APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

TME 321

M. O. Petinrin, Ph.D.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Ibadan
 Textbooks
▪ Cengel Y. A., Boles M. A. & Kanoglu M. (2024). Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach (10th ed.). New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
▪ Rajput, R. K. (2007). Engineering Thermodynamics (3rd ed.). New Delhi:
Laxmi Publications Ltd.
▪ Rajput, R. K. (2007). A textbook of Internal Combustion Engines (3rd ed.). New
Delhi: Laxmi Publications Ltd.
▪ Singh, S., & Pati S. (2018). Thermal Engineering. Chennai: Pearson India
Education Services Pvt. Ltd.

Software: MATLAB / Python, DWSIM

COURSE OUTLINE

Module 1: Internal Combustion Engines

Module 2: Reciprocating Air Compressors

Module 3: Vapour Power Cycles

Module 4: Gas power Cycles

Module 5: Refrigeration Cycles

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 Compressors
❑ Compressors are mechanical devices used for increasing
the pressure of a gas.
❑ They are used for producing high-pressure air are called
air compressors.
❑ Air is drawn from the atmosphere by suction process,
which is then compressed to the required pressure and
delivered to the receiver.
❑ Air compressors may be classified as shown

❑ In positive displacement compressors, a certain volume of

compressible fluid is drawn and trapped by closing both
suction and discharge valves.
❑ Examples: reciprocating, diaphragm, rotary screw, rotary
vane, scroll, and lobe (Roots blower)

❑ In dynamic compressors, the kinetic energy is delivered to

the compressible fluid by gas velocity or centrifugal force
and then converted to pressure energy.
❑ Examples: centrifugal, axial, and mixed-flow compressors
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Compressors

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Compressors

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Compressors

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 Compressors
Uses of Compressed Air in Industry
The several uses of compressed air are as follows:
❑ To drive a compressed air engine
❑ For producing an air blast for a workshop
❑ For spraying the fuel (atomizing) into a boiler furnace
❑ For operating pneumatic drills and tools
❑ For operating pneumatic brakes for locomotives and rolling stock
❑ Pneumatic conveying and for pumping of water by compressed air
❑ For working compressed air engines especially in mines
❑ In gas turbine power plants and air-conditioning plants

General Application Areas of Compressors

Compressors are used in various industrial applications: ❑ Power generation
❑ Increase gas pressure ❑ Automotive and aircraft systems
❑ Transport gases through pipelines ❑ Medical and dental equipment
❑ Store gases in cylinders and tanks ❑ Mining and construction operations
❑ Power pneumatic tools and equipment ❑ Food processing and packaging
❑ Refrigeration and air conditioning ❑ Marine engine starting and onboard systems
❑ Industrial manufacturing and automation ❑ Filling breathing gas cylinders (scuba/firefighting)
❑ Chemical and petroleum processing ❑ Environmental and wastewater treatment. 8
 Reciprocating Compressors
❑ If compression is done in a conventional cylinder with a
closely fitted piston making reciprocating motion, then
the compressor is called a reciprocating compressor.
❑ The general arrangement of the compressor and prime
mover used to run the compressor is as shown

The two main types of reciprocating compressors are:

❑ Single-acting reciprocating compressor:
Compression occurs on only one side of the
piston. Usually arranged in V or W form or
vertically.

❑ Double-acting reciprocating compressor:

Compression occurs on both sides of the
piston, allowing compression during both
strokes. Usually, the cylinders are arranged
horizontally.

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Reciprocating Compressors

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 Reciprocating Compressors
Pros
❑ High pressure ratios can be achieved
❑ Suitable for low to medium flow
rates
❑ High efficiency, especially at high
pressures
❑ Can handle a wide range of gases
❑ Available in various sizes and
designs
❑ Good performance at partial loads
❑ Easy to maintain and repair
Cons
❑ Produce vibration and noise due to moving parts
❑ Require more maintenance because of wear on pistons, rings, and valves
❑ Not suitable for very high flow rates
❑ Have pulsating gas output
❑ Larger and heavier compared to some other compressor types
❑ Require additional components such as intercoolers and dampers in many applications 11
 Working Principle of Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor
❑ The schematic arrangement of a single-stage
reciprocating compressor as shown consists of a
cylinder with a cooling jacket, piston, connecting
rod, crank, suction valve, and delivery valve.
❑ The piston performs to-and-fro motion through a
crankshaft arrangement, driven by an electric motor,
diesel engine, petrol engine, or steam engine

❑ During the outward piston motion, cylinder pressure falls below

atmospheric pressure, opening the suction valve due to pressure difference.
❑ Atmospheric air is drawn into the cylinder until the piston reaches bottom
dead centre.

❑ As the piston moves inward, the suction valve closes

and cylinder pressure increases until it exceeds the
delivery-side pressure. ❑ At the end of the delivery stroke, the
❑ The delivery valve then opens, and high-pressure air high-pressure air remaining in the
is delivered to the receiver until the piston reaches top clearance volume expands as the piston
dead centre. moves outward, repeating the cycle.12
 Terminology
❑ Single-acting compressor: If the air
admission from the atmosphere is on only
one side of the cylinder.
❑ Double-acting compressor: When, the air
from the atmosphere is drawn on both
sides of the piston.

❑ Single-stage compressor: If the total compression is done fully in one cylinder.

❑ Multi-stage compressor: If the compression is carried out in more than one
cylinder, and every cylinder carries out a part of the compression.
❑ Free Air Delivered (FAD): It is the actual
volume delivered at the stated pressure,
reduced to intake pressure and
temperature, and expressed in cubic
metre/minute (m3/min). FAD is used to
measure the capacity of a compressor.

❑ Displacement or Swept Volume of the Compressor: The volume displaced

by piston movement between two dead centers is called displacement
or swept volume. For a single-acting compressor, swept volume,
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 Types of Compression
❑ The theoretical p–V diagram of a single-acting compressor is
shown in the figure.
❑ Compression occurs adiabatically along 1–2, and air is
discharged at constant pressure along 2–3.

❑ The work done is the area 1–2–3–4–1.

❑ Isothermal compression (1–2′) requires less work, saving the
shaded area 1–2–2′–1, but is impractical due to the extremely
slow speed required.

❑ In practice, the compressors are driven at fairly high speeds in

order to compress as much air as possible in a given time.
❑ Hence, the compression of air will approximate to an adiabatic.

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Methods for Approximating Compression Process to Isothermal
❑ Cold water spray: Cold water is sprayed on the cylinder during
compression to reduce air temperature. Without cooling,
compression would be adiabatic (pVᵞ = constant).

❑ Water jacketing: Water circulates through the cylinder jacket to cool

the air during compression. It is commonly used in all
reciprocating compressors.

❑ Intercooling by multi-stage compression: In multi-stage compressors,

air is compressed in stages through cylinders connected in series,
with cooling between stages. This reduces compression work
compared with single-stage

❑ External fins: Small-capacity compressors use fins on the cylinder

surface to increase heat transfer and cooling.

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 Single-Stage Compression
Required Work: Without Clearance Volume
❑ Consider the theoretical p-V diagram for a single-stage air compressor
as shown.
❑ The work done on air per cycle is represented by the area 1–2–3–4–1.

where m = mass of air

delivered per cycle

❑ Work done per kg of air

❑ If the compression had

followed the law, pVn = C, then 16
 Single-Stage Compression
❑ Power required in driving the where N = number of complete cycles per minute
compressor = rpm, if single acting
= number of strokes per minute, if double acting
Required Work: With Clearance Volume
❑ The p-V diagram for a single-stage and single-acting
air compressor is shown with clearance volume.
Let Vc = clearance volume, Vs = swept volume = V1 − Vc, and
Va = actual volume = V1 − V4
Let the compression and expansion processes follow the same low pVn = const.
❑ Work done per cycle,

❑ Now, p3 = p2 and p4 = p1

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where m1 = actual mass of air delivered per cycle
 Single-Stage Compression
Volumetric Efficiency
❑ The volumetric efficiency, 𝜂𝑣 , of a reciprocating compressor is defined as the
ratio of the actual free air delivered to the swept volume of the compressor.
❑ The free air delivered is (V1 − V4), whereas the swept volume is (V1 − Vc). Thus,

Let

Then
Now

Thus Factors Affecting Volumetric Efficiency

❑ Very high speed
❑ When referred to ambient conditions, ❑ 2. Leakage through piston seals
❑ 3. Too large a clearance volume
❑ 4. Obstruction at inlet valves
❑ 5. Overheating of air by contact with
cylinder walls
❑ 6. Inertia effect of air 18
 Single-Stage Compression
Isothermal Efficiency ❑ Polytropic work done

❑ Isothermal work done

❑ However,
(ideal gas,
isothermal)

❑ Work saved

❑ The isothermal efficiency (𝜂𝑖 ) is a

measure of the degree to which
isothermal compression has been Indicated
achieved. Power, Pi
❑ It is defined as the ratio of
isothermal work to that of actual Compressor
indicated work and is given by efficiency, 19
 Single-Stage Compression
Adiabatic Efficiency
❑ It is defined as the ratio of the work done on the
compressor with reversible adiabatic compression to the
work done with irreversible polytropic compression.

Calculation of Main Dimensions

❑ The actual volume of air drawn in by the
compressor per stroke,

❑ Capacity of a single-acting
compressor,

❑ The actual volume of air drawn in by

the compressor per stroke,

where d = piston diameter

Also, 20
L = length of stroke
 Single-Stage Compression
Indicated Power of a Compressor ❑ Indicated power,

where A = area of the cylinder, m2

L = length of stroke, m
N = rpm of compressor crank
pm = mean effective pressure of air, Pa (N/m2)

❑ Theoretically, m.e.p. for a single-acting, single-

stage compressor is,

where 𝜂𝑣 = volumetric efficiency of compressor

❑ Using indicator card, the m.e.p. is:

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