was established in 1696 Śaka (c. 1774 CE) during the later phase of
Ahom rule, a period marked by extensive temple construction and the growing influence
of Brahmanical Hindu traditions under royal patronage. This period represents an
important stage in the religious transformation of the Ahom polity, when earlier Tai-Ahom
beliefs increasingly merged with established Hindu religious practices.

Historical references state that the temple is located in an open field east of Rangnath
Siva Dol at Rangpur. It was constructed during the reign of Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha
by Dekajana Gosain, son of Ramananda Acharya Pahumoria Gosain, popularly known
as “Na-Gosai” or “Manuhen-Gosai,” hence the temple is also called Manuhen-Gosair Dol
(Rajkumar, 2023, p. 236). A pond was also excavated beside the complex, enhancing its
sacred setting. The designation “Na-Gosai Satra” indicates a link with the satra tradition
of Assam, though unlike Neo-Vaishnavite satras of Srimanta Sankardeva, this institution
reflects a Shaiva orientation. This shows that the satra system in Assam was not limited
to Vaishnavism but also included other religious traditions. The existence of a Shaiva-
oriented satra reflects the coexistence and interaction of Shaivism, Shaktism, and
Vaishnavism within the broader religious framework of the Ahom kingdom. It highlights
the syncretic nature of Assamese society in the later Ahom period, where different
religious traditions often functioned in a complementary rather than exclusive manner .

37
 Architecturally, the temple exhibits characteristic features of late Ahom-period
construction. The structure is aligned along a north south axis, which is relatively
uncommon in traditional Hindu temple architecture, where east west orientation is
generally preferred due to ritual associations with the rising sun (Buragohain D. , 2025).
This unusual alignment may reflect local ritual requirements or regional architectural
adaptations. The plan of the temple consists of three principal architectural components:
Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), Antarala (vestibule), Mandapa (assembly hall), The
temple’s garbhagriha is square in plan and contains the Shiva Linga as the main object of
worship. the antarala serves as a transitional space between the sanctum and the mandapa,
where devotees assemble for rituals (Buragohain D. , 2025). This three-part layout follows
the basic principles of Hindu temple architecture while incorporating regional Assamese
building traditions.

The temple has a chauchala superstructure with a four-sloped roof derived from
traditional Assamese house architecture (Buragohain D. , 2025). About 30 feet high, it
reflects the adaptation of local vernacular styles into religious buildings, a defining feature
of later Ahom temple architecture. The uppermost portion of the temple, known as the
mastaka, is crowned with a kalasha and a trishula. The trishula, being the principal ayudha
or symbolic weapon of Lord Shiva, clearly indicates the Shaiva affiliation of the shrine.
These crowning elements not only enhance the architectural identity of the monument but
also reinforce its religious symbolism.

The name “Gauri Ballav” signifies the divine union of Shiva and Parvati, symbolizing
cosmic harmony. Along with the Shiva Linga, Goddess Sheetala is also worshipped,
reflecting the integration of folk deities into Brahmanical tradition in Assam. A distinctive
feature of the temple is its use of a bedi (altar) instead of a ritual tank. During abhisheka,
offerings poured over the Shiva Linga are carried through a drainage channel to a pond
behind the temple, combining practical design with symbolic ideas of purification and the
flow of sacred elements.

Unlike many historical monuments that exist only as ruins, the Gauri Ballav Devalaya
continues to function as an active place of worship, with daily rituals performed both day

38
and night, preserving centuries-old devotional practices. This continuity highlights its
enduring religious and cultural significance in Assamese society. Historically, the temple
reflects the later phase of Ahom religious and architectural development, showing how
Hindu traditions were adopted and adapted while retaining elements of local Assamese
beliefs. Thus, the Gauri Ballav Devalaya stands not only as a religious structure but also
as a cultural record of the interaction between architecture, religion, and society in pre-
colonial Assam.

3.4.6 Siva Dol, Gaurisagar: -

The Siva Dol of Gaurisagar, situated at the centre of the Gaurisagar group of temples
on the northern bank of the Gaurisagar tank, represents one of the most important
architectural developments of the Ahom period. The temple was built during the reign of
Siva Singha as part of a planned east–west aligned temple complex. Among the three
temples in the group, the Siva Dol is the largest and centrally placed, highlighting its
primary ritual and architectural significance (Sarma, 1988, pp. 114-115).

Architecturally, the temple reflects a mature phase in the evolution of Ahom temple
architecture. The vimana follows a pañcaratha ground plan externally while the interior
of the garbhagriha is octagonal in shape. The temple consists of a garbhagriha, antarala
and a rectangular mandapa. Both the antarala and the mandapa are roofed in the
indigenous Assamese do-chala style, demonstrating the incorporation of vernacular
Assamese domestic architecture into monumental religious structures (Sarma, 1988).

The bada contains mouldings at the plinth and cornice levels and is ornamented with
niches containing images of Brahmanical deities. The vimana rises to nearly 50 feet in
height and possesses saptaratha projections. The shikhara is designed in the rekha-deul
form and is decorated with vertical ridges resembling the shape of the kordoi (starfruit).
Four large and four small anga-shikharas surround the main shikhara, representing a
further development of the architectural experimentation initiated during the reign of
Gadadhar Singha (Buragohain D. , 2025). The garbhagriha measures approximately 32
feet in interior height and contains a circular kunda within the sanctum. The antarala

39
projects in front of the sanctum as a connected chamber, while the rectangular mandapa
possesses a do-chala roof typical of Assamese hut architecture (Buragohain D. , 2025)

Dr Pradip Sharma (2005) observes that the curvature and structural treatment of the
vimana differ significantly from the rekha-deuls of early medieval India. Instead, the
temple represents an innovative Ahom adaptation of the North Indian Nagara tradition.
The temple became highly influential and later served as an important model for the
construction of subsequent Ahom temples. The Gaurisagar Siva Dol thus marks a decisive
stage in the stabilization and refinement of Ahom temple architecture, where earlier
experimentation visible at Joysagar evolved into a more balanced and technically
accomplished form.

3.4.7 Siva dol, Sivsagar: -

The Siva Dol of Sibsagar is the most prominent and architecturally significant
temple of the Ahom period, forming the central structure of the Sibsagar temple-tank
complex, the temple is built in 1734 by Bar Raja Ambika, queen of Siva Singha, it
dominates the landscape through its monumental height and refined architectural form.
Along with Devi Dol and Vishnu Dol, siva dol also known as the bor dol (Buragohain D.
, 2025), it forms a sacred triadic complex, where Siva Dol holds the primary religious
importance. Its reflection on the water surface enhances its visual and symbolic
presence, creating a powerful integration of architecture, ritual space, and natural
environment.

Architecturally, the temple represents a mature evolution of the Nāgara (rekha-deul)

tradition, adapted to regional Assamese building practices. The structure is clearly divided
into three vertical sections - pā-bhāg (base), jangha (wall portion), and baranda (cornice)
(Sharma, 2005). These divisions create a well-defined vertical progression, where the base
remains solid and plain, while the upper sections gradually become more articulated,
emphasizing upward movement. The most striking feature of the temple is its towering
shikhara, which rises sharply above the complex. It follows a modified Nāgara style and
is surrounded by clustered subsidiary spires known as uramanjari, giving the structure a
dense and layered vertical appearance (Basu, 1970). This arrangement enhances the visual
complexity of the temple and strengthens its monumental character. The construction
40
technique also shows a deliberate material division, with stone used in the lower portion
and brick in the upper superstructure.

The temple plan includes the essential components of Hindu temple architecture:
Garbhagriha, Antarala, Mandapa, Entrance gateway,the garbhagriha, octagonal in plan,
enshrines a Shivalinga along with a sacred Kunda, (Buragohain D. , 2025)The sanctum
directly supports the rising shikhara, creating a continuous vertical axis, while the
mandapa serves as a transitional space for ritual gatherings (Baruah S. L., 1986).

A distinctive feature of the temple is its octagonal stone plinth, which forms the base
of the structure. From this plinth, projecting wall sections (bhadras) rise and merge into
the superstructure, creating subsidiary spires or angasikharas and producing a star-like
effect known locally as kordoi siriya, reflecting the geometric sophistication of Ahom
temple architecture (Chowdhury,2022) .The mastaka originally carried a golden kalasha
symbolizing divine energy and royal authority, while its tiered, umbrella-like elements
show influences from both Buddhist stupa and Hindu temple traditions (Sarma, 1988, pp.
114-115). The square mukhamandapa with a do-chala roof further reflects the integration
of Assamese domestic architectural forms into sacred temple design (Chowdhury, Temple
architecture in sivsagar ,assam, 2022).

Historical evidence shows a high degree of precision in construction, with the temple’s
measurements systematically recorded in 1733 CE (1655 Saka), reflecting careful
planning and proportional accuracy. Accounts also mention failed attempts to remove the
golden finial, leaving visible marks that remain part of the structure’s history (Rajkumar,
2023). The temple suffered damage, especially during the 1950 earthquake, after which
the upper structure was restored, the finial replaced, and further modifications made for
stability and conservation (Chowdhury, Temple architecture in sivsagar ,assam, 2022)The
architectural evolution of the Siva Dol reflects a continuous development from earlier
Ahom temple forms such as Umananda, Gaurisagar, and Joysagar, culminating in a more
refined and monumental structure at Sibsagar. It represents the highest achievement of
Ahom temple architecture, combining regional innovation, structural sophistication, and
symbolic depth. (Sharma, 2005).

41
3.4.8 Rudrasagar Dol (Na-Pukhuri Dol): -
The Rudrasagar Dol, also known as the Na-Pukhuri Dol, is an important monument of
the later Ahom period, located on the bank of Rudrasagar (Na-Pukhuri) tank at Sivasagar.
It was built during the reign of Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha in 1773 CE and represents the
mature phase of Ahom temple architecture (Sarma, 1988, p. 111). Dr. Pradip Sharma
describes it as the most significant architectural achievement of Lakshmi Singha’s reign
and one of the tallest structures of the period.

Architecturally, it is a brick-built temple in the rekha-deul style, standing about 20

metres (65.61 feet) high. Despite weathering, it still reflects the high level of
craftsmanship of Ahom artisans (Sarma, 1988, p. 111). Its plan includes the garbhagriha,
antarala, mandapa, and nat-mandir, with an octagonal sanctum following the pancharatha
style (Buragohain D. , 2025) . The balanced proportions and structured design show the
architectural maturity of the late Ahom period (Sharma, 2005, p. 99).

In front of the temple is a do-chala mandapa built in the traditional Assamese roof
style, and traces of a semi-circular frontal mandapa can still be seen. Remains of a brick
enclosure wall also survive, suggesting that the original complex had a more elaborate
ceremonial layout (Sarma, 1988, p. 111).during field visit I have observed that The
entrance is decorated with niches containing sculptures of Ganesha and Hanuman,
reflecting the blending of different Brahmanical traditions in Ahom temple architecture.
Inside the garbhagriha is a Svayambhu Shivalinga, making it an important Shaiva centre
and showing the continued patronage of Shaivism in the eighteenth century.

According to Sharma (2005), the temple’s refined proportions and craftsmanship

represent the culmination of Ahom architectural development, demonstrating sustained
royal patronage of monumental temple building even during the later phase of the
kingdom. Thus, the Rudrasagar Dol occupies an important place in the architectural
history of Assam. Through its imposing height, refined structural composition, and
integration of indigenous Assamese and North Indian temple forms, the monument
reflects the mature development of late Ahom religious architecture.

42
 In the Ahom period, Sivasagar became an important centre of Shaivism the Ahom
rulers promoted the worship of lord shiva and built many shiva temples in the region.
These temples reflected the religious faith, cultural development and architectural skill of
the Ahom kingdom.

B) VAISHNAVITE TEMPLES
The Vaishnavite temples of the Ahom period reflect the growing influence of
Vaishnavism in Assam, especially after the spread of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement led
by Srimanta Sankardeva. Although the Ahom rulers initially followed their indigenous
religious practices and later adopted Shaivism and Shaktism, several kings also patronized
Vaishnavism and supported the construction of temples and satras dedicated to Lord
Vishnu and Krishna.
3.4.9 Keshavnarayan Dol (Joy dol): -
The Joy Dol, also known as Sri Kesavanarayana Vishnu Dol or Joysagar Bor Dol, is
the largest temple built during the reign of Swargadeo Rudra Singha and a major example
of late Ahom temple architecture (Sarma, 1988, pp. 108-109). Located on the northern
bank of Joysagar tank, it is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and served as an important centre of
Vaishnavite worship under royal patronage (Neog, 1960).

Architecturally, the Joy Dol is a fully developed example of the Nilachala type temple
and served as a model for later Ahom temples such as Gaurisagar, Sibsagar, and
Nagheriting (Sarma, 1988, p. 108). Aligned on an east west axis, its layout resembles the
Kamakhya temple, but it also includes regional innovations that give Ahom temple
architecture a distinct identity (Sharma, 2005, pp. 57-58). The complex includes the
garbhagriha, antarala, mandapa, and nat mandir, and was originally enclosed by a brick
boundary wall, parts of which still survive. Smaller shrines to Surya and Ganesha and a
bhog ghar for ritual offerings were also part of the complex (Neog, 1960).

The principal shrine follows a pañcaratha plan with an octagonal layout, and its vimana
rises to about 83 feet, making it the tallest structure in the Joysagar group of temples
(Sarma, 1988) ,The structure is built in stone up to the bada level, while the upper shikhara

43
is in brick, and its elevation is divided into pābhāga, jangha, and baranda with mouldings
at key levels (Buragohain D. , 2025). the jangha is decorated with devakosthas containing
deity figures and floral motifs, though many are now weathered, while the outer walls
feature richly carved stone plaques of gods and goddesses, reflecting high artistic
achievement under Ahom patronage (Sharma, 2005, pp. 57-58).

The most remarkable feature of the Joy Dol is its rounded dome-like shikhara, which
differs from the polygonal form of earlier Nilachala temples like Kamakhya (Sarma, 1988,
pp. 108-109). The shikhara has an oval vertical outline and a circular cross-section,
decorated with honeycomb-like geometric patterns and lotus motifs that enrich its surface
design (Buragohain D. , 2025). Around the cornice stand twelve angasikharas resembling
miniature replicas of the main shrine, adding rhythm and visual complexity to the
structure (Sarma, 1988, pp. 108-109).

The mastaka introduced a new architectural form with tiered kalashas diminishing
upward, crowned by a kalasha and Sri Chakra, a style that later became common in Ahom
temple architecture (Buragohain D. , 2025). Inside, the garbhagriha is octagonal with a
central ritual platform, while the antarala and rectangular mandapa are covered with
traditional do-chala roofs resembling Assamese domestic houses. This represents one of
the earliest major incorporations of indigenous Assamese architectural forms into
monumental temple construction during Rudra Singha’s reign (Sarma, 1988, p. 109).

Originally, three mandapas stood before the main shrine, though only two survive
today. The frontal hall likely functioned like a Namghar for congregational prayers and
bhaonas, while the adjoining apsidal hall followed Assamese Namghar traditions in
timber and thatch construction (Sarma, 1988, pp. 109-110). The complex also included
small do-chala shrines dedicated to Surya and Ganesha and a brick-built bhog ghar used
for preparing ritual offerings (Neog, 1960). The Joy Dol represents the peak of
architectural development under Rudra Singha, combining monumental scale, refined
design, and rich ornamentation. Blending indigenous Assamese forms with broader Indian
temple traditions, it became a model for later Ahom temples and remains one of the finest
examples of late medieval architecture in Assam.

44
3.4.10 Vishnu Dol, Gaurisagar: -
The Vishnu Dol or Gosain Dol of Gaurisagar is situated to the west of the Siva Dol
and forms part of the celebrated Gaurisagar temple complex constructed during the reign
of Siva Singha. The temple represents a continuation of the Nilachala style developed
earlier at Joysagar and demonstrates the growing refinement of Ahom temple planning
and ornamentation (Sarma, 1988).

Architecturally, the temple closely resembles the Joy Dol of Joysagar, though it is
comparatively smaller and less elaborate in craftsmanship. The temple possesses an
octagonal garbhagriha externally developed into a saptaratha plan. Its architectural
arrangement consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala and a rectangular mandapa. The
mandapa is roofed in the Assamese do-chala style, reflecting the influence of indigenous
Assamese domestic architecture upon Ahom temple construction (Sarma, 1988). The bada
contains two-tier horizontal mouldings at the plinth and cornice levels. The garbhagriha
is octagonal in plan and surrounded by eight anga-shikharas having square profiles. The
shikhara is dome-shaped and decorated with honeycomb-like geometric patterns together
with vertical and horizontal lattice work, directly recalling the decorative treatment of the
Joy Dol. Unlike many contemporary Ahom temples, the Vishnu Dol possesses a single
stupika surmounting the shikhara (Buragohain D. , 2025).

The temple follows the Nilachala method of construction, where the bada is ratha-
shaped while the upper portion assumes a rounded dome-like appearance. The anga-
shikharas resemble those of the Vaidyanath Siva Dol of Joysagar, although the overall
proportion and execution appear more refined. The honeycomb decoration of the shikhara
also derives from the Joy Dol tradition, though without the elaborate lotus motifs seen
there ( (Sharma, 2005). The antarala projects from the sanctum as a connected chamber,
while the rectangular mandapa remains comparatively simple in design. The temple
became an important prototype for later Vishnu temples of the Ahom period, especially
because of its honeycomb-patterned shikhara and balanced external ornamentation
(Sarma, 1988).

45
Thus, the Vishnu Dol of Gaurisagar represents an intermediate stage in the evolution of
Ahom temple architecture, combining the decorative traditions of Joysagar with the more
disciplined planning and proportional balance characteristic of the Gaurisagar group.

3.4.11 Bishnu dol,Sivasagar : -

The Vishnu Dol of Sibsagar, also known as the Gosain Dol, stands east of the Siva
Dol and forms an important part of the Sibsagar temple complex. Dedicated to Lord
Vishnu, it reflects the growing influence of Vaishnavism during the later Ahom period and
is one of the finest examples of Ahom brick-built temple architecture. Along with the Siva
Dol and Devi Dol, it forms part of the sacred architectural landscape around the Sivasagar
tank

Architecturally, the temple follows a plan similar to the Vishnu Dol of Gaurisagar and
the Keshavnarayana Temple of Joysagar, though it shows greater refinement in proportion
and ornamentation (Chowdhury,2020), The octagonal shrine combines Nāgara features
with Assamese regional adaptations, while the bada contains three-tier mouldings at the
plinth and cornice levels (Buragohain D. , 2025). The bada of the Vishnu Dol follows the
ratha style, with projections and recesses adding articulation to the outer walls. Its dome-
shaped shikhara is decorated with honeycomb patterns and floral motifs, enhancing the
decorative richness of the temple (Chowdhury,2021).

The architectural plan includes the garbhagriha, mandapa, and nat mandir, though it
lacks a separate antarala, distinguishing it from some earlier Ahom temples (Sharma,
2005), The sanctum entrance measures about 6.4 × 5.20 feet and supports the rising
superstructure above (Buragohain D. , 2025), the two identical 4-armed figures flanking
the garbhagriha door of Vishnu dol are painted yellow and serve as gatekeepers.

One of the most striking features of the Vishnu Dol is its shikhara, surrounded by
eight angasikharas arranged in pairs around the cornice level, giving the temple a sharper
and more refined vertical profile than the Vishnu Dol of Gaurisagar (Buragohain D. ,
2025).

46
 the honeycomb decoration and geometric patterns further reflect the advanced
craftsmanship of later Ahom architecture. The mastaka is designed in a multi-tiered
umbrella-like form crowned by a kalasha and later became a model for subsequent Ahom
temples (Sarma, 1988). Rising to about 60 feet, the vimana creates an imposing yet
balanced appearance, while the harmonious relationship between the bada, shikhara, and
mastaka demonstrates the stylistic maturity and refined decorative execution of the
Vishnu Dol (Buragohain D. , 2025).

The mandapa is rectangular in plan and is covered with a do-chala roof, reflecting the
influence of indigenous Assamese domestic architecture. (Buragohain D. , 2025). In front
of the mandapa stands a rectangular nat mandir, though the present aluminium-roofed
structure is modern in origin (Buragohain D. , 2025). Brick foundations suggest that an
earlier and larger mandapa once existed here, probably resembling the semi-circular
frontal mandapas of the Jaysagar temples, possibly with a traditional thatched Assamese-
style roof (Sharma, 2005). Today, a tin-roofed Namghar occupies the space. The Vishnu
Dol of Sibsagar, or Gosain Dol, stands east of the Siva Dol and reflects the growing
influence of Vaishnavism during the later Ahom period. It is one of the finest examples of
Ahom brick-built temple architecture and forms part of the sacred temple complex around
the Sivasagar tank.

The vimana rises to a height of approximately 60 feet, giving the temple an imposing
yet balanced appearance (Buragohain D. , 2025). The temple’s architectural refinement is
particularly visible in the proportional relationship between the bada, shikhara, and
mastaka. Compared to earlier Ahom temples, the Vishnu Dol exhibits greater stylistic
maturity in both structural composition and decorative execution. The mandapa is
rectangular in plan and is covered with a do-chala roof, reflecting the influence of
indigenous Assamese domestic architecture (Buragohain D. , 2025).

In front of the mandapa stands a rectangular nat mandir, though the present aluminium-
roofed structure is of modern origin (Buragohain D. , 2025). Evidence from the brick
foundation suggests that an earlier and larger mandapa once existed in front of the temple,
probably similar to the semi-circular frontal mandapas found in the temples of Joysagar

47
(Sharma, 2005). The narrow width of the remaining foundation indicates that this earlier
structure may have possessed a traditional thatched roof resembling Assamese domestic
architecture. At present, a tin-roofed Namghar occupies this space.

The Vishnu Dol of Sibsagar thus represents an advanced stage in the evolution of
Ahom temple architecture. Through its refined proportions, sophisticated decorative
treatment, and balanced upper structure, the temple demonstrates the stylistic maturity
achieved during the later Ahom period (Sarma, 1988). Its combination of Nāgara
principles, regional Assamese architectural traditions, and innovative ornamental design
establishes it as one of the most important Vaishnavite temples of Assam.

C) SAKTA TEMPLES

The Shakta temples of the Ahom period represent an important aspect of the religious
and architectural heritage of Assam. Along with Shaivism and Vaishnavism, Shaktism
received royal patronage under the Ahom rulers, especially during the later phase of the
kingdom. Temples dedicated to different forms of the Goddess, such as Durga and Kali,
were constructed in various parts of Assam and became important centres of worship and
religious rituals. The Ahom Shakta temples not only served religious purposes but also
symbolized the cultural and spiritual life of the kingdom.

3.4.12 Devi Dol, Joysagar: -

The Devi Dol situated on the western bank of the joysagar tank represent one of the
most important examples of the independent do chala style development during the Ahom
period, the temple belongs to the architectural group associated with the joysagar complex
and reflects the increasing incorporation of indigenous Assamese building tradition into
religious architecture during the reign of swargadeo Rudra Singha.

Architecturally, the temple is significant because both the main shrine and the frontal
mandapa were constructed in the same sloping do-chālā roof form, derived from
traditional Assamese domestic architecture. The structure demonstrates how the
indigenous Assamese hut-style roof could successfully be adapted for larger and more

48
permanent religious buildings. This represents an important phase in the evolution of
Ahom temple architecture, where local vernacular forms increasingly became integrated
into monumental construction (Sharma, 2005).

The Devi Ghar belongs to the same architectural group as the Surya and Ganesha
temples of the Joysagar complex. However, among these structures it is the largest and
most developed example. The building follows the Assamese do-chālā hut style with a
rectangular ground plan, straight eaves, and gabled ends, closely resembling the
traditional architectural form of Assamese houses (Sarma, 1988).Both the garbhagriha
and the mandapa are rectangular in plan and covered with do-chālā roofs,The roof of the
principal shrine rises to a height of approximately 22.78 feet, giving the structure a
balanced and proportionate appearance (Buragohain D. , 2025).

The measurements of the principal hall closely resemble those of the large mandapa
of the Joy Dol, suggesting that both structures were either built simultaneously or
influenced one another architecturally (Sarma, 1988) This similarity reflects a consistent
architectural programme within the Joysagar temple complex during the reign of Rudra
Singha. Although the independent do-chālā form was not widely used later for major
temples, it became highly influential in subsidiary structures such as mandapas, antaralas,
and auxiliary buildings (Sarma, 1988).

Thus, the Devi Dol played an important role in popularising indigenous Assamese roof
forms in later Ahom temple architecture, The Devi Dol of Joysagar reflects Rudra
Singha’s broader architectural vision of combining indigenous Assamese traditions with
formal religious architecture. Through its simple yet refined design, the temple
demonstrates the growing confidence of Ahom architects in transforming local vernacular
forms into permanent monumental structures.

3.4.13 Devi Dol, Gaurisagar

The Devi Dol of Gaurisagar, situated at the eastern side of the temple complex on the
northern bank of the Gaurisagar tank, is regarded as one of the finest architectural
monuments of the Gaurisagar group. Constructed during the reign of Siva Singha under

49
the patronage of Queen Phuleswari Devi, the temple represents an important stage in the
development of Ahom temple architecture and decorative experimentation (Sharma,
2005).

The temple follows a pañcaratha plan externally while the interior arrangement of the
garbhagriha is octagonal. The structure consists of a garbhagriha, antarala and mandapa.
The main shrine is built in stone up to the bada level, while the shikhara is constructed of
brick. The bada possesses three-tier horizontal mouldings at both the plinth and cornice
levels, and the walls are richly decorated with sculptural images of Brahmanical deities
(Buragohain D. , 2025).

The vimana rises to approximately 90 feet in height, making it one of the tallest
monuments within the Gaurisagar complex. The shikhara is characterized by vertical
corrugated ridges and is surrounded by four anga-shikharas placed along the cardinal
directions. The temple possesses a three-tiered mastaka surmounted by a kalasha. The
intrior height of the garbhagriha measures around 49 feet, while the antarala and mandapa
are provided with Assamese do-chala roofs (Buragohain D. , 2025). According to P. C.
Sarma (1988), the temple represents a simplified adaptation of the North Indian Nāgara
style. Unlike the honeycomb decoration of the Vishnu Dol, the Devi Dol uses continuous
vertical corrugated bands on its shikhara, creating a distinct visual identity. This variation
in decoration later influenced the stylistic distinction maintained between Shiva, Vishnu
and Devi temples in later Ahom architecture.

Dr. Pradip Sharma observes that the temple holds an important place in Ahom
architecture as one of the earliest mature examples of the Nāgara-style rekha-deul form
in Assam. Although the earlier Umananda temple introduced this tradition, the Devi Dol
of Gaurisagar achieved greater technical refinement and stylistic maturity. It also
introduced anga-shikharas attached to the main projections of the vimana, a feature that
later became characteristic of Ahom temple architecture. The Devi Dol therefore marks
an important stage in the architectural evolution of Assam, where indigenous Assamese
building traditions, North Indian temple forms and Ahom innovations were successfully
integrated into a unified and refined architectural expression.

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3.4.14 Devi dol,Sivsagar: -
The Devi Dol of Sibsagar, dedicated to Goddess Durga, is one of the most important
Shakta temples of the Ahom period and forms an integral part of the famous Sibsagar
temple complex. Situated between the Siva Dol and the Vishnu Dol, the temple occupies
an important place within the sacred architectural landscape of Sibsagar. The temple
continues to function as a major centre of worship, especially during the annual Durga
Puja festival, when devotees from different parts of Assam and other regions gather for
religious observances and celebrations.

The temple rises to a height of nearly 60 feet, while its base measures approximately
120 feet in diameter, giving the structure a balanced and imposing appearance. The
bolisthal associated with the temple is regarded as one of the most sacred spaces of the
complex and is especially connected with the worship of Goddess Kali and Goddess
Durga. A small Shani temple situated nearby also attracts a large number of devotees,
particularly on Saturdays. Architecturally, the Devi Dol represents a refined stage in the
development of Ahom temple architecture. The temple follows an architectural plan
almost identical to that of the Vishnu Dol, and the layout of its vastupurusha mandala as
well as the proportional measurements of different sections of the mandapa correspond
closely with that structure (Buragohain D. , 2025),

The vimana or main shrine is constructed in the ratha style, while the upper shikhara
assumes a dome-like appearance. The temple also contains anga-shikharas or subsidiary
spires, and its mastaka is designed in a five-tiered form similar to that of the Vishnu Dol
(Sharma, 2005).Although the temple does not introduce major structural innovations, it
demonstrates a mature and refined architectural execution. The body of the temple does
not incorporate entirely new architectural elements, and the mastaka lacks the same fluid
refinement visible in the Vishnu Dol (Sharma, 2005).

Nevertheless, the harmonious integration of height, mass, and decorative rhythm gives
the temple a strong sense of architectural unity and elegance. The Devi Dol also reflects
the growing importance of Shakta worship under Ahom royal patronage. Its large

51
mandapa, built on a brick plinth, was probably an open assembly hall supported by
wooden posts and covered with a thatched roof resembling the traditional Assamese
Namghar (Sarma, 1988).

This space was likely used for ritual gatherings, festivals, and communal worship
associated with Durga and other Shakta traditions; The wall sculptures of deities such as
Durga, Shiva, and Indra reflect the growing influence of Brahmanical traditions in later
Ahom temple art. With its balanced proportions and refined ornamentation, the Devi Dol
represents a mature phase of Ahom architecture and occupies an important place among
the temple monuments of Assam (Sharma, 2005).

3.4.15 Hara Gauri-dol: -

The Hara-Gauri Dol is an important monument of the late Ahom period and reflects the
architectural, religious, and political developments of eighteenth-century Assam.
Constructed during the reign of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha, the temple belongs to a
mature phase of Ahom architecture when temple construction and royal religious
patronage had reached a high degree of refinement. The monument demonstrates how
indigenous Assamese building traditions were gradually transformed into more
permanent and stylistically developed architectural forms.

Historical references to the Hara-Gauri tradition appear in the Tungkhungia Buranji

edited by S. K. Bhuyan. The chronicle mentions that during the reign of Rajeswar Singha,
Kirtichandra Barbarua discovered an image of Hara-Gauri on a hill while escorting the
Manipuri and Kachari rulers to the Ahom court. The idol was later presented before the
Ahom king along with the two rulers, Although the Buranji does not directly mention the
immediate construction of a temple, historians associate this event with the later
establishment of the Hara-Gauri shrine tradition within the Ahom kingdom. The temple
is situated at Joysagar, approximately four kilometres from the historic town of Sivasagar,
which functioned as one of the principal political and cultural centres of the Ahom
kingdom.

52
 The Joysagar region contains a large concentration of temples, tanks, and associated
monuments constructed during the Ahom period, creating an important sacred and
administrative landscape. Within this setting, the Hara-Gauri Dol is located to the west of
the Rangnath Siva Dol, indicating its close association with other major religious
structures of the region. Architecturally, the Hara-Gauri Dol is small in scale but important
for understanding the development of Ahom temple architecture. The brick-built structure
follows the do-chala style derived from traditional Assamese domestic architecture,
particularly the chang-ghar (Buragohain D. , 2025). Its sloping roof and brick pillars
resembling wooden posts suggest that earlier forms were probably built with bamboo and
timber before later reconstruction in brick, reflecting the transition from perishable to
durable building materials during the Ahom period.

The temple displays rich decorative treatment, particularly on the upper portions of its
exterior walls, where intricate floral ornamentation appears prominently. These decorative
features reveal the technical skill and artistic refinement achieved by Ahom craftsmen
during the later phase of the kingdom (Buragohain D. , 2025). Unlike some larger Ahom
temples that emphasize monumental scale, the Hara-Gauri Dol combines structural
simplicity with ornamental elegance, giving the monument a distinct aesthetic character.
The temple mainly consists of two architectural components: the garbhagriha and the
mandapa.

The garbhagriha contains a rectangular vedi measuring about 8.20 × 5.31 feet for the
installation of the principal deity (Buragohain D. , 2025). Dedicated to Hara and Gauri,
representing Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, the temple reflects the continued
importance of Shaiva traditions in the Ahom kingdom while symbolizing divine unity and
cosmic balance.

Apart from its religious importance, the Hara-Gauri Dol became associated with the
Moamoria Rebellion, one of the major crises of late Ahom history. After the Moran rebels
occupied Rangpur, important royal and sacred centres were controlled by rebel leaders.
According to the Tungkhungia Buranji, Khora Moran occupied the Rangnath Siva Dol,
while Radha resided at the Hara-Gauri Temple. In Ahom political culture, temples

53
symbolized sovereignty and legitimacy, so control over such sacred spaces represented an
assertion of political authority. Thus, the Hara-Gauri Dol became closely linked with the
power struggles of the late Ahom state. Later, Ahom loyalists launched a counterattack to
recover Rangpur from the rebels. During these conflicts, Radha was killed at the Hara-
Gauri Temple, making the monument not only a religious centre but also a site of political
violence during the Moamoria uprising (Bhuyan S. K., A History of Assam 1681-1826,
1933)

The Buranjis further mention that the Hara-Gauri idol was eventually returned to the
Kachari country because it was believed to possess an “implacable nature,” reflecting
Ahom beliefs regarding the spiritual power of sacred images and their connection with
political [Link], the Hara-Gauri Dol served not only as a religious monument but
also as a symbol of political authority during the Ahom period. Its association with the
Moamoria Rebellion gives it an important place in the political and architectural history
of Assam.

d) other temples

3.4.16 Surya Temple, Joysagar: -

The Surya Temple situated within the Joy Dol complex at Joysagar represents one of
the earliest examples of the incorporation of indigenous Assamese domestic architecture
into Ahom religious construction during the reign of Swargadeo Rudra Singha (Sarma,
1988). Located beside the Joy Dol, the temple was dedicated to Surya, the Sun God, and
formed part of the larger Vaishnavite religious establishment of Joysagar (Neog, 1960),it
reflects the architectural experimentation undertaken during this period, when local
Assamese building traditions began to influence monumental temple architecture.

Architecturally, the temple is comparatively small and simple in design, yet historically
significant because of its adaptation of the traditional Assamese do-chala hut form into a
religious structure (Sarma, 1988). The temple is rectangular in plan and possesses sloping
roofs with straight horizontal eaves, closely resembling the appearance of traditional
Assamese thatched houses (Sharma, 2005). This architectural approach later became

54
highly influential in the construction of mandapas, antaralas, and subsidiary shrines in
later Ahom temple complexes (Sarma, 1988).

Although modest in scale and decoration, the temple occupies an important place in
the architectural history of Assam because it demonstrates a successful adaptation of
vernacular Assamese domestic forms into permanent brick-and-stone temple construction
(Sharma, 2005). Its simplicity, balanced proportions, and indigenous roof design reveal
the growing importance of regional Assamese identity within Ahom religious
architecture.

3.4.17 Ghanshyam Dol: -

The Ghanshyam Dol, also known as the Ghanshyam Ghar or Ghanshyam Mandir, is
one of the most distinctive monuments of the late Ahom period. It is situated on the
western bank of the Jaysagar tank, to the south of the Devi Dol at Joysagar in present-day
Sivasagar district. The structure is generally associated with the reign of Swargadeo Rudra
Singha, under whom Ahom architecture witnessed major experimentation and stylistic
refinement.

According to local tradition, the monument was associated with Ghanshyam, the chief
architect of Rangpur, who was brought from Koch Bihar by Rudra Singha (Das P. c.,
2022). Another popular tradition identifies the architect as Ghunsauddin, a Muslim
craftsman who later embraced Hinduism and constructed the monument according to his
own artistic and religious preference (Sharma, 2005). Though historical confirmation is
difficult, these traditions reflect the cultural interaction and artistic exchange that
characterised the Ahom court during the eighteenth century.

Architecturally, the Ghanshyam Dol differs greatly from the conventional Ahom
temple pattern. Unlike most Ahom temples centred around a tall vimana and curvilinear
or domical sikhara, this monument follows a low horizontal arrangement strongly
influenced by Islamic architectural planning. The entire complex is enclosed within a
rectangular brick enclosure, giving the structure the appearance of a fortified religious
compound (Sharma, 2005), Within this enclosure several structural components can still

55
be identified. A northern entrance gateway or torana-griha, A row of barrack-like rooms
along the southern boundary, the principal temple structure positioned within the
enclosure, an open courtyard enclosed by brick walls (Sharma, 2005).

The arrangement of these structures resembles the layout of Islamic Mosque complexes
rather than traditional Hindu temple compounds. In Islamic religious architecture,
enclosed quadrangular planning with gateways and side chambers was common.
Although the Ghanshyam Dol adapts these features differently, the similarity remains very
striking. The temple itself is built in the Bengali chau-chala style with curved cornices
(Sharma, 2005). This architectural form developed from the traditional sloping bamboo-
and-thatch houses of Bengal and Assam. The use of this roof form demonstrates the
incorporation of vernacular domestic architecture into monumental religious construction
during the Ahom period.

The façade of the structure contains three arched entrances leading into a shallow
arched veranda or porch, while an inner chamber lies directly in line with the central arch
(Das P. c., 2022). The arches are pointed in form and clearly reveal Islamic stylistic
influence. The structure is richly decorated with terracotta plaques and ornamental tiles
similar to those seen in contemporary Bengali temple architecture (Sharma, 2005). Floral
and geometric decorative patterns appear extensively on the walls and façade.

One of the most remarkable architectural features of the Ghanshyam Dol is the presence
of a niche resembling a mihrab inside the sanctum. This niche is situated on the northern
wall and possesses pointed arches and squinches similar to those found in Islamic
mosques (Pradip Sarma). Although its placement differs from a true mosque mihrab, the
resemblance strongly indicates familiarity with Islamic architectural forms. The northern
gateway of the complex also displays unmistakable Islamic architectural characteristics,
including: Battlemented parapets, pointed arches, Recessed niches, massive brick
construction, Geometric decorative treatment (Sharma, 2005).

Such features are comparatively rare in Ahom temple architecture and therefore make
the Ghanshyam Dol especially important for understanding Indo-Islamic influence in

56
Assam. Unlike most Ahom temples, the structure contains no preserved idol and lacks
many conventional Hindu temple characteristics (Sharma, 2005). Because of this unusual
nature, scholars often regard the monument as an example of Indo-Islamic architectural
synthesis rather than a strictly orthodox Hindu temple. The monument is historically
significant because it demonstrates the cosmopolitan artistic environment that developed
under Rudra Singha. During his reign, craftsmen from Bengal, Koch Bihar, and
neighbouring regions were brought into the Ahom kingdom, resulting in experimentation
with new forms of temple planning and ornamentation (Sharma, 2005). The Ghanshyam
Dol stands as one of the clearest examples of this cultural and architectural interaction.

Thus, the Ghanshyam Dol occupies a unique place in the architectural history of
Assam. Through its synthesis of Islamic planning principles, Bengali terracotta
decoration, and Assamese chau-chala roofing traditions, the monument represents an
important stage in the evolution of late Ahom architecture and reflects the broader cultural
exchanges of the eighteenth century.

3.4.18 Fakuwa dol: -

The Fakuwa Dol of Rangpur represents one of the most unusual and innovative
architectural creations of the Ahom period. Situated to the south of the Rangnath Siva Dol
at Joysagar, the monument is regarded as one of the greatest architectural contributions of
Swargadeo Rudra Singha to Ahom temple architecture, constructed during 1703–1704
Mainly for the celebration of Dol Utsav, it is also believed to be associated with the
memory of his mother joymoti , the structure differs significantly from conventional Indo-
Aryan temple forms and occupies a unique position within the history of Assamese
religious architecture (Sharma, 2005).

Although the monument is presently in a ruined and dilapidated condition, enough of

its principal architectural remains survive to allow reconstruction of its original form and
layout. The structure was directly associated with Neo-Vaishnavite religious traditions
and later became an important architectural type connected with Vishnu worship in
Assam, because its architecture style often said to resemble the Thapona of Namghar.
However, unlike later examples attached to Vishnu temple complexes, Rudra Singha

57
constructed the Fakuwa Dol independently at Rangpur, separated from the Joy Dol
complex (Sharma, 2005).

The monument is especially significant because no earlier Ahom ruler is known to

have constructed a structure of this type, it represented an entirely new experiment in
Assamese temple architecture. Architecturally, the Fakuwa Dol was constructed in two
principal stages: A massive octagonal terraced plinth, an octagonal shrine erected upon
the upper platform, the entire structure rises through a series of broad stepped terraces
that gradually taper upward, creating a pyramidal appearance (Buragohain D. , 2025).
Unlike most Ahom temples, where the vimana or sanctum tower dominates the
composition, in the Fakuwa Dol the enormous raised plinth forms the principal
architectural feature.

The structure contains more than twenty broad and unusually high steps. These
stairways appear not to have been designed for ordinary movement alone but also for
ceremonial purposes and monumental visual effect (Sharma, 2005). To facilitate easier
access, smaller subsidiary stairways with intermediate landings were constructed at
intervals. At the eight corners of the lowest terrace stood eight octagonal anga-shikharas
or subsidiary shrines attached to the base platform, Although the upper shrine structure
has mostly collapsed, portions of the walls and terraces survive, permitting a reasonably
accurate understanding of its original architectural composition (Sarma, 1988).

The shrine itself appears to have been octagonal in plan, with octagonal walls, cornices,
and spire. It is also believed that each side may originally have contained a doorway
(Sharma, 2005). The broad upper terrace surrounding the shrine probably functioned as
an open circumambulatory platform for ritual movement around the sanctum. The Fakuwa
Dol is particularly important because it does not conform to any established Indo-Aryan
temple style. P. C. Sarma observes that the structure represents a completely distinct
architectural type associated with Neo-Vaishnavite ritual worship. The temple was
especially connected with the Deul Utsava, one of the most elaborate festivals of
Assamese Neo-Vaishnavism.

58
 Scholars suggest that this unusual architectural form may have originated from the
traditional earthen festival platforms or dols used in Assamese satras and Vaishnavite
settlements. During the Phalgu festival, temporary bamboo-and-thatch pavilions were
erected on these raised platforms for the worship of Radha and Krishna (Sharma, 2005).
Over time, such temporary ritual structures may have evolved into permanent masonry
monuments, Pradip Sarma further suggests that during the early stages of development,
only the shrine itself may have been rebuilt in brick while the original earthen mound
remained unchanged. However, rainfall and water seepage would gradually have
weakened the earthen base beneath the permanent masonry shrine, eventually
necessitating the construction of a durable masonry platform. The stepped octagonal
design likely emerged as the most stable and practical engineering solution for supporting
such a large elevated structure.

Another interpretation proposed by P. C. Sarma connects the design of the Fakuwa Dol
with the stepped wooden simhasanas used in Assamese satras for placing Vishnu images.
These wooden altar-like structures contained stepped bases supporting a domical shrine
above. According to this view, the Fakuwa Dol may represent a monumental brick-and-
stone adaptation of such ritual furniture, some scholars also suggest possible connections
with older architectural traditions of indigenous communities such as the Chutiyas.
Stepped structures discovered at places like Baghar Chuk and Mahdhowa in the
Lakhimpur region indicate that similar forms may already have existed before Ahom
adaptation (Sharma, 2005)

The monument has also attracted attention because of its visual similarity to certain
stepped monuments of Southeast Asia. Scholars have noted comparisons between the
Fakuwa Dol and monuments such as: Borobudur in Java, Mingalazedi Pagoda in Burma
(Myanmar) (Sarma, 1988), Although direct influence cannot be conclusively established,
such comparisons suggest the possibility of wider architectural interactions or parallel
developments in monument planning. In modern observation, the stepped pyramidal
appearance of the Fakuwa Dol has sometimes invited comparison with monuments like
Chechen Itza in Mesoamerica because of its terraced geometry and elevated shrine form.
However, this similarity is only visual and does not indicate any historical or cultural

59
 connection. The Fakuwa Dol developed independently within the Assamese Neo-
Vaishnavite and Ahom architectural context. The Fakuwa Dol ultimately represents one
of the boldest experiments in Ahom architecture. the Fakuwa Dol occupies a unique and
highly significant place in the architectural history of Assam.

In the subsequent period, the management system of the historical dols and temples
of Sivasagar district has changed considerably from the Ahom period to the modern age.
During the Ahom rule, temples were maintained through royal patronage, grants of land,
paiks, wealth, and other resources provided by the kings. Priests, Deoris, Bordeoris, and
other temple servitors were responsible for conducting rituals and maintaining temple
properties. After the establishment of British rule in Assam, the traditional management
system gradually weakened as the colonial government showed greater interest in revenue
collection than in temple preservation (Konwar, 2018).

After independence, the Government of Assam introduced several laws for the
management and protection of historical temples, especially through the Assam State
Acquisition of Land belonging to Religious or Charitable Institution of Public Nature Act,
1959. Under this Act, most temple lands were acquired by the government and annual
annuity was provided for daily seva-puja and maintenance. Managing committees
consisting of government officials, temple representatives, and devotees were formed to
supervise temple affairs. However, insufficient annuity, reduction of temple lands, natural
decay, and shortage of manpower created difficulties in proper maintenance and
administration. Therefore, the Archaeological Survey of India and the Directorate of
Archaeology, Assam have played an important role in the preservation and conservation
of the historical dols and temples of Sivasagar district (Konwar, 2018) .

3.05 Sculptures of Ahom Temples: Religious and Secular Themes

The sculptural art of the Ahom temples forms an important part of the architectural
heritage of the Sivasagar region. The temples of Devidol, Sivadol, Jaydol, Ghanashyam
Dol, Rudrasagar Dol, and other contemporary temples contain both religious and secular
sculptures carved on their outer walls, niches, façades, and projections. These sculptures

60
provide valuable information regarding the religious beliefs, royal life, warfare, music,
dance, hunting, dress, ornaments, and everyday social life of the Ahom period. Although
Ahom sculpture was not considered as highly developed as the sculpture of earlier periods
in Assam, it remains historically significant because it reflects the cultural and social life
of contemporary Ahom society (Gait, 1926) .

Ahom sculptures were generally executed in low relief. Most figures are represented
either in profile or frontal view. Human and divine figures usually possess square-shaped
faces, broad and flat noses, thick lips, deeply carved eyebrows, and half-closed eyes
reflecting Mongoloid features. The figures appear stiff and static with strong and sturdy
bodies, broad chests, slender waists, and heavy hips. In the eighteenth-century sculptures
of the Kalugaon group of temples, however, greater refinement can be noticed. The figures
become slimmer and more graceful, while movement is successfully created in the body
contours (Chowdhury, Secular Sculptures of the Temples of Sibsagar in Assam, India,
2021).

Religious sculptures constitute the most important category of Ahom temple sculpture.
The walls of the Devidol contain several niches filled with images of gods and goddesses.
One important sculpture depicts Kali holding a severed head in her left hand and a khadga
or sword in her right hand. The goddess is represented in her fierce aspect associated with
destruction and divine power. Another four-armed image of Kali is shown standing in
samapada-sthanaka posture with dishevelled hair, protruding tongue, and a garland of
skulls around her neck.

Another sculpture depicts Gaja Lakshmi seated upon a fully blossomed lotus while two
elephants standing on either side pour water over her head from pots. The sculpture
symbolises prosperity and fertility. A sculpture of Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu,
is also found in the temple. He is represented with four arms and richly adorned with
crown, necklace, and bracelets. Another image depicts Chamunda seated in padmasana
posture. A Surya deity riding a horse is also represented on the temple wall ( (Buragohain
D. , 2025). The sculptures of the Sivadol mainly reflect Shaiva religious traditions. Several
sculptural panels depict Shiva in his fierce form as Bhairava standing in samapada-

61
sthanaka posture holding a trident and shula in his hands. Most of these sculptures are
represented with prominent genitals reflecting the influence of Shaiva traditions in Ahom
temple art.

Another important sculpture associated with Vaishnavism depicts Vishnu riding

Garuda. Vishnu is shown seated upon Garuda’s shoulders while Garuda kneels below
supporting him. Garuda possesses both human and bird-like features including wings and
a beak (Chowdhury,2021). The Jaydol contains one of the richest collections of sculptural
art from the Ahom period. The walls of the temple contain representations of the
Dasavatara or ten incarnations of Vishnu. During the field visit, it was observed that one
important sculpture depicts Vishnu in his Narasimha avatar seated on a throne while
tearing open the stomach of the demon Hiranyakashipu with his sharp fingernails.
Prahlada is shown seated near the feet of Narasimha with folded hands in prayer. Another
sculpture represents Balarama holding a hala or plough in his left hand and wearing
crown, necklace, and dhoti.

The temple walls also contain scenes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana. During the
field visit I see that one dramatic panel depicts Arjuna aiming at a target with his bow.
Another important sculpture represents Hanuman carrying the Sanjeevani mountain to
save Lakshmana during the Ramayana war. Hanuman is shown in a dynamic posture
holding a gada. Other important religious figures represented in Ahom temple sculptures
include Rama, Lakshmana, Sita, Ganesha, Mahayogi, and Krishna as Venugopala with
Radha. Krishna is shown in tribhanga posture playing the flute beneath a tree while Radha
stands beside him expressing divine love and devotion. Similar terracotta sculptures are
found in the Ghanashyam Dol.

Along with religious sculptures, secular sculptures occupy an equally important place
in Ahom temple art. The sculptural panels of the Jay dol contain vivid depictions of royal
life, warfare, hunting scenes, music, dance, and ordinary social activities. One sculpture
engraved on the eastern wall of the shrine depicts a horse rider, probably Swargadeo Rudra
Singha, accompanied by attendants. One attendant is shown holding a floral chatra or
royal umbrella symbolising royal dignity and authority. Another touching sculpture

62
depicts a woman holding a baby in her arms while gently bending her head toward the
child expressing affection and motherhood. The figure may represent Yashoda with
Krishna, Joymoti Konwari, or a royal mother figure. Another female figure is shown
arranging her hair with raised arms while wearing ornaments such as bangles, earrings,
armlets, and a long dress.

The sculptural panels also depict royal processions, war scenes between horse riders
and elephant riders, prisoners of war, hunting scenes, sages, dancers, musicians, and
various animals such as elephants, horses, crocodiles, deer, and tigers. Terracotta
sculptures from the Ghanashyam Dol portray common tribal people carrying baskets and
goods reflecting aspects of everyday life. Court scenes similar to Mughal miniature
paintings are also represented. Mughal influence can further be observed in costumes such
as jama, pajama, and turbans worn by many sculptured figures (Chowdhury,2021).

Sculptures of sages and ascetics are represented seated beneath trees in meditative
postures wearing rudraksha malas. Dancers and musicians playing instruments such as
flute and khol are also represented on temple walls, and their costumes resemble those of
Sattriya dancers (Chowdhury,2021). Animal motifs and decorative carvings also formed
an important feature of Ahom temple sculpture. Sculptors carved elephants, horses, deer,
tigers, boars, monkeys, camels, birds, and mythical animals like makara on temple walls.
Floral motifs such as lotus flowers, creepers, leaves, and vegetal patterns were extensively
used to decorate empty spaces between panels and arches (Chowdhury,2021).

Overall, the sculptures of Ahom temples beautifully combine religion, mythology,

royal culture, warfare, music, dance, and everyday life. Though technically less advanced
than earlier Assamese sculpture, they remain historically valuable for preserving the
artistic and cultural traditions of the Ahom period in the Sivasagar region (Gait, 1926).

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 Chapter IV
Secular Architecture of Ahoms in Sivasagar

The secular architecture of the Ahom kingdom represents a well-developed system of state-
sponsored public works that included tanks, roads, embankments, bridges, and other civic
infrastructure. These structures were not limited to religious purposes but were mainly
designed for public welfare, communication, irrigation, flood control, and administrative
efficiency. The Ahom rulers treated construction activities as an essential duty of the state,
ensuring the development of a strong infrastructural base across their territory. Tanks were an
important part of this system, but they functioned alongside a much wider network of secular
constructions.

4.01 Secular buildings

4.1.1 Ranghar: -
Ranghar, meaning “House of Entertainment” in Assamese is one of the most significant
surviving examples of secular architecture developed under the Ahom kingdom at its capital
Rangpur, Ranghar constructed primarily as a royal pavilion for watching games and public
cultural performances. It was originally built during the reign of Ahom king Rudra Singha as
a wooden structure intended for royal amusement and public gatherings (Bhuyan S. K., 1930,
p. 72). The monument functioned as a viewing gallery where the Ahom king and nobles
observed various outdoor sports such as wrestling, buffalo fights, cockfights, and other
competitions held in the adjacent Rupohi Pathar, while the general public watched from the
open field (Baruah,1986,p326) .This clearly shows that Rang Ghar was an organised space of
royal entertainment and social interaction within the Ahom political system (Hussain, 2023).

Architecturally, the Rang Ghar represents a unique secular structure of the Ahoms, initially
constructed in wood and later reconstructed and beautified in brick during the reign of Pramatta
Singha around 1745 (Bhuyan S. K., 1930, p. 72). The structure is rectangular in plan with
slightly trapezoidal ends, and its most distinctive feature is its massive shell-shaped roof
resembling an inverted royal Ahom boat, crowned with small turrets at the centre

64
(Baruah,1986,p326) .The building is decorated with semi-circular arches, rows of columns and
pilasters, and ornamental motifs, including floral and animal designs, reflecting both
indigenous artistic traditions and external architectural influences (Hussain, 2023), The
entrance is further enriched with two stone-carved crocodile (makara) figures, symbolising
protection and royal authority (Hussain,2013)

Scholars have also observed that the structural form of Rang Ghar shows stylistic influence
similar to Islamic architecture, particularly in its use of arches, vaulted forms, and columnar
arrangements (Baruah S. L., 1986, p. 326). The roof design, resembling a boat with curved
eaves and a central canopy, is also linked to indigenous architectural traditions such as
namghar-type structures seen in Neo-Vaishnavite Satras (Baruah S. L., 1986, p. 326). The
monument stands approximately 10 metres in height, 27 metres in length, and 11 metres in
width, indicating a carefully planned royal structure meant for large-scale public viewing
(Hussain, 2023),The reconstruction and strengthening of such royal buildings in brick during
the Ahom period also reflect a broader administrative and architectural transition from
temporary wooden structures to permanent monumental architecture in the capital region
(Bhuyan S. K., 1930, p. 72).

Overall, the Rang Ghar represents a significant example of Ahom secular architecture where
royal authority, public entertainment, and cultural life were closely integrated. It stands as a
symbol of Ahom architectural innovation and their organised system of courtly leisure, making
it one of the most important surviving heritage structures of Assam’s medieval period.

4.1.2 Kareng-Ghar: -
Kareng Ghar of the capital city Gargaon stands as one of the most important royal
monuments of the Ahom period, reflecting the architectural grandeur of the Ahom kingdom. It
functioned as the central administrative and residential palace of the Gargaon capital and is
regarded as one of the finest examples of Ahom palace architecture. The present masonry
structure is associated with the reign of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha, who is believed to have
rebuilt the palace in brick in 1752 AD after its earlier wooden phase.

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 The palace is described as a seven-storeyed structure, with three storeys underground and
four above grounds. Its external dimensions are approximately 74 ft 9 inches in length (north–
south) and 58 ft 10.5 inches in breadth (east–west). The ground floor is rectangular and
contains multiple rooms, including a larger central chamber and smaller adjoining rooms. The
upper storeys were designed with increasing security considerations, including chambers for
guards at the corners of the floors, reflecting the administrative and protective functions of the
structure (Hussain, 2023, pp. 60-61).

It is also believed that Kareng Ghar contained a secret underground connection with
Talatal Ghar at Rangpur, indicating a linked palace–fortress system used for both
administrative and military purposes (Hussain, 2023, pp. 60-61). The architectural remains
suggest that the structure was built using brick and stone materials, replacing earlier wooden
constructions that existed during the early Ahom period.

Scholars have noted that although Kareng Ghar does not resemble Islamic architecture in its
overall appearance, certain features such as arched doorways, recessed openings, and corbelled
cornices show stylistic influence from Islamic architectural traditions (Baruah S. L., 1986, p.
348). The palace complex at Gargaon was historically enclosed by a brick wall extending
nearly two miles in circumference, and contemporary accounts describe it as a highly
ornamented royal residence supported by massive wooden pillars and richly decorated interiors
(Baruah S. L., 1986, p. 348). It is also recorded that the construction involved thousands of
workers and reflected a highly organised system of state-controlled labour under the Ahom
administration.

Historical evidence further shows that Ahom engineering was systematically managed
under officials such as the Changrung Phukan, who supervised public works and maintained
detailed records of construction activities (Baruah S. L., 1986, p. 429).This indicates that
Kareng Ghar was part of a larger planned architectural and administrative system within the
Ahom kingdom. During the colonial period, the structure suffered neglect and partial
destruction. Records mention that parts of the palace area were leased to tea companies, and
attempts were made to dismantle sections of the building, which were later stopped due to local
intervention. By the early 20th century, the structure had already fallen into partial ruin and

66
was surrounded by forest growth, although it remains still reflected its former grandeur
(Rajkumar, 2023, p. 230).

Overall, Kareng Ghar represents the peak of Ahom palace architecture at Gargaon,
combining administrative, residential, and symbolic functions. Despite damage and decay over
time, it continues to stand as an important monument reflecting the political power,
architectural skill, and organised state system of the Ahom kingdom.

4.1.3 Talatal ghar: -

Talatal Ghar is regarded as the largest and most complex architectural structure of the
Ahom kingdom, representing the highest achievement of Tai-Ahom engineering and palace
construction. It is a seven-storeyed structure, consisting of three underground storeys (Talatal
Ghar) and four upper storeys known as Kareng Ghar (Mehnaj Begum, p. 306). The monument
was constructed during the reign of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha in 1765 A.D. and functioned
as a royal court, administrative centre, and strategic military headquarters of the Ahom
kingdom (Baruah,1986, p429).

Historically, the structure was first initiated during the reign of Rudra Singha in a wooden
form and later reconstructed and completed in brick during the reign of Rajeswar Singha
(Hussain, 2023, p. 61). The palace was built using bricks and an indigenous form of cement
prepared from bora rice and eggs, reflecting the advanced local engineering knowledge of the
Ahoms (Begum, 2024, p. b306). The underground sections were primarily designed for
military and defensive purposes, including secret escape routes for kings during enemy
invasions The Talatal Ghar is especially noted for its complex internal structure. It contains
numerous rooms arranged along long corridors running east to west, while smaller wings
extend in other directions, showing a highly planned architectural layout (APR Report). The
ground floor was used for stables, warehouses, and servant quarters, while the upper floors
contained royal apartments and administrative chambers (Baruah,1986, p429). Guard
chambers were also placed at strategic points, including corner rooms designed for security
personnel.

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 A notable feature of the complex is the presence of a puja house located on the northern
side, which is octagonal in shape and dedicated to Lord Shiva. Adjacent to it is a mandap used
for ritual activities, indicating that religious practices were integrated into the royal
architectural system (Begum, 2024, p. b306). This demonstrates that Talatal Ghar was not only
a military and administrative structure but also a space where religious and royal authority
coexisted. Architecturally, the structure shows features of Indo-Islamic influence, particularly
in its use of arches, spatial planning, and structural organisation.

The complex also included defensive structures such as brick fortifications, earthen
ramparts (garh), and water-filled ditches surrounding the palace, enhancing its protection
system The palace complex also included a gunpowder store (Golaghar), further highlighting
its military function (Baruah S. L., 1986, p. 429). Its strategic location approximately 3 km
from Sivasagar town and southeast of Rang Ghar shows its integration within the larger Ahom
capital complex.

Talatal Ghar, is described in Padmanath Gohain Baruah’s Assamar Buranji as a seven-

storeyed royal structure of the Ahom kingdom, consisting of three underground floors and four
upper floors. The structure is noted for its highly complex internal design, with multiple
corridors and interconnected rooms arranged in such a way that outsiders could easily become
disoriented and unable to find the exit (Baruah P. G., 2004, p. 83), The underground floors
were specially designed for strategic and defensive purposes, including secret passages and
hidden escape routes for the royal family during enemy attacks. This made the structure highly
secure and suitable for wartime situations. The overall architectural planning reflects a
deliberate attempt to combine royal residence with military defence, ensuring both safety and
strategic advantage (Baruah P. G., 2004, p. 83).

Overall, Talatal Ghar represents the peak of Ahom architectural and engineering
achievement, combining military strategy, administrative organisation, religious space, and
royal residence within a single integrated structure. Despite partial destruction over time, it
remains one of the most significant monuments reflecting the power, intelligence, and
architectural sophistication of the Ahom kingdom.

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4.02 Tanks of the Ahom Period
The Ahom kings excavated numerous tanks or sagars for public welfare, religious purposes
and memorial activities. According to Nobin Buragohain (2023), tanks in the Ahom period
were dug for different purposes such as in memory of kings, queens and royal mothers, for
providing drinking water to the people, for worship and rituals, for celebrating victories and
for royal administrative works (Buragohain N. , 2023, p. 60). The responsibility of excavating
tanks and constructing embankments was mainly given to the Barbaruah, while the Chang-
Rung Phukan supervised the construction of temples and engineering works. The Ahom system
of compulsory labour known as the Paik system helped in the construction of roads, tanks,
embankments, temples and bridges (Das, 2022).

The Ahoms followed scientific methods while selecting places for tank excavation. Experts
known as matichelekabishaya or soil testers searched for underground perennial water sources
by examining the soil and listening to the ground. After locating a suitable water source, pits
were dug and mustard oil lamps were lit inside them during the night to identify the actual
point of underground water flow. The place where the lamp extinguished naturally was selected
for excavation (Buragohain, pp. 60–67). The Ahoms connected the tank with underground
water through a wooden pole called Nagmari placed at the centre of the tank. This system
maintained a constant water level throughout the year.

Ahom tanks were generally square-shaped and surrounded by embankments and side
trenches known as Jamuna. These Jamunas controlled excess water, protected the tank from
erosion and preserved water purity (Buragohain, p. 67). The excavated earth was layered and
compacted by elephants to strengthen the embankments. The Ahoms also planted valuable
trees around the tanks to beautify the surroundings (Buragohain, p. 67).

A special feature of Ahom tank architecture was the establishment of Nagmari. It was a
wooden structure made mainly of sal wood and carved with serpent designs. The Nagmari
regulated the flow of underground water and symbolised fertility and sacredness. In Ahom
belief, the serpent or Nag was associated with prosperity and religion, and therefore Nagmari
became an important element of Ahom hydraulic architecture (Buragohain, pp. 70–79).

69
4.2.1 Joysagar Tank: -
Joysagar Barpukhuri is regarded as the largest man-made tank in India. It was excavated
by Ahom king Rudra Singha in 1697 CE in memory of his mother Joymoti Konwari at Jerenga
Pathar near present-day Sivasagar (Chowdhury, 2025, p. 433). According to Nobin
Buragohain, Joymoti was tortured to death during the political crisis of the Ahom kingdom,
and Rudra Singha excavated the tank to honour her memory (Buragohain, pp. 105–106). The
tank was completed within only 45 days and became a symbol of Ahom engineering skill and
maternal remembrance.

On the banks of Joysagar stand the Vishnu Dol, Shiva Dol, Devi Dol and Ghanashyam Dol,
making it an important religious and architectural centre (Das, 2022).The tank was excavated
not only for memorial purposes but also for public welfare and religious activities. The
surrounding embankments and Jamunas reflect the advanced hydraulic planning of the Ahoms.

4.2.2: - Gaurisagar Tank

Gaurisagar Barpukhuri was excavated between 1715–1717 CE by Phuleswari Konwari, the
chief queen of Ahom king Siva Singha (Das, 2022).According to Nobin Buragohain, it was the
first major royal tank excavated under Ahom royal patronage. The tank is situated near
Namdang and is surrounded by a beautiful natural environment (Buragohain, p. 105).

Three temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Devi were constructed on the northern bank
of the tank. These temples increased the religious importance of the site and reflected the Ahom
practice of combining water reservoirs with temple complexes. Archaeological evidence
suggests that some wooden or bamboo religious structures may also have existed there in the
past (Buragohain, p. 105). Today the tank remains an important historical and cultural
landmark of Assam.

4.2.3 Sivasagar Tank: -

Sivasagar Barpukhuri was excavated in 1734 CE by Ambika Konwari, queen of Ahom king
Siva Singha (Chowdhury and Das, 2025, p. 433). The tank later gave its name to the town of
Sivasagar. Earlier the place was known as Kalanchupar, but after the excavation of the tank

70
and the construction of temples, the area gradually came to be known as Sivasagar
(Buragohain, pp. 108–109).

Around the tank stand the Shiva Dol, Vishnu Dol and Devi Dol. Among them, Th tank was
surrounded by broad embankments and Jamunas, which protected the water body and
maintained its structure for centuries (Buragohain, p. 109). The four sides of the tank were
associated with different historical and social groups. The eastern bank was known as
Cherekapar, the western bank as Kathpar, the northern bank as Joyrapar and the southern
bank as Dhuliyapar (Buragohain, pp. 108–109). These names reflected the settlement patterns
and occupational groups living around the tank during the Ahom period.

Sivasagar Barpukhuri also became an important urban and cultural centre. Government
offices, educational institutions, gardens and religious structures gradually developed around
it. The tank continues to remain one of the most important historical landmarks of Assam.

4.03 Stone bridge: -

Stone bridges or Sil Sakos were important examples of Ahom secular architecture and were
mainly constructed to facilitate communication, transportation, defence and administration
within the kingdom. Assam possessed a vast network of rivers and streams; therefore, bridges
played an essential role in maintaining road connections through the ali or highways built by
the Ahoms. Earlier bamboo and wooden bridges were gradually replaced by durable stone
bridges on major provincial roads.

A Sil Sako literally means a stone bridge (sil meaning stone and sako meaning bridge in
Assamese). Among the surviving examples, mention may be made of the stone bridges at
Namdang, Dajaikona and Darika rivers (Gait, 1963:153). Ahom chronicles mention about
twelve stone bridges constructed during the Ahom period over rivers such as Dijai, Darika,
Rahdai, Dimow, Hanhchara, Namdang and Naphuk (Buragohain,2021:62). These bridges
reflected the engineering skill and architectural advancement of the Ahoms.

4.3.1 Namdang stone bridge:

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 4.3.1 Namdang stone bridge: Namdang Stone Bridge is one of the finest surviving
examples of Ahom engineering in Assam. It was constructed during the reign of Swargadeo
Rudra Singha (1701–1703 CE) as part of the royal highway system connecting Rangpur with
other important regions of the Ahom kingdom. The bridge was built across the Namdang River
using large stone blocks, and in some accounts, it is described as being carved from a single
solid rock, reflecting advanced stone-working techniques of the period, The structure is
approximately 60 metres in length and 6.5 metres in width, and it includes six culverts to
regulate water flow and strengthen stability. Iron spikes were used to join stone blocks,
showing a high level of technical skill in construction.

The bridge has a slightly convex form and was designed to support continuous traffic,
including its later use as part of the Assam Trunk Road (Das, 2022) . Architecturally, the bridge
also features arched parapets and rectangular devakosthas (niches) on its peers, which once
held decorative or religious figures. Despite natural wear over time, it remains one of the most
important surviving stone bridges of the Ahom period, reflecting their engineering skill,
durability, and emphasis on strong transport and communication networks (Das, 2022).

4.3.2 Darika Stone bridge:

Another early example is the stone bridge over the Darika Silo Sako near Garhgaon,
constructed during the reign of Pratap Singha. It is a straight bridge with large semi-circular
parapets and five arches with pointed apexes. It formed part of the historic Dhodar Ali road.
Gadadhar Singha also constructed important bridges over the Dijoikhana river, including the
Kenduguri Sil Sako and Rahdai Sil Sako near Garhgaon. Though many of these bridges are no
longer motorable, several still survive in good condition and continue to reflect the advanced
road and bridge-building tradition of the Ahom kingdom.

4.04 Roads: -
During the Ahom period, roads were locally known as Ali and played an important role in
transport, communication, administration and defence. The Ahom capitals such as Garhgaon,
Rangpur, Charaideo and Charguwa were connected with different strategic regions of the
kingdom through an extensive network of roads. These roads linked both the plains and hill
regions and helped in maintaining political and military control (Das, 2022).

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 Among the principal roads of the kingdom were the Dhodar Ali and the Garh Ali, which
intersected different parts of the Ahom territory. Pratap Singha is credited with constructing
the Bar Ali, the old trunk road connecting Sibsagar with Dibrugarh and several adjoining
regions. The Garhgaya Ali connected Chunpura Duar of Garhgaon through Sibsagar to
Baghchuk and was built under the orders of Garhgaya Raja.

During the reign of Rajeswar Singha, the Deka Barbaruah Ali was laid connecting
Dichangmukh to Dhakuakhana. Another important road was the Cheuni Ali constructed in the
17th century CE during the rule of Jayadhaj Singha. Many roads were also built for defensive
purposes to restrict the movement of hill tribes, Jayantias and Kacharis into the Ahom
kingdom. Some roads were constructed as memorials, such as the Dhai Ali built during the
reign of Siva Singha. Other important roads of the Ahom period included Rajmao Ali,
Senchowa Ali, Naga Ali, Nahar Ali, Sukati Ali, Salaguri Ali,Meteka Ali, Barpatra Ali and
Aideo Ali (Das, 2022).

In the conclusion the secular architecture of the Ahom kingdom represents a highly
organised tradition of state-sponsored public works that included tanks, roads, embankments,
bridges, and other civic infrastructure designed mainly for public welfare, communication,
irrigation, and administration. These works were systematically planned under the supervision
of the Chang-Rung Phukan, regarded as the chief engineer of the kingdom, while the paiks
system provided compulsory labour for their construction.

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 Chapter V

Conclusion

The architectural heritage of the Ahom kingdom in Sivasagar district represents one
of the most remarkable achievements in the cultural and historical development of Assam.
The present study reveals that Ahom architecture evolved gradually through a long
historical process. From their early settlement period to the establishment of Sivasagar as
an important political and cultural centre, the Ahoms developed a distinct architectural
tradition which reflected both indigenous practices and external influences.

The historical background of the Ahom rule shows that the migration of the Ahoms
into Assam marked an important phase in the political and cultural history of the
Brahmaputra valley. Different historians have presented varying views regarding the
origin and migration of the Ahoms, but all acknowledge their significant contribution to
the development of Assam. The establishment of Sivasagar as an important Ahom capital
greatly influenced the growth of architecture, administration, religion, and culture under
royal patronage.

Religion played a major role in the development of Ahom architecture. Initially, the
Ahoms followed their indigenous religious beliefs, but later they gradually came under
the influence of Hinduism, especially Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism. This
religious transformation encouraged temple construction and artistic activities. The
temples of Sivasagar, Joysagar, and Gaurisagar stand as important examples of Ahom
religious architecture and reflect the religious devotion and cultural aspirations of the
Ahom rulers.

The study also reveals that Ahom architecture represents a synthesis of indigenous
Assamese traditions and external influences, particularly Hindu and Islamic architectural
styles. Islamic influence can be observed in the use of arches, domes, and decorative
techniques, while local traditions remained important in construction methods and

74
designs. The sculptures and carvings found in temples further reflect both religious and
secular themes and provide insight into the artistic life of the period.

In the field of secular architecture, the Ahoms constructed numerous palaces,

amphitheatres, bridges, roads, tanks, and defensive structures which demonstrate their
administrative strength, engineering knowledge, and aesthetic sense. Structures such as
Rang Ghar, Talatal Ghar, Kareng Ghar, and Namdang Stone Bridge stand as important
examples of secular architecture in Assam. These structures served military,
administrative, recreational, and communication purposes and reveal the practical and
artistic achievements of the Ahom rulers. The construction of roads, tanks, underground
passages, palace complexes, and bridges further indicates the organized planning and
technical advancement of the Ahom administration. The architectural excellence of these
monuments reflects not only royal authority but also the social and cultural development
of the Ahom kingdom.

Another important aspect revealed through the study is that many Ahom monuments
of Sivasagar continue to remain culturally active even in the present day. These
architectural structures are not merely archaeological remains but living centres of
religious and cultural practices. For instance, Rang Ghar continues to hold immense
cultural significance because of its association with the celebration of Bihu, one of the
most important festivals of Assam. Historically, Ranghar served as a royal pavilion from
where Ahom kings and nobles witnessed traditional games, performances, and Bihu
celebrations. Even today, during the Bihu season, large numbers of visitors and tourists
gather around the monument, reflecting its continuing relevance in the cultural life of
Assam.

Similarly, Shivadol remains an important centre of religious activity where the festival
of Shivaratri is celebrated every year with great devotion. During this occasion, a large
fair is organized near the temple complex and the Sivasagar tank, attracting devotees and
visitors from different regions. The continued observance of such religious festivals
demonstrates the enduring spiritual and social importance of Ahom religious architecture
in contemporary Assamese society

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 The study also observes that other temple complexes associated with the Ahom period
continue to preserve traditional religious and cultural practices. Rituals and festivals
connected with local traditions, including Me-Dam-Me-Phi celebration Rudrasagar shiva
dol and Thaora dol. These practices help maintain the cultural continuity between the
historical legacy of the Ahom kingdom and present-day Assamese society. Thus, the
monuments of Sivasagar possess not only historical and architectural value but also
continuing cultural, religious, and social significance.

The present study also reveals certain limitations in the existing scholarship on Ahom
architecture. Most earlier studies mainly focused either on important temples or on
selected monuments individually, while comprehensive studies combining both religious
and secular architecture within the same framework remain limited. Many works
emphasize only the major and well-known temples, whereas several lesser-known
temples, ruined structures, tanks have received comparatively little scholarly attention.
Therefore, the present research attempts to provide a broader and more integrated
understanding of Ahom architecture in Sivasagar district by examining both religious and
secular monuments together in their historical and cultural context.

Field observation conducted during the research further helped in understanding the
present condition of many Ahom monuments, in many sites, proper signboards, directions,
tourist information, and awareness measures are absent, making these monuments less
accessible to visitors, students, and researchers. During the field study, it was observed
that many important monuments do not receive equal attention in terms of conservation
and maintenance. In several temple complexes, vegetation growth, cracks, broken
sculptures, and erosion of brick walls are clearly visible.

The study also observes that natural and environmental factors have significantly
affected the preservation of Ahom monuments. The humid climate and heavy rainfall of
Assam have negatively influenced the durability of brick, plaster, stone carvings, and
decorative elements. In addition, the devastating earthquake of 1950 caused serious
damage to several temples and sculptures in Sivasagar district.

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 During field visits, it was particularly observed that some temples, including
Gaurisagar Devalaya, require better preservation and restoration efforts. In some places,
historical surroundings have also been altered by modern construction activities, including
residential settlements, schools, government offices, and other buildings established near
important tanks and temple complexes. Such developments have affected the original
historical environment and cultural landscape of these heritage sites.

The AMASR act 1958, provides for 100-metre prohibited area and 200- metre regulated
area around protected monument, however during the field observation I saw many houses
near some heritage like Fakuwa dol, Hara-Gauri Dol, this indicate that the implication of
the act is not always effective. Therefore, both the government and the public should take
responsibility for protecting these heritage site. The study therefore emphasizes the urgent
need for preservation, archaeological conservation, and public awareness regarding the
architectural heritage of the Ahom period, during the field visit, I also notice that many
visitors had written their names, initials and massages on the walls of many monument,
such act damage the monuments and affects their beauty and historical significant,
therefore its necessary to protect and preserve these heritage sites, we as a citizens should
also take care of them.

These monuments are not merely remnants of the past but important symbols of the
cultural identity, artistic achievement, and historical legacy of Assam. Proper conservation
policies, scientific restoration methods, heritage tourism planning, and awareness
programmes are essential for protecting these monuments for future generations.
Installation of proper signboards, better transportation facilities, regular maintenance, and
careful monitoring of encroachment around heritage sites may contribute significantly to
the preservation of Ahom architectural heritage.

Overall, the study concludes that Ahom architecture in Sivasagar district occupies a
unique and important place in the architectural history of Northeast India. The monuments
constructed during the Ahom period reflect a remarkable combination of indigenous
traditions, Hindu religious influences, Islamic architectural elements, and local
environmental adaptations. The architectural remains of Sivasagar not only demonstrate

77
the political power and cultural sophistication of the Ahom rulers but also serve as
valuable historical sources for understanding the social, religious, artistic, and
technological development of Assam. Thus, the architectural heritage of the Ahom
kingdom continues to remain an enduring symbol of Assam’s glorious past and cultural
identity.

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 1 References
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 Religious Architecture

Figure 1: Thaora Dol, Sivasagar, 22 February Figure 3 Garbhagriha of Rangnath Dol,

Figure 2 Rangnath Dol, 22 February 2026,
2026, Source: Bandana Rajbongshi 24 February 2026, Potograph by:
Photograph by: Bandana rajbongshi
Bandana Rajbongshi

Figure 5 Back view of Siva dol,Gaurisagar , 10 Figure 6 Na-Pulhuri Sivadol,

Figure 4 Siva Dol, Gaurisagar, 10 April 2026, January 11 2026, Photograph by:
April 2026, Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi
Photograph by: Banadana Rajbongshi Bandana Rajbongshi

Figure 7 Vishnu Dol (Gaurisagar), 10 Figure 8 Back view of Vishnu

april 2026, Photograph by: Bandana Dol (Gaurisagar)
Rajbongshi
81
82
 Figure 10 Devi Dol,Joysagar , 11 January 2026,
Figure 9 Ghanashyam House, 11 April 2026, Photograph By: Bandana Rajbongshi
Photograph by: Peush Boruah

Figure 11 Fakuwa Dol, February 14 2026, Figure 12 Replica of Vimana Fakuwa Dol. 14
Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi February, Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi

83

Figure 13 Devidol(Gaurisagar), 11 january 2026, Figure 14 Kali in DeviDol, Joysagar ,11 february
Photograph by: Peush Baruah 2026, Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi
 Figure 15 Joy Dol, Joysagar , 11 January 2026, Photograph Figure 16 Sanctum of Joy Dol, 11 january 2026,
by: Peush Boruah Photograph by:Bandana Rajbongshi

Figure 17 Vishnu Dol, Sivasagar, June 5 2026, Figure 18 Vishnu Dol Garbhagriha, Sivasagar 5
Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi June 2026, Photograph by: Bandana Rajbongshi

Figure 19 Siva Dol Sivasagar , 11 June 2026, Photograph by: Figure 20 Devi Dol, Sivasagar, Photograph by:
Peush Baruah Ritumoni Rajbongshi

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 Secular Architecture

Figure 21 Kareng Ghar (Garhgaon) ,14 February 2026, Figure 22 Rang Ghar ,14 February 2026,
Photograph by: Peush Boruah Photograph by: Peush Boruah

Figure 24 Talatal Ghar, Photograph by:

Wikipedia
Figure 43 Talatal Ghar, Photograph by: Wikipedia

Figure 55 Dikhow Bridge, photograph by: pranab Figure 36 Namdang Stone bridge, photograph by: Wikipedia

85