1.

Functions & Graphs

• A function assigns each input in its domain exactly one output.

• Important concepts: domain, codomain, range, one-one, onto, even/odd and inverse functions.

• A graph helps identify intercepts, monotonicity, symmetry and transformations.

• Composition is written (f■g)(x)=f(g(x)).

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 1

 2. Limits
• The limit describes the value a function approaches as x approaches a point.

• Notation: lim(x→a) f(x).

• A two-sided limit exists when the left-hand and right-hand limits agree.

• Limits are the foundation of continuity and differentiation.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 2

 3. Limit Laws
• For existing finite limits, limits distribute over sums, differences, products and quotients when the denominator limit
is nonzero.

• Standard limits include lim(x→0) sin x/x = 1 and lim(x→0) (1−cos x)/x² = 1/2.

• Algebraic simplification, factorization and rationalization often remove indeterminate forms.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 3

 4. Continuity
• f is continuous at a if f(a) exists, lim(x→a)f(x) exists, and lim(x→a)f(x)=f(a).

• Polynomials are continuous everywhere; rational functions are continuous where their denominators are nonzero.

• Continuity is required by several major calculus theorems.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 4

 5. Derivative from First Principles
• The derivative at a is the limit of the difference quotient.

• f′(a)=lim(h→0)[f(a+h)−f(a)]/h.

• Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line.

• The derivative also represents an instantaneous rate of change.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 5

 6. Basic Differentiation Rules
• d/dx(c)=0 and d/dx(x^n)=nx^(n−1).

• Sum and difference rules apply term by term.

• d/dx(e^x)=e^x and d/dx(ln x)=1/x for x>0.

• d/dx(sin x)=cos x and d/dx(cos x)=−sin x.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 6

 7. Product & Quotient Rules
• Product rule: (fg)′=f′g+fg′.

• Quotient rule: (f/g)′=(f′g−fg′)/g², where g≠0.

• Use these rules when the function is naturally expressed as a product or quotient.

• Careful parentheses prevent sign errors.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 7

 8. Chain Rule
• For a composite function f(g(x)), the chain rule gives d/dx f(g(x))=f′(g(x))g′(x).

• Example: d/dx (3x²+1)^5 = 30x(3x²+1)^4.

• Identify the outer function and inner function before differentiating.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 8

 9. Implicit Differentiation
• When y is defined implicitly by an equation, differentiate both sides with respect to x.

• Remember that d/dx(y^n)=n y^(n−1) dy/dx.

• Collect terms containing dy/dx and solve for y′.

• Useful for curves that are difficult to express explicitly as y=f(x).

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 9

 10. Higher-Order Derivatives
• The second derivative is f′′(x)=d²f/dx².

• Higher derivatives describe changes in slope and curvature.

• For motion, position s(t), velocity is s′(t) and acceleration is s′′(t).

• Notation includes f′, f′′, f′′′ and f^(n).

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 10

 11. Tangent & Normal
• The tangent slope at x=a is f′(a).

• Tangent line: y−f(a)=f′(a)(x−a).

• If the tangent slope is nonzero, the normal slope is −1/f′(a).

• Normal line: y−f(a)=−(1/f′(a))(x−a).

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 11

 12. Increasing & Decreasing Functions
• If f′(x)>0 on an interval, f is increasing there.

• If f′(x)<0 on an interval, f is decreasing there.

• Critical points occur where f′=0 or f′ is undefined, subject to the domain.

• A sign chart for f′ is a systematic way to analyze intervals.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 12

 13. Maxima & Minima
• A local maximum occurs where nearby function values are smaller; a local minimum occurs where nearby values
are larger.

• A common method: find critical points, make a sign chart for f′, and classify the change.

• Second derivative test: if f′(c)=0 and f′′(c)>0, c is a local minimum; if f′′(c)<0, c is a local maximum.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 13

 14. Rolle’s Theorem
• If f is continuous on [a,b], differentiable on (a,b), and f(a)=f(b), then there exists c in (a,b) with f′(c)=0.

• The theorem guarantees at least one horizontal tangent between equal endpoint values.

• Always verify all hypotheses before applying it.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 14

 15. Mean Value Theorem
• If f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b), there exists c in (a,b) such that f′(c)=[f(b)−f(a)]/(b−a).

• The derivative at c equals the average rate of change over [a,b].

• Rolle’s theorem is the special case f(a)=f(b).

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 15

 16. Applications of Derivatives
• Derivatives are used for optimization, motion, related rates, curve sketching and approximation.

• For optimization, translate the condition into a function, determine its domain, find critical points and compare
candidates.

• Units should be tracked in applied problems.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 16

 17. Related Rates
• If quantities depend on time, differentiate the relationship with respect to t.

• Substitute known values only after differentiating unless an earlier substitution is mathematically safe.

• Typical examples involve changing lengths, areas, volumes and angles.

• A diagram often makes the relationship easier to construct.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 17

 18. Differentials & Linear Approximation
• For y=f(x), the differential is dy=f′(x)dx.

• Linear approximation near x=a: f(x)≈f(a)+f′(a)(x−a).

• This gives a quick estimate when x is close to a.

• The approximation is generally most accurate for small changes in x.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 18

 19. Antiderivatives
• An antiderivative F of f satisfies F′=f.

• Indefinite integral: ∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C.

• The constant C is necessary because derivatives of constants are zero.

• Basic examples: ∫x^n dx=x^(n+1)/(n+1)+C for n≠−1 and ∫1/x dx=ln|x|+C.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 19

 20. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
• If F′=f and f is continuous, then ∫_a^b f(x)dx=F(b)−F(a).

• The theorem connects differentiation and integration.

• For a variable upper limit, d/dx ∫_a^x f(t)dt=f(x) under standard continuity conditions.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 20

 21. Basic Integration
• Power rule: ∫x^n dx=x^(n+1)/(n+1)+C, n≠−1.

• ∫e^x dx=e^x+C.

• ∫sin x dx=−cos x+C.

• ∫cos x dx=sin x+C.

• Use substitution when a composite expression and its derivative appear together.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 21

 22. Substitution Method
• Let u=g(x), so du=g′(x)dx.

• Then ∫f(g(x))g′(x)dx becomes ∫f(u)du.

• Example pattern: ∫2x(x²+1)^5 dx. Put u=x²+1, du=2x dx, giving ∫u^5du.

• Back-substitute after integrating.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 22

 23. Integration by Parts
• Formula: ∫u dv = uv − ∫v du.

• It follows from the product rule.

• Choose u and dv so that the remaining integral is simpler.

• A common heuristic is LIATE: logarithmic, inverse trigonometric, algebraic, trigonometric, exponential.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 23

 24. Definite Integrals
• A definite integral has numerical limits and represents signed accumulated change or signed area.

• Reversing limits changes the sign: ∫_a^b f(x)dx=−∫_b^a f(x)dx.

• Splitting an interval: ∫_a^c f + ∫_c^b f = ∫_a^b f.

• Area between curves requires attention to which function is larger.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 24

 25. Applications of Integration
• Integrals can calculate displacement from velocity, accumulated quantity and areas.

• Area between y=f(x) and y=g(x) on [a,b] is ∫_a^b [top−bottom] dx when f is above g.

• Volumes of revolution can be found with disk, washer or shell methods depending on the setup.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 25

 26. Differential Equations
• A differential equation contains an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives.

• A first-order equation involves the first derivative.

• For dy/dx=F(x) in a directly integrable form, integrate both sides to obtain y.

• An initial condition determines the integration constant when a unique solution is available.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 26

 27. Taylor & Maclaurin Series
• A Taylor series represents a sufficiently smooth function locally as a power series around x=a.

• Maclaurin series are Taylor series centered at 0.

• Important expansions include e^x=1+x+x²/2!+x³/3!+… and sin x=x−x³/3!+x■/5!−…

• Series are used for approximation and theoretical analysis within their intervals of convergence.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 27

 28. Numerical Integration
• When an exact antiderivative is unavailable or inconvenient, numerical methods estimate a definite integral.

• Riemann sums approximate area using rectangles.

• The trapezoidal rule uses trapezoids to approximate the graph.

• Accuracy depends on the function, interval and number of subintervals.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 28

 29. Worked Problems & Practice
• Example 1: Differentiate y=(x²+1)^4. By the chain rule, y′=8x(x²+1)^3.

• Example 2: Evaluate ∫_0^2 x²dx = [x³/3]_0^2 = 8/3.

• Practice: Find extrema of x³−3x; evaluate ∫x e^x dx; solve dy/dx=3x² with y(0)=2; verify Rolle’s theorem for a
suitable polynomial.

• Strategy: Write the governing rule first, then substitute carefully and simplify.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 29

 30. Final Calculus Revision Sheet
• Limit: Describes approach behavior.

• Continuity: lim(x→a)f(x)=f(a), with existence of both sides and f(a).

• Derivative: Instantaneous rate of change and tangent slope.

• Chain rule: Differentiate the outer function, keep the inner function, then multiply by the inner derivative.

• Optimization: Find critical points and compare candidates.

• Integral: Accumulation / signed area and antiderivative.

• FTC: Differentiation and integration are linked.

• Integration by parts: ∫u dv=uv−∫v du.

• Core theorems: Rolle’s theorem and Mean Value Theorem require continuity and differentiability hypotheses.

• Exam habit: State the relevant theorem or rule, verify conditions, show substitutions, and check the final result.

Calculus — 30 Page Study Notes Page 30