Integral Calculus (Indefinite & Definite Integrals,

Area Under Curves)

1. Key Concepts & Formulas

Indefinite integration is the reverse of differentiation: integral of f(x) dx = F(x) + C, where F'(x) = f(x), C is the
arbitrary constant of integration.

Standard integrals (must memorize):

• integral of x^n dx = x^(n+1)/(n+1) + C, (n != -1)

• integral of 1/x dx = ln|x| + C

• integral of e^x dx = e^x + C; integral of a^x dx = a^x/ln(a) + C

• integral of sin(x) dx = -cos(x) + C; integral of cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C

• integral of sec^2(x) dx = tan(x) + C; integral of cosec^2(x) dx = -cot(x) + C

• integral of sec(x)tan(x) dx = sec(x) + C; integral of cosec(x)cot(x) dx = -cosec(x) + C

• integral of tan(x) dx = ln|sec(x)| + C = -ln|cos(x)| + C

• integral of cot(x) dx = ln|sin(x)| + C

• integral of sec(x) dx = ln|sec(x)+tan(x)| + C

• integral of cosec(x) dx = ln|cosec(x)-cot(x)| + C

• integral of 1/sqrt(1-x^2) dx = sin^-1(x) + C

• integral of 1/(1+x^2) dx = tan^-1(x) + C

• integral of 1/(x sqrt(x^2-1)) dx = sec^-1(x) + C

• integral of 1/sqrt(x^2+a^2) dx = ln|x+sqrt(x^2+a^2)| + C

• integral of 1/sqrt(x^2-a^2) dx = ln|x+sqrt(x^2-a^2)| + C

• integral of 1/(x^2+a^2) dx = (1/a) tan^-1(x/a) + C

• integral of 1/(x^2-a^2) dx = (1/2a) ln|(x-a)/(x+a)| + C

• integral of 1/(a^2-x^2) dx = (1/2a) ln|(a+x)/(a-x)| + C

• integral of 1/sqrt(a^2-x^2) dx = sin^-1(x/a) + C

• integral of sqrt(a^2-x^2) dx = (x/2)sqrt(a^2-x^2) + (a^2/2) sin^-1(x/a) + C

• integral of sqrt(x^2+a^2) dx = (x/2)sqrt(x^2+a^2) + (a^2/2) ln|x+sqrt(x^2+a^2)| + C

• integral of sqrt(x^2-a^2) dx = (x/2)sqrt(x^2-a^2) - (a^2/2) ln|x+sqrt(x^2-a^2)| + C

Methods of integration: 1. Substitution: If integral is of form integral f(g(x))g'(x) dx, set u = g(x), du =
g'(x)dx, reduces to integral f(u) du. 2. Integration by parts: integral u dv = uv - integral v du. Choice of u via
ILATE rule (Inverse trig, Log, Algebraic, Trig, Exponential — priority for choosing "u" in that order). 3. Partial
fractions: For rational functions P(x)/Q(x) with deg P < deg Q, decompose into sum of simpler fractions
based on factors of Q(x) (linear distinct, repeated linear, irreducible quadratic). 4. Trigonometric
substitutions: sqrt(a^2-x^2) -> x=a sin(theta); sqrt(a^2+x^2) -> x=a tan(theta); sqrt(x^2-a^2) -> x=a
sec(theta). 5. Standard reduction for integral of 1/(a sin x + b cos x + c) dx, integral of (a sin x+b cos
x)/(c sin x+d cos x)dx: use t = tan(x/2) substitution or express numerator as linear combination of
denominator and its derivative. 6. integral of dx/(a + b cos x) type: use Weierstrass substitution t = tan(x/2),
giving cos(x) = (1-t^2)/(1+t^2), sin(x)=2t/(1+t^2), dx = 2dt/(1+t^2).

Special integrals via parts / reduction:

• integral of e^x [f(x)+f'(x)] dx = e^x f(x) + C (very commonly tested trick).

• integral of sqrt(a^2-x^2), sqrt(x^2+a^2), sqrt(x^2-a^2) — as listed above, derived by parts.

Definite Integrals
• Definite integral from a to b of f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a), where F'(x)=f(x) (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus).

• Properties of definite integrals:

• integral(a to b) f(x)dx = -integral(b to a) f(x)dx

• integral(a to b) f(x)dx = integral(a to c) f(x)dx + integral(c to b) f(x)dx

• integral(a to b) f(x)dx = integral(a to b) f(a+b-x)dx (King's property — extremely useful)

• integral(0 to a) f(x)dx = integral(0 to a) f(a-x)dx

• integral(-a to a) f(x)dx = 2*integral(0 to a) f(x)dx if f is even; = 0 if f is odd

• integral(0 to 2a) f(x)dx = 2*integral(0 to a)f(x)dx if f(2a-x)=f(x); = 0 if f(2a-x)=-f(x)

• integral(0 to nT) f(x)dx = n*integral(0 to T) f(x)dx if f has period T

• If f(x) >= 0 on [a,b], then integral(a to b) f(x)dx >= 0

• Walli's formula: integral(0 to pi/2) sin^n(x)dx = integral(0 to pi/2) cos^n(x)dx = [(n-1)(n-3)...1 or

2]/[n(n-2)...1 or 2] * (pi/2 if n even, 1 if n odd)

• Definite integral as limit of a sum (Riemann sum): integral(a to b) f(x)dx = lim(n->infinity) h *

sum_{r=0}^{n-1} f(a+rh), where h=(b-a)/n. Special case a=0,b=1: integral(0 to 1) f(x)dx = lim(n->infinity)
(1/n) sum_{r=1}^{n} f(r/n).

• Leibniz rule (differentiation under integral sign): d/dx [integral(g(x) to h(x)) f(t)dt] = f(h(x))*h'(x) -
f(g(x))*g'(x).

Area Under Curves

• Area bounded by y=f(x), x-axis, x=a, x=b (f(x)>=0) = integral(a to b) f(x) dx.

• If f(x) is below x-axis on part of the interval, take absolute value of that part or split the integral at zeros of
f(x); area is always a positive quantity, computed piecewise.

• Area between two curves y=f(x) and y=g(x) from x=a to x=b (f(x)>=g(x)): Area = integral(a to b) [f(x)-g(x)]
dx.

• Area bounded by a curve x=f(y), y-axis, y=c, y=d: Area = integral(c to d) f(y) dy.

• To find area between curves, first find intersection points by solving f(x)=g(x), then set up appropriate
integral(s), splitting at points where the "upper" curve changes.
 • Symmetry can simplify calculations significantly (e.g., area of ellipse, circle segments).

Common areas to remember:

• Area of circle x^2+y^2=a^2: pi*a^2 (quarter circle area = pi*a^2/4 via integral(0 to a) sqrt(a^2-x^2)dx).

• Area of ellipse x^2/a^2+y^2/b^2=1: pi*a*b.

• Area between parabola y^2=4ax and line/latus rectum x=a: (8/3)a^2 (i.e., 2*integral(0 to a) 2sqrt(ax)dx
type computations).

2. Worked Examples

Example 1. Evaluate integral of x^2/(x^2+1) dx.

Solution: Write x^2/(x^2+1) = 1 - 1/(x^2+1). Integral = integral(1)dx - integral 1/(1+x^2)dx = x - tan^-1(x) + C.

Example 2. Evaluate integral of x e^x dx.

Solution: By parts, u=x, dv=e^x dx, du=dx, v=e^x. Integral = x e^x - integral e^x dx = x e^x - e^x + C = e^x(x-1)
+ C.

Example 3. Evaluate integral of 1/(x^2-5x+6) dx.

Solution: x^2-5x+6=(x-2)(x-3). Partial fractions: 1/[(x-2)(x-3)] = A/(x-2)+B/(x-3). 1=A(x-3)+B(x-2). At x=3:

1=B(1)=>B=1. At x=2: 1=A(-1)=>A=-1. Integral = -ln|x-2| + ln|x-3| + C = ln|(x-3)/(x-2)| + C.

Example 4. Evaluate integral(0 to pi/2) sin(x)/(sin(x)+cos(x)) dx.

Solution: Let I = integral(0 to pi/2) sin(x)/(sin(x)+cos(x))dx. Using King's property x->pi/2-x: I = integral(0 to
pi/2) cos(x)/(cos(x)+sin(x))dx. Adding both expressions: 2I = integral(0 to pi/2) [sin(x)+cos(x)]/[sin(x)+cos(x)]
dx = integral(0 to pi/2) 1 dx = pi/2. So I = pi/4.

Example 5. Evaluate integral(0 to 1) x(1-x)^n dx (n a positive integer, using substitution/King's property style).

Solution: Let x=1-t, dx=-dt. When x=0,t=1; x=1,t=0. Integral becomes integral(1 to 0) (1-t)(t^n)(-dt) = integral(0
to 1)(1-t)t^n dt = integral(0 to 1)(t^n - t^(n+1))dt = [1/(n+1) - 1/(n+2)] = 1/[(n+1)(n+2)].
Example 6. Find the area bounded by the parabola y^2=4x and the line y=2x-4 (using standard
area-between-curves approach with x as function of y).

Solution: Express x in terms of y: from parabola x=y^2/4; from line x=(y+4)/2. Find intersection: y^2/4 = (y+4)/2
=> y^2 = 2y+8 => y^2-2y-8=0 => (y-4)(y+2)=0 => y=4 or y=-2. Area = integral(-2 to 4) [(y+4)/2 - y^2/4] dy.
Compute: integral (y/2+2-y^2/4)dy from -2 to 4 = [y^2/4 + 2y - y^3/12] from -2 to 4. At y=4: 16/4+8-64/12 =
4+8-16/3 = 12-16/3=20/3. At y=-2: 4/4-4-(-8)/12 = 1-4+2/3 = -3+2/3=-7/3. Area = 20/3-(-7/3)=27/3=9.

Example 7. Evaluate integral(0 to pi) x sin(x)/(1+cos^2(x)) dx.

Solution: Let I = integral(0 to pi) x sin(x)/(1+cos^2x)dx. Using King's property x->pi-x: I = integral(0 to
pi)(pi-x)sin(x)/(1+cos^2x)dx (since sin(pi-x)=sin(x), cos(pi-x)=-cos(x), cos^2 unchanged). So I = pi*integral(0 to
pi) sin(x)/(1+cos^2x)dx - I. So 2I = pi*integral(0 to pi) sin(x)/(1+cos^2x)dx. Let c=cos(x), dc=-sin(x)dx:
integral(0 to pi) sin(x)/(1+cos^2x)dx = integral(-1 to 1) 1/(1+c^2)dc = [tan^-1(c)] from -1 to1 = pi/4-(-pi/4)=pi/2.
So 2I=pi*(pi/2)=pi^2/2, I=pi^2/4.

Example 8. Evaluate the definite integral as a limit of sum: integral(0 to 1) x^2 dx.
Solution: Using formula lim(n->infinity)(1/n)sum_{r=1}^n f(r/n) with f(x)=x^2: (1/n)sum (r/n)^2 = (1/n^3)sum r^2
= (1/n^3)*n(n+1)(2n+1)/6. As n->infinity, this -> (1/6)*(1)(1)(2) = 2/6=1/3. This matches direct integration:
[x^3/3] from 0 to1 = 1/3.

3. Practice Questions

1. integral of sec^2(x) tan(x) dx equals:

(a) tan^2(x)/2 + C (b) sec^2(x)/2 + C (c) tan(x)sec(x)+C (d) both (a) and (b) are valid forms

2. integral of 1/(x ln x) dx equals:

(a) ln|ln x| + C (b) ln x + C (c) (ln x)^2/2 + C (d) 1/ln x + C

3. integral of x/(x^2+1) dx equals:

(a) ln(x^2+1) + C (b) (1/2)ln(x^2+1)+C (c) tan^-1(x)+C (d) (1/2)tan^-1(x)+C

4. integral(0 to pi/2) sin^3(x) dx equals:

(a) 2/3 (b) 1/3 (c) 3/4 (d) pi/4

5. integral(0 to 1) x e^(x^2) dx equals:

(a) e-1 (b) (e-1)/2 (c) e/2 (d) e+1

6. integral of e^x(sin x + cos x)dx equals:

(a) e^x sin x + C (b) e^x cos x + C (c) e^x(sin x-cos x)+C (d) e^x(sin x + cos x)+C

7. integral(-pi/2 to pi/2) sin^5(x) dx equals:

(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) pi (d) 16/15

8. The area bounded by y=x^2 and y=x is:

(a) 1/6 (b) 1/3 (c) 1/2 (d) 1

9. integral of 1/(4+x^2) dx equals:

(a) tan^-1(x/2)+C (b) (1/2)tan^-1(x/2)+C (c) (1/2)tan^-1(x)+C (d) 2tan^-1(x/2)+C

10. integral(0 to 2) |1-x| dx equals:

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 1/2 (d) 3

11. Area enclosed by the ellipse x^2/9+y^2/4=1 is:

(a) 6pi (b) 12pi (c) 36pi (d) 9pi

12. integral(0 to pi) ln(1+cos x)dx type problems use the property:

(a) integral(a to b)f(x)dx = integral(a to b) f(a+b-x)dx (b) f is odd (c) f is periodic (d) none

13. integral of dx/sqrt(9-x^2) equals:

(a) sin^-1(x/3)+C (b) (1/3)sin^-1(x/3)+C (c) sin^-1(x)+C (d) 3sin^-1(x/3)+C

14. integral of tan^2(x) dx equals:

 (a) tan(x)+x+C (b) tan(x)-x+C (c) sec^2(x)+C (d) -cot(x)+C

15. Area bounded by the curve y=sin(x), x-axis, x=0 to x=pi is:

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) pi

16. integral(0 to 1) x(1-x)^5 dx equals (using Beta function / worked example pattern):

(a) 1/42 (b) 1/40 (c) 1/30 (d) 1/36

17. integral of x^2 sin(x) dx equals:

(a) -x^2cos(x)+2xsin(x)+2cos(x)+C (b) x^2cos(x)-2xsin(x)-2cos(x)+C (c) -x^2cos(x)+2xsin(x)-2cos(x)+C (d)

x^2sin(x)+2xcos(x)-2sin(x)+C

18. lim(n->infinity)(1/n)[1/(1+1/n)+1/(1+2/n)+...+1/(1+n/n)] equals:

(a) ln 2 (b) ln 3 (c) 1 (d) e-1

19. integral(0 to pi/4) ln(1+tan x)dx equals:

(a) (pi/8)ln2 (b) (pi/4)ln2 (c) (pi/2)ln2 (d) ln2

20. The area between the curve y = 1/x, the x-axis, and the lines x=1, x=e is:

(a) 1 (b) e (c) e-1 (d) ln(e) = 1, matches (a)

4. Answer Key

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (a)
12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)

Hints for hardest questions: Q16: Use the substitution x=1-t as in Worked Example
5 generalization, or Beta function: integral(0 to1)x^m(1-x)^n dx = m!n!/(m+n+1)!;
here m=1,n=5: 1!5!/7! = 120/5040=1/42. Q17: Integrate by parts twice with u=x^2
(differentiate), dv=sin(x)dx (integrate); track signs carefully to reach
-x^2cos(x)+2xsin(x)+2cos(x)+C. Q18: Recognize as Riemann sum for integral(0 to1)
1/(1+x)dx = ln(2). Q19: Use King's property x->pi/4-x on integral(0 to
pi/4)ln(1+tan x)dx; tan(pi/4-x) = (1-tanx)/(1+tanx), leading to 1+tan(pi/4-x) =
2/(1+tanx), giving 2I = (pi/4)ln2, so I=(pi/8)ln2. Q7: sin^5(x) is an odd
function; over the symmetric interval [-pi/2,pi/2] its integral is 0.