SCIENCE NOTES
Physical change: evaporation, filtration
Chemical change: burning, combustion
Hydrogen – H
Water – H2O
(Check periodic table for charges of elements)
Chemical equations:
1. Bases/Alkali + acid → salt + water (also known as neutralisation)
–metal oxide (O)/hydroxide (OH)
2. Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
3. Carbonate + acid → salt + Co2 + H2O (water)
Check for carbon dioxide:
Bubble gas through limewater and if gas is carbon dioxide, a white precipitate
(calcium carbonate) will be formed
Avoid: limewater becomes cloudy/chalky
Check for hydrogen:
Put a lighted splint near test tube and a pop sound should be heard as the flame
extinguishes
Name of salt created after combining:
First word derived from alkaline/metal/carbonate last word derived from acid
E.g.
sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
zinc carbonate + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
State symbols:
ℓ - liquid
G - gas
S - solid
aq - aqueous solution (dissolved in water)
Chp 13
Ammeter are usually connected in series
Voltmeter are connected in parallel to the electrical component
Voltage=current x resistance
Volt: Measures the electric potential or “pressure” at which electricity flows through
a system.
Amps: measures the rate at which the electric current flows through the circuit, the
number of electrons flowing through the wire.
Ohms: measures the natural resistance of an object
Wattage: the amount of electricity a device consumes (can be found by using Volt x
Amps)
Electrons flow towards positive terminal
Chap 10:
Pg 39
Why do the seas absorb heat and expand but not evaporate
This is because the heat has not reached the evaporation point and will just expand
until then
Law of conservation of mass: the number and size of particles in a substance do not
change during expansion and contraction
When object is heated, mass remains the same
When object is heated, volume increases
• Therefore, when an object is heated, its density decreases
• Since density = mass / volume
• As mass does not change and volume increases, density would decrease
CONDUCTION – transfer of heat energy without the physical movement of the
medium
[Solids are better conductors of heat than fluids]
As the close arrangement of particles in solids enables transfer of heat energy to
occur more quickly
Factors that affect conduction
• Type of materials used
CONVECTION – transfer of heat energy from one place to another by the physical
movement of a medium
- Liquids and gases transfer heat energy mainly through convection
RADIATION
The only way heat energy can be transferred form a hotter body to a colder object
in a vacuum is by radiation
Collision for transfer of energy
Example:
Describe how heat is transferred in the metal pipes by conduction.
Conduction occurs when a substance is heated, particles will gain more energy,
and vibrate more.
These particles then bump into nearby particles and transfer some of their
energy to them, this continues from the hot end down to the colder end of the
Substance.
Greenhouse effect
Warming of the surface of Earth
Heat is prevented from leaving Earth’s atmosphere by radiation
Water is a poor conductor of heat
Factors affecting radiation:
● Temperature of object – hotter the obj. higher the rate of radiation from the
object
● Surface area of the object – larger surface area → higher rate of radiation
E.g. Heat sink in computer
● Type (texture and colour) of surface
absorber emitter
(radiator)
good poor good poor
Colour of Black and White and Black and White and
surface dull shiny dull shiny
Type of rough smooth rough smooth
surface
How do particles (atoms and molecules)
transfer energy to each other?
• Collisions
• One molecule collides with
another molecule and passes
on kinetic energy
Gases expand the most compared to liquids and solids since the particles in solids
are not free to move while in gases the particles are far apart and move more freely.
Chap 11
Physical changes Chemical changes
No new substances are formed One or more new substances are
formed
The changes can usually be reversed. The changes are usually not easily
We can get the constituents back using reversed. We cannot get the reactants
separation techniques back easily
Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
Oxidation not oxidisadation
What are the different types of chemical changes?
Combustion — a chemical reaction in which a
substance is heated in the presence of oxygen.
Thermal decomposition— a process in which a
substance breaks into two or more simpler
substances upon heating.
Diff. between combustion and thermal decomposition:
Combustion requires presence of oxygen, while thermal decomposition does not.
Oxidation – gain of oxygen
1. 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
• Ca has gained oxygen to form CaO.
• Ca has been oxidised to CaO.
2. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
• Mg has gained oxygen to form MgO.
• Mg has been oxidised to MgO.
Oxidation — Gain of Oxygen
• E.g. iron nails rusting
Neutralisation — A neutralisation reaction
is when an acid and a base react to form water
and a salt
After neutralisation, the solution formed has a pH vale of 7 and is neither acidic nor
alkaline
Chemical reactions between Acids and Alkalis
The word “salt” in “salt+water” is a term for a compound containing an element that
is metal
ACIDS
Balancing it out
Check charges through periodic table
RMBR “BNOF” AT THE ENDDD
Figure below (metal and non metal line)
Properties of Acids
1. Acids have a sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
3. Acids dissolve in water to form solutions which
can conduct electricity.
4. Specific reactions of acids + ______
NEUTRALISATION example
metal oxide + acid → salt + water
metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water
Metal + acid → salt + water
SULFATE NOT SULFITE
Base + hydrochloric acid → ___ chloride + water
Hydroxide → OH− (so find these in chem eqns)
From Google:
“How to determine state of matter in chemical equation?”
The simple answer to your question is SOLUBILITY RULES. If the compound is
soluble it gets labeled (aq). If it is insoluble, it gets labeled (s) and if it a gas it gets
labeled (g). And finally, liquids, such as H2O get labeled (l). It's as simple as that. In
the example you give we have....
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ==> 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s) because all species are soluble
except PbI2 which is insoluble.
From point 8. Carbonates are insoluble
“Are carbonates soluble?”
All carbonates are insoluble except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
Magnesium carbonate is slightly soluble. Many hydrogen carbonates, such as
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2, are soluble. h) All phosphates are insoluble except those
of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
“Is nitrate an aq?”
Nitrate is an aqueous solution
Nitrates, inorganic, aqueous solution, n.o.s. is a liquid which is readily ignited when
in contact with organic materials. It is noncombustible but will accelerate the
burning of combustible materials.
Hydroxide is solid
Calcium is solid
Hydrogen formula – H2
!! – there are hydrogen atoms in acids!
An acid is a substance or compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when in
solution. In a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), all hydrogen ions (H+),
and chloride ions (Cl-) dissociate (separate) when placed in water and these ions are
no longer held together by ionic bonding.13 Aug 2020
Hence explaining this
Observation: The lighted splint should extinguish with a "pop" sound. Hydrogen gas
is very flammable.
E.g.
hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
AGAIN!!
See how “H” in “H2SO4” was replaced with “Mg” for the salt to make “MgSO4”
Copper(II)oxide is solid
Acids are aq
Alkaline is aq
Salts are solid or might be aq
Metals are solid
Hydrogen is gas
H20 (water) is liquid
Carbonate eqn → CO3
Note: use white precipitate instead of limewater turns cloudy/chalky
Chap 12:
Food chains, food webs
Trophic levels is the position of organism in food chain
Primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer
Transfer of energy is non-cyclical
90% of the energy is given out by the previous organism before it gets passed on to
the next animals when it is eaten. Hence, only 10% of the energy goes to the next
animals
Energy is released via respiration.
–90% of energy released to the environment is heat energy.
The last animal on the food chain gets the least amount of energy
Transfer of nutrients is cyclical as the decomposers break down dead organisms and
faeces into nutrients for plants to absorb and the cycle repeats again.