Qno1 What is geology? 3.

Core
Geology is the study of rocks, minerals, and
how they form. It also helps us understand the It can also be divided into five mechanical (physical)
history of the Earth. Ggeology helps us layers based on their behavior:
understand Earth's past, present, and future.
1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
Qno2 Why do we study geology 3. Mesosphere (Lower Mantle)
4. Outer Core
We study geology to understand the Earth better. It 5. Inner Core
helps us learn how the Earth formed and how land
changes over time. Geology also helps us find 1. Crust
important natural resources like oil, gas, minerals, and
groundwater. It also helps us understand the
The crust is the outermost and thinnest solid layer of
environment and prepare for natural disasters such as
the Earth. It forms the continents and the ocean floor.
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Characteristics
Qno3 Types of geology ?
 Thickness:
1. Physical Geology o Continental crust: 30–70 km
Physical Geology is like Earth's "body study". o Oceanic crust: 5–10 km
It looks closely at rocks and minerals to  Average density:
understand the materials our planet is actually o Continental: 2.7 g/cm³
made of and how they form. o Oceanic: 3.0 g/cm³
2. Historical Geology  Temperature:
Historical Geology studies the history of the Earth o Surface to about 400°C
by using rocks and fossils. It helps us understand  It makes up less than 1% of Earth's total volume.
what happened on Earth in the past and how it  Broken into large tectonic plates.
has changed over millions of years.
3. Environmental Geology Types of Crust
Environmental Geology is like Earth's "health
check". It acts like a doctor for the planet by A. Continental Crust
looking at how human activities affect the
Earth and finding ways we can protect it.  Thicker
 Older (up to 4 billion years)
Qno4 (Structure of the Earth)  Less dense
 Mainly composed of granite
The Earth is made up of several layers with different  Rich in silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al)
composition, thickness, temperature, density, and  Often called SIAL
physical properties. Scientists cannot directly observe
Earth's interior, so they study it mainly through seismic B. Oceanic Crust
(earthquake) waves, volcanic materials, and gravity
measurements. Oceanic Crust (Paragraph):

The Earth is divided into three main compositional The oceanic crust is thinner, younger (generally less
layers: than 200 million years old), and more dense than the
continental crust. It is mainly composed of basalt and
1. Crust is rich in silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg). Because of
2. Mantle its composition, it is often called SIMA.
 o Mountain formation
o Plate tectonics
 Thinner
 Younger (generally less than 200 million years old) 3. Core
 More dense
 Mainly composed of basalt The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is
 Rich in silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg) mainly composed of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).
 Often called SIMA
Thickness:
2. Mantle
 About 3,480 km
The mantle lies beneath the crust and extends to a
depth of about 2,900 km. It is the largest layer of the Temperature:
Earth.
 Approximately 4,000–6,000°C
Characteristics
The core is divided into two parts.
 Thickness: About 2,900 km
 Makes up about 84% of Earth's volume A. Outer Core
 Composed mainly of silicate rocks rich in  Outer Core
magnesium and iron The outer core is a hot, liquid layer of iron and
 Temperature: nickel between the mantle and the inner core.
o About 500°C near the top
o Up to 4,000°C near the core Characteristics
 Mostly solid, but some parts behave like a slow-
moving plastic material.  Depth:
o 2,900–5,150 km
Divisions of the Mantle  State:
Liquid
o
Upper Mantle  Composition:
o Iron and nickel
 Extends to about 660 km  Temperature:
 Includes: o About 4,000–5,500°C
o Lithosphere (rigid)
o Asthenosphere (partially molten) Importance

Lower Mantle  Movement of liquid iron produces Earth's magnetic

field.
 Blocks S-waves, while P-waves can pass through it.
 Extends from 660 km to 2,900 km
 Higher pressure makes rocks stronger.
 Hot but mostly solid. B. Inner Core
The inner core is the solid, hottest layer of the Earth,
Importance made mainly of iron and nickel.

 Convection currents in the mantle move tectonic

plates.
 Responsible for: Characteristics
o Earthquakes
o Volcanoes  Depth:
 o 5,150–6,371 km 3. Mesosphere (Lower Mantle)
 State: The mesosphere extends from the base of the
o Solid asthenosphere to the outer core. Although it is extremely
 Composition: hot, the high pressure keeps it mostly solid and stronger
o Iron and nickel than the asthenosphere.
 Temperature:
o About 5,000–6,000°C Key Points

Why is it solid?  Extends from 660 km to 2,900 km depth.

 Also called the Lower Mantle.
Although the temperature is extremely high, the  Mostly solid due to immense pressure.
immense pressure at the Earth's center keeps the inner  Rich in iron- and magnesium-bearing silicate
core solid. minerals.
 Transfers heat from the core toward the upper
mantle.
Mechanical (Physical) Layers of the
Earth
4. Outer Core
1. Lithosphere The outer core is a liquid layer mainly composed of
iron and nickel. The movement of this molten metal
The lithosphere is the rigid and outermost mechanical generates the Earth's magnetic field, which protects the
layer of the Earth. It consists of the crust and the planet from harmful solar radiation.
uppermost part of the mantle. It is broken into large
tectonic plates that move slowly over the
Key Points
asthenosphere.
 Depth: 2,900–5,150 km.
Key Points  State: Liquid.
 Mainly composed of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).
 Outermost rigid layer of the Earth.  Temperature: 4,000–5,500°C.
 Includes the crust + uppermost mantle.  Generates the Earth's magnetic field.
 Average thickness: ~100 km (varies from place to  S-waves cannot pass through this layer.
place).
 Broken into tectonic plates.
 Site of most earthquakes and mountain-building
5. Inner Core
processes.
The inner core is the innermost part of the Earth. It is
composed mainly of iron and nickel and remains solid
2. Asthenosphere because of the extremely high pressure despite its very
high temperature.
The asthenosphere is a soft, weak, and partially molten
layer located beneath the lithosphere. Its plastic nature
Key Points
allows the tectonic plates above it to move, making it
essential for plate tectonics.
 Depth: 5,150–6,371 km.
 State: Solid.
Key Points  Mainly composed of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).
 Temperature: 5,000–6,000°C.
 Lies below the lithosphere.  Solid due to immense pressure.
 Located at about 100–350 km depth.  Considered the densest layer of the Earth.
 Composed of partially molten rocks.
 Has a plastic (ductile) behavior.
 Enables the movement of tectonic plates. Qno5 Earth Materials
Definition Examples: Metamorphic Rocks Basalt, Sandstone,
Limestone, Marble.
Earth materials are the natural substances that make up
the Earth. They include minerals, rocks, soil, water, 3. Soil
and sediments, which together form the Earth's crust
and support geological processes and life. Soil is the uppermost loose layer of the Earth's surface,
formed by the weathering of rocks and the
Main Types of Earth Materials decomposition of organic matter. It provides nutrients
and support for plant growth.
1. Minerals
2. Rocks Key Points
3. Soil
4. Water  Formed from weathered rocks and organic matter.
5. Sediments  Contains minerals, water, air, and humus.
 Essential for agriculture and ecosystems.
1. Minerals  Supports plant growth.
 Stores water and nutrients.
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids
with a definite chemical composition and an ordered 4. Water
crystalline structure. They are the basic building blocks
of rocks. Water is one of the most important Earth materials and
covers about 71% of the Earth's surface. It exists in
solid, liquid, and gaseous forms and plays a major role
Key Points
in shaping the Earth's surface.
 Naturally formed.
 Inorganic substances. Key Points
 Solid in nature.
 Definite chemical composition.  Covers about 71% of the Earth.
 Crystalline (ordered atomic structure).  Exists as ice, liquid water, and water vapor.
 Building blocks of rocks.  Causes weathering and erosion.
 Supports all forms of life.
Examples: Quartz, Feldspar, Calcite, Mica, Gypsum.  Found in oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, and
groundwater.
2. Rocks
5. Sediments
Rocks are natural solid aggregates of one or more
minerals. They form the Earth's crust and are classified Sediments are loose particles of rock, minerals, and
according to their origin. organic matter produced by weathering and transported
by water, wind, or ice. Over time, they can become
sedimentary rocks through compaction and
Key Points
cementation.
 Made of one or more minerals.
 Major component of the Earth's crust. Key Points
 Three main types:
o Igneous Rocks  Produced by weathering.
o Sedimentary Rocks  Transported by water, wind, or glaciers.
o Metamorphic Rocks  Deposited in rivers, lakes, deserts, and oceans.
 Continuously change through the rock cycle.  Form sedimentary rocks over time.
 Important for studying Earth's history.
Examples: Sand, Silt, Clay, Gravel. B. Extrusive (Volcanic) Igneous Rocks

Relationship Between Earth  Form on the Earth's surface.

Materials  Cool rapidly.
 Fine-grained or glassy texture.
 Minerals combine to form rocks.  Examples: Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice.
 Rocks weather to produce soil and sediments.
 Sediments are compacted and cemented to form
sedimentary rocks.
 Water continuously shapes and transports Earth 2. Sedimentary Rocks
materials through weathering, erosion, and
deposition. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition,
compaction, and cementation of sediments. They
Qno6 Types of Rocks usually occur in layers and often contain fossils.
Definition
Key Points
Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of one
 Formed from sediments.
or more minerals. Based on their origin and method of
 Also called Secondary Rocks.
formation, rocks are classified into three main types:
 Usually arranged in layers (strata).
 Often contain fossils.
1. Igneous Rocks
 Cover about 75% of the Earth's land surface.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Types
1. Igneous Rocks
A. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma or lava
 Formed from broken rock fragments.
cools and solidifies. They are the oldest rocks and are
 Examples: Sandstone, Shale, Conglomerate.
often called the primary rocks because all other rocks
are ultimately derived from them.
B. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Key Points  Formed by the precipitation of dissolved
minerals.
 Formed by the cooling of magma or lava.  Examples: Rock Salt, Gypsum.
 Also called Primary Rocks.
 Usually hard, dense, and crystalline. C. Organic Sedimentary Rocks
 Do not contain fossils.
 Resistant to weathering.  Formed from the remains of plants and
animals.
Types  Examples: Coal, Chalk, Limestone (biological).

A. Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks

 Form below the Earth's surface. 3. Metamorphic Rocks

 Cool slowly.
 Large crystals develop.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing igneous
 Examples: Granite, Diorite, Gabbro.
or sedimentary rocks are changed by high temperature,
high pressure, or chemically active fluids without  Magma → cools → Igneous Rock
melting.  Igneous Rock → weathering & erosion →
Sediments
Key Points  Sediments → compaction & cementation →
Sedimentary Rock
 Formed by metamorphism.  Sedimentary or Igneous Rock → heat &
 Produced from pre-existing rocks. pressure → Metamorphic Rock
 Harder and denser than the original rocks.  Metamorphic Rock → melting → Magma
 May show foliation (layering).
 Do not melt during formation.

Types Qno7 Minerals

A. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks Define Minerals and Explain
 Show parallel layers or bands. Their Types
 Examples: Slate, Schist, Gneiss. Definition of Minerals

B. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that

has a definite chemical composition and an orderly
 Do not show layers. crystalline structure. Minerals are the basic building
 Examples: Marble, Quartzite. blocks of rocks and are found naturally in the Earth's
crust. Each mineral has its own unique physical and
chemical properties, such as color, hardness, luster,
and crystal shape, which help in its identification.
Comparison of the Three Types of Rocks

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Feature
Rocks Rocks Rocks Types of Minerals
Compaction and Heat and
Cooling of Minerals are mainly divided into two major types:
Formation cementation of pressure change
magma/lava
sediments existing rocks
1. Silicate Minerals
Fossils Absent Common Rare or absent
Silicate minerals are the most abundant minerals on
Foliated or non- Earth, making up about 90% of the Earth's crust.
Structure Crystalline Layered
foliated They contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) as their main
elements and usually also contain metals such as
Granite, Sandstone,
Examples Marble, Slate aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, or
Basalt Limestone
sodium.

Examples:
Rock Cycle (Basic Concept)
 Quartz
The rock cycle is the continuous process through  Feldspar
which rocks change from one type to another over  Mica
geological time.  Olivine
 Pyroxene
Importance Examples:

 Form the majority of rocks.  Gypsum

 Major components of the Earth's crust.  Anhydrite
 Widely used in construction and
manufacturing. e) Halides

Contain halogen elements such as chlorine or fluorine.

2. Non-Silicate Minerals Examples:

Non-silicate minerals do not contain silicon and  Halite

oxygen as their main components. Although they are  Fluorite
less common than silicate minerals, they are
economically very important because they provide f) Native Elements
many valuable metals and industrial materials.
Consist of a single element found in its natural form.
Main Types of Non-Silicate Minerals
Examples:
a) Carbonates
 Gold
Contain the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻).  Silver
 Copper
Examples:  Diamond

 Calcite
 Dolomite
Importance of Minerals
b) Oxides
 Minerals are the basic building blocks of rocks.
Contain oxygen combined with metals.  They provide metals for industries and
manufacturing.
Examples:  They are used in construction materials such as
cement and glass.
 Hematite  Many minerals are used in electronic devices
 Magnetite and modern technology.
 Some minerals are valuable gemstones and are
c) Sulfides used in jewelry.

Contain sulfur combined with metals.

Examples: Conclusion
 Pyrite
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances
 Galena
with a definite chemical composition and crystal
structure. They are broadly classified into silicate and
d) Sulfates non-silicate minerals. Silicate minerals dominate the
Earth's crust, while non-silicate minerals provide many
Contain the sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻). important metals and industrial resources. Minerals
play a vital role in geology, industry, construction, and  Made of the crust and upper mantle.
everyday life.  Float on the asthenosphere.
 Move at about 2–10 cm per year.
Mineral vs Rock  There are 7 major and many minor tectonic
plates.
Mineral Rock

Naturally occurring Aggregate of one or more

inorganic solid minerals
Major Tectonic Plates
Has a definite chemical Does not have a fixed chemical
composition composition The seven major tectonic plates are:
Has a crystalline structure May contain different minerals
 Pacific Plate
Example: Quartz Example: Granite  North American Plate
 South American Plate
 African Plate
 Eurasian Plate
Exam Definition (2–3 Lines)
 Indo-Australian Plate
 Antarctic Plate
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid
substance with a definite chemical composition and an
ordered crystalline structure. Minerals are the basic
building blocks of rocks and are identified by their
physical properties such as color, hardness, streak,
Theory of Plate Tectonics
luster, cleavage, and fracture.
The theory states that:

 The Earth's lithosphere is broken into tectonic

plates.
Qno8 Plate Tectonics  These plates move slowly over the
Definition asthenosphere.
 Their movement is driven mainly by mantle
Plate Tectonics is the scientific theory that explains convection currents, along with ridge push and
that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into large, rigid slab pull.
tectonic plates that move slowly over the semi-molten  Plate interactions shape the Earth's surface.
asthenosphere. The movement of these plates causes
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain formation,
and the creation of ocean basins.
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
Key Points
What are Tectonic Plates?
 Continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
Tectonic plates are large, rigid pieces of the Earth's  Similar fossils are found on different
lithosphere. They consist of the crust and the continents.
uppermost mantle and move continuously due to  Matching rock formations exist across
convection currents in the mantle. continents.
 Seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges.
Key Points
  Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes Examples
along plate boundaries.
 Himalayan Mountains
 Andes Mountains
 Mariana Trench
Types of Plate Boundaries
There are three main types of plate boundaries.
3. Transform Boundary
(Conservative Boundary)
1. Divergent Boundary A transform boundary forms when two plates slide
(Constructive Boundary) horizontally past each other. No crust is created or
destroyed.
A divergent boundary forms when two tectonic plates
move away from each other. Magma rises to fill the Key Points
gap, creating new crust.
 Plates slide past one another.
Key Points  No new crust is formed.
 No crust is destroyed.
 Plates move apart.  Causes frequent earthquakes.
 New crust is formed.
 Causes seafloor spreading. Example
 Produces volcanic activity and shallow
earthquakes.  San Andreas Fault (California)

Examples

 Mid-Atlantic Ridge Effects of Plate Tectonics

 East African Rift Valley
 Earthquakes
 Volcanic eruptions
 Mountain building
2. Convergent Boundary  Formation of ocean basins
 Seafloor spreading
(Destructive Boundary)  Formation of deep ocean trenches

A convergent boundary forms when two plates move

toward each other. One plate may sink beneath the
other (subduction), or two continental plates may Importance of Plate Tectonics
collide.
 Explains the movement of continents.
Key Points  Helps understand earthquakes and volcanoes.
 Explains the formation of mountains and
 Plates move toward each other. oceans.
 Crust is destroyed or uplifted.  Helps in mineral and petroleum exploration.
 Produces powerful earthquakes.  Assists in geological hazard assessment.
 Forms volcanic arcs and mountain ranges.
  Caused by temperature changes, frost action,
pressure release, and plant roots.
Exam Definition (2–3 Lines)  Common in deserts and cold regions.
Plate tectonics is the theory that the Earth's lithosphere is
divided into rigid tectonic plates that move slowly over the Examples
asthenosphere. Their movement causes earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, mountain building, and the formation  Frost wedging
of ocean basins.  Exfoliation
 Thermal expansion
Qno9 Weathering and Erosion
Definition
B. Chemical Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks into smaller
pieces at or near the Earth's surface without moving Chemical weathering changes the chemical
them. composition of rocks through reactions with water,
Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered oxygen, or acids.
materials from one place to another by natural agents
such as water, wind, ice, or gravity. Key Points

 Chemical composition changes.

 Common in warm and humid climates.
1. Weathering  Produces new minerals.

Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken Examples

down physically, chemically, or biologically without
being transported. It is the first step in soil formation  Oxidation
and the rock cycle.  Hydrolysis
 Carbonation
Key Points  Dissolution

 Occurs at or near the Earth's surface.

 Rocks break into smaller pieces.
C. Biological Weathering
 No movement of rock fragments.
 Leads to the formation of soil.
 First step of the rock cycle. Biological weathering is caused by living organisms
such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Key Points
Types of Weathering  Caused by living organisms.
A. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering  Plant roots crack rocks.
 Burrowing animals loosen soil.
Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces  Organic acids from plants and microbes help
without changing their chemical composition. dissolve minerals.

Key Points

 No chemical change.
2. Erosion Difference Between Weathering
and Erosion
Erosion is the process in which weathered rock and
Weathering Erosion
soil are removed and transported from one place to
another by natural agents. Breaks rocks into smaller
Moves weathered materials
pieces
Key Points
No transportation Transportation occurs
 Moves weathered materials.
Takes place at the original Materials move to another
 Changes landscapes over time.
 Occurs after weathering. location location
 Shapes valleys, rivers, and coastlines. First step Second step

Agents of Erosion Importance of Weathering and

1. Water Erosion
 Most powerful agent of erosion. Weathering
 Forms rivers, valleys, and canyons.
 Carries sediments to lakes and oceans.  Forms soil.
 Releases minerals from rocks.
 Starts the rock cycle.
2. Wind  Helps in plant growth.

 Common in deserts and dry regions. Erosion

 Carries sand and dust.
 Forms sand dunes.  Shapes landscapes.
 Transports sediments.
 Forms river valleys, deltas, and beaches.
 Helps create sedimentary rocks through
3. Ice (Glaciers) deposition.

 Moves slowly and erodes rocks.

 Forms U-shaped valleys.
 Transports large rock fragments. Simple Process
Qno10 Rock → Weathering → Erosion →
Transportation → Deposition → Sedimentary
4. Gravity
Rock
 Causes rocks and soil to move downhill.
 Leads to landslides and rockfalls.
Qno11 Geological Resources
Definition B. Non-Metallic Minerals

Geological resources are the natural materials found Do not contain metals but have industrial uses.
within or on the Earth's crust that have economic value
and are used by humans. These resources provide raw Examples
materials for industries, energy production,
construction, and daily life.  Limestone
 Gypsum
 Quartz
 Salt (Halite)
Types of Geological Resources  Clay

Geological resources are mainly divided into the

following types:
2. Energy Resources
1. Mineral Resources
2. Energy Resources Energy resources are geological materials used to
3. Water Resources produce heat, electricity, and fuel.
4. Rock Resources
Key Points

 Main source of energy for industries and

1. Mineral Resources transportation.
 Formed over millions of years.
Mineral resources are naturally occurring minerals that  Most are non-renewable.
can be extracted and used for industrial, agricultural,
and commercial purposes. Examples

Key Points  Coal

 Petroleum (Crude Oil)
 Obtained through mining.  Natural Gas
 Used in manufacturing and construction.  Uranium (Nuclear Fuel)
 Can be metallic or non-metallic.

Types
3. Water Resources
A. Metallic Minerals
Water resources include naturally occurring
Contain useful metals. groundwater and surface water used for drinking,
agriculture, and industry.
Examples
Key Points
 Iron
 Copper  Essential for life.
 Gold  Stored in aquifers beneath the Earth's surface.
 Silver  Used for irrigation, domestic use, and industry.
 Aluminum  Renewable if managed properly.
 Zinc
Examples  Springs

 Groundwater  Rivers

 Lakes

4. Rock Resources  Basalt

Rock resources are naturally occurring rocks used in

construction and manufacturing.
Classification of Geological
Key Points Resources
1. Renewable Resources
 Used as building materials.
 Important in road and bridge construction.
Resources that can be naturally replenished over a
 Used in cement and decorative stone industries.
relatively short period.
Examples
Examples
 Granite
 Groundwater (if sustainably managed)
 Marble
 Surface water
 Limestone
 Sandstone

2. Non-Renewable Resources  Supply energy for homes, transport, and

factories.
Resources that take millions of years to form and  Support economic development.
cannot be replaced quickly after extraction.  Create employment opportunities.
 Provide construction materials.
Examples  Meet agricultural and domestic water needs.

 Coal Conservation of Geological

 Petroleum Resources
 Natural Gas
 Metallic Minerals
Key Points
Importance of Geological  Use resources wisely.
Resources  Recycle metals and minerals.
 Reduce unnecessary extraction.
Key Points  Protect groundwater from pollution.
 Promote sustainable mining practices.
 Provide raw materials for industries.  Develop renewable energy sources where
possible.
Rock Cycle (Cycle of Rocks)
The Rock Cycle is a natural process that explains how one type of rock changes into another over a long period of
time. Rocks are always changing because of heat, pressure, weathering, erosion, melting, and cooling. This process
never stops, so it is called a cycle.

The cycle usually starts with magma, which is hot, melted rock found inside the Earth. When magma comes to the
Earth's surface as lava or stays underground and cools, it becomes igneous rock.

After many years, igneous rocks are broken into small pieces by weathering. These small pieces are called
sediments. Wind, water, and ice carry these sediments to different places. They are then deposited in layers. Over
time, pressure and natural cement join these layers together to form sedimentary rock.

If sedimentary rock goes deep inside the Earth, it is affected by high heat and pressure. The rock changes into a new
type without melting. This new rock is called metamorphic rock.

When the temperature becomes very high, metamorphic rock melts and turns into magma again. As magma cools, it
forms igneous rock once more. In this way, the rock cycle continues again and again.

The rock cycle shows that rocks are not permanent. Any rock can change into another type if it experiences the right
conditions. This continuous process helps shape the Earth's surface and creates different kinds of rocks.

Simple Flow of the Rock Cycle

Magma → Igneous Rock → Weathering & Erosion → Sediments → Sedimentary Rock → Heat & Pressure →
Metamorphic Rock → Melting → Magma → Igneous Rock (Cycle Continues)