ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Comprehensive Chemistry Study Notes

1. Introduction to Atomic Structure
Everything around us is made of matter. Matter includes solids, liquids,
gases, and many other forms of physical substances. At the microscopic
level, matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
An atom is the fundamental unit of an element that retains the chemical
properties of that element. Although atoms are extremely small, they are not
indivisible. They are composed of smaller particles called subatomic
particles.
The three major subatomic particles are:
 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons
Protons and neutrons are located in the central nucleus of an atom, while
electrons occupy regions surrounding the nucleus.
The study of atomic structure is important because the arrangement of
electrons determines how an element behaves chemically, what types of
bonds it can form, and how it reacts with other substances.

2. Historical Development of the Atomic Model

The modern understanding of the atom developed through the work of
several scientists.

2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton proposed an early scientific atomic theory in the early
nineteenth century. His theory suggested that:
1. Matter is composed of atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element have similar properties.
3. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
5. Chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms.
Some parts of Dalton’s original theory were later modified because scientists
discovered subatomic particles and isotopes.
2.2 Thomson’s Model
J. J. Thomson discovered the electron through experiments involving cathode
rays.
He proposed a model in which negatively charged electrons were embedded
within a positively charged region. This model is commonly known as the
“plum pudding” model.
The discovery of the electron demonstrated that atoms were not indivisible.

2.3 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues performed the famous gold foil
experiment.
Alpha particles were directed toward a thin sheet of gold. Most particles
passed through the foil, while a small number were strongly deflected.
From these observations, Rutherford proposed that:
 Most of an atom is empty space.
 Nearly all of the positive charge is concentrated in a very small region.
 Most of the atom’s mass is concentrated in this central region.
 The central region is called the nucleus.
2.4 Bohr Model
Niels Bohr proposed that electrons occupy specific energy levels around the
nucleus.
Electrons could move between energy levels by absorbing or releasing
specific amounts of energy.
Although the Bohr model is not the complete modern description of an atom,
it remains useful for introducing the concept of quantized energy levels.

2.5 Modern Atomic Model

The modern model is based on quantum mechanics.
Electrons are not treated as particles moving in fixed circular paths. Instead,
their behavior is described using probability distributions called orbitals.
An orbital represents a region of space where there is a high probability of
finding an electron.
3. Subatomic Particles
3.1 Proton
A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle.
Properties:
 Charge: +1
 Approximate relative mass: 1 atomic mass unit
 Location: nucleus
The number of protons determines the identity of an element.
For example, every carbon atom contains six protons. If an atom contains
seven protons, it is nitrogen rather than carbon.
This number is called the atomic number.

3.2 Neutron
A neutron has no net electrical charge.
Properties:
 Charge: 0
 Approximate relative mass: 1 atomic mass unit
 Location: nucleus
Neutrons contribute significantly to the mass of an atom.
Atoms of the same element can contain different numbers of neutrons. Such
atoms are called isotopes.

3.3 Electron
An electron has a negative charge.
Properties:
 Charge: −1
 Relative mass: approximately 1/1836 of a proton
 Location: electron cloud surrounding the nucleus
Electrons are particularly important in chemical reactions because chemical
bonding primarily involves the electrons in the outermost energy levels.
4. Atomic Number
The atomic number is represented by the symbol Z.
Atomic number = Number of protons
For a neutral atom:
Number of protons = Number of electrons
Examples:
Hydrogen has atomic number 1.
Therefore:
Protons = 1
Electrons = 1
Carbon has atomic number 6.
Therefore:
Protons = 6
Electrons = 6
Oxygen has atomic number 8.
Therefore:
Protons = 8
Electrons = 8
The atomic number uniquely identifies an element.

5. Mass Number
The mass number is represented by A.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Therefore:
Number of neutrons = Mass number − Atomic number
For example, consider an atom of carbon-12.
Carbon has:
Atomic number = 6
Mass number = 12
Therefore:
Protons = 6
Neutrons = 12 − 6 = 6
A carbon-12 atom contains six protons and six neutrons.

6. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
For example, carbon has several isotopes, including carbon-12, carbon-13,
and carbon-14.
All three have:
Protons = 6
But their neutron numbers differ.
Carbon-12:
6 protons + 6 neutrons
Carbon-13:
6 protons + 7 neutrons
Carbon-14:
6 protons + 8 neutrons
Because isotopes have the same number of electrons in their neutral forms,
they generally exhibit similar chemical behavior. However, their masses and
nuclear properties can differ significantly.
Some isotopes are stable, while others are radioactive.

7. Atomic Mass
The atomic mass shown on the periodic table is generally a weighted
average of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
It is not necessarily a whole number because it takes isotope abundance into
account.
The weighted average can be represented conceptually as:
Average atomic mass = Sum of (isotope mass × fractional abundance)
For example, if an element has two naturally occurring isotopes, the isotope
that occurs more frequently contributes more strongly to the average atomic
mass.
This explains why the atomic mass listed on the periodic table may be 35.45
rather than a whole number.

8. Electronic Structure
Electrons occupy different energy levels around the nucleus.
These energy levels are sometimes described as shells.
The first shell is closest to the nucleus and generally has the lowest energy.
Higher shells are located farther from the nucleus and generally correspond
to higher-energy states.
Electrons tend to occupy the lowest available energy state before moving to
higher-energy states.
The outermost occupied shell is particularly important because its electrons
participate strongly in chemical bonding.

9. Orbitals
In the modern quantum mechanical model, electrons occupy orbitals.
An orbital is a mathematical description of a region of space in which there is
a high probability of finding an electron.
The major orbital types are:
 s
 p
 d
 f
s Orbital
An s orbital has a spherical shape.
Each s subshell contains one orbital and can accommodate a maximum of
two electrons.
p Orbitals
A p subshell contains three orbitals.
Each orbital can contain two electrons.
Therefore, a p subshell can contain a maximum of six electrons.

d Orbitals
A d subshell contains five orbitals.
Each orbital can contain two electrons.
Therefore, a d subshell can contain a maximum of ten electrons.

f Orbitals
An f subshell contains seven orbitals.
Each orbital can contain two electrons.
Therefore, an f subshell can contain a maximum of fourteen electrons.

10. Electron Configuration

Electron configuration describes how electrons are distributed among
orbitals.
For example, the electron configuration of hydrogen is:
1s¹
The electron configuration of helium is:
1s²
The electron configuration of carbon is:
1s² 2s² 2p²
The electron configuration of oxygen is:
1s² 2s² 2p⁴
The superscript indicates the number of electrons occupying that subshell.
Electron configuration is useful for understanding chemical behavior and
periodic trends.
11. Aufbau Principle
The Aufbau principle states that electrons generally occupy available orbitals
in order of increasing energy.
A commonly used filling sequence is:
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
4s
3d
4p
5s
4d
5p
6s
4f
5d
6p
7s
The actual energy ordering can become more complicated for some atoms,
especially transition elements, but the sequence provides a useful starting
framework.

12. Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the same atom
can have an identical set of four quantum numbers.
A practical consequence is that an orbital can contain a maximum of two
electrons.
When two electrons occupy the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.
Therefore:
One orbital → maximum of two electrons

13. Hund’s Rule

Hund’s rule states that electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly before
pairing occurs.
For example, when electrons enter the three p orbitals, they tend to occupy
the orbitals individually before two electrons are placed into the same
orbital.
This arrangement reduces electron-electron repulsion and produces the
lowest-energy arrangement under the applicable conditions.

14. Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost occupied energy level
that are important in chemical bonding.
For many main-group elements, the number of valence electrons helps
predict:
 Chemical reactivity
 Common ion charges
 Types of bonds formed
 Oxidation behavior
 Position within the periodic table
For example, elements in Group 1 generally have one valence electron, while
elements in Group 17 generally have seven valence electrons.

15. Formation of Ions

An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a net electrical charge.

Cations
A cation is positively charged.
It forms when an atom loses one or more electrons.
Example:
Na → Na⁺ + e⁻
Sodium loses one electron and becomes a positively charged sodium ion.

Anions
An anion is negatively charged.
It forms when an atom gains one or more electrons.
Example:
Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻
Chlorine gains one electron and becomes a negatively charged chloride ion.

16. Why Atoms Form Ions

Atoms often gain or lose electrons to reach a more stable electron
configuration.
For many main-group elements, achieving an electron arrangement similar
to a noble gas provides increased stability.
Metals commonly lose electrons and form cations.
Nonmetals commonly gain electrons and form anions.
However, this is a general trend rather than an absolute rule for every
element and chemical environment.

17. Periodic Trends

Atomic structure provides the basis for understanding periodic trends.
Important periodic properties include:
 Atomic radius
 Ionization energy
 Electron affinity
 Electronegativity
Atomic Radius
Atomic radius generally decreases from left to right across a period because
the effective nuclear attraction increases while electrons are added to the
same principal energy level.
Atomic radius generally increases down a group because additional electron
shells are added.

Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom.
It generally increases across a period and decreases down a group, although
there are exceptions.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom in a chemical bond to
attract shared electrons.
It generally increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a
group.
Fluorine is commonly considered the most electronegative element.

18. Ground State and Excited State

The ground state is the lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in an atom.
When an atom absorbs energy, an electron may move to a higher-energy
state.
This is called an excited state.
The excited electron can later return to a lower-energy state and release
energy.
The released energy may appear as electromagnetic radiation.
This principle is important in atomic spectroscopy and helps explain why
atoms can produce characteristic spectral lines.

19. Relationship Between Atomic Structure and

Spectroscopy
When atoms or molecules interact with electromagnetic radiation, they can
absorb or emit specific amounts of energy.
The energy difference between two allowed states determines the energy of
the radiation involved.
This relationship is fundamental to spectroscopy.
Spectroscopic techniques can therefore provide information about the
composition and structure of matter.
Different chemical species have characteristic interactions with
electromagnetic radiation, allowing spectroscopy to be used for identification
and analysis.
20. Important Terms
Atom: The basic unit of an element that retains the chemical identity of that
element.
Element: A substance defined by its number of protons.
Proton: Positively charged particle in the nucleus.
Neutron: Electrically neutral particle in the nucleus.
Electron: Negatively charged particle associated with the electron cloud.
Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom.
Mass number: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Ion: A charged atom or group of atoms.
Cation: Positively charged ion.
Anion: Negatively charged ion.
Orbital: Region of high probability of finding an electron.
Valence electron: An outer electron that can participate in chemical
bonding.
Electron configuration: Distribution of electrons among atomic orbitals.

21. Quick Revision Summary

 Atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus.
 Electrons occupy orbitals surrounding the nucleus.
 The number of protons determines the element.
 Atomic number equals the number of protons.
 Mass number equals protons plus neutrons.
 Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
 Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons.
 Cations are positive and anions are negative.
 Electrons are arranged according to quantum-mechanical principles.
 The major orbital types are s, p, d and f.
 Valence electrons strongly influence chemical behavior.
 Atomic structure explains many periodic trends.
  Electron transitions are associated with absorption or emission of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Understanding atomic structure provides the foundation for studying
chemical bonding, reactions, spectroscopy and analytical chemistry.

22. Practice Questions

1. What are the three major subatomic particles?
2. Where are protons and neutrons located?
3. What determines the identity of an element?
4. Define atomic number.
5. Define mass number.
6. What are isotopes?
7. What is an ion?
8. Distinguish between a cation and an anion.
9. What is an orbital?
10. What is the maximum number of electrons in an s subshell?
11. How many orbitals are present in a p subshell?
12. State the Aufbau principle.
13. State the Pauli exclusion principle.
14. Explain Hund’s rule.
15. What are valence electrons?
16. Why do atoms form ions?
17. What is ionization energy?
18. What is electronegativity?
19. What is meant by an excited state?
20. How is atomic structure related to spectroscopy?

Conclusion
Atomic structure forms the foundation of chemistry. Understanding the
arrangement of protons, neutrons and electrons makes it possible to
understand the identity of elements, formation of ions, chemical bonding,
periodic properties and chemical reactivity. The modern atomic model also
provides the foundation for spectroscopy and many analytical techniques
used to identify and characterize chemical substances.