ANAT 100 - Module 1: Laying the Foundation

Description: In Module 01, you will learn the structural organization of the human body and
adopt the language of anatomy. The language of anatomy enables anatomists and healthcare
professionals alike to communicate, locate, and describe body structures. This module includes
an introduction to basic tissues, which form the basis of every anatomical structure.

Module: 1
CORNELL NOTES Section: 1
SHEET Topic: The Importance of Anatomy
Date: January 8, 2024

QUESTIONS NOTES
Definition of Anatomy:
- Study of Structure
- Anatomy's origin: Greek, meaning "to cut apart."
- Anatomy practice: Dissecting organisms to understand position,
relations, structure, and function.
Four Areas of Anatomy:

- Histology (microscopic features)

- Gross anatomy (macroscopic features)
- Neuroanatomy
- Embryology
Do we need to remember these? Fun Facts about Anatomy:
- Q: Where are the smallest bone and muscle in your body
located?
- A: The smallest bone and muscle are found in your
middle ear, and their combined size is comparable to that
of a dime.
- Q: What does the average human brain weigh?
- A: The average human brain weighs 3 pounds, a similar
weight to the liver.
- Q: How many times its size can the human adult stomach
expand?
- A: The stomach of a human adult can expand up to four
times its size, holding nearly 2 L.
 - Q: How many feet long is the human digestive tract?
- A: From one end to the other, the human digestive tract
measures over 29 feet long.
- Q: What organ is roughly the same size as your fist?
- A: Your heart is roughly the size of your fist.
- Q: Can humans survive with just one lung?
- A: Yes, humans can live with one lung (given limitations
to physical activity)
Unity of form and function:
- Form and function are closely linked.
- Structure organization is crucial for specific functions.
- Applies from molecules and cells to organ systems.
- Proper form ensures proper functioning.
- Dysfunction may result from disrupted form.

SUMMARY: Write 4 or more sentences describing specific learning from these

notes.
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 Module: 1
CORNELL NOTES Section: 2
SHEET Topic: Organization of the Human Body and Anatomic
Nomenclature
Date: January 9, 2024

QUESTIONS NOTES
Organization of the Human Body:
- There are microscopic and macroscopic structures of the human
body that can be organized by fundamental levels.
5 Levels of Organization:

● Chemical Level: A molecule is a group of atoms bonded

together.
● Cellular Level: Cells are the smallest living structure and are
formed from atoms and molecules.
● Tissue Level: Tissues are similar cells that perform specialized
functions.
● Organ Level: Organs are two or more tissues that work together
to perform complex functions.
● Organ System Level: The organ system level consists of related
organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a
common function.
● Organismal Level: All body systems function interdependently
in a single living human.
Body can be organized into 2 main sections:
- Axial: main vertical axis of the body, and includes the head,
neck, and trunk.
- Appendicular: limbs or appendages that attach to the axis.

At macroscopic levels, we can organize individual organs into organ

systems based on structure and function. 11 body systems:
 Body System Description

Integumentary makes up our body covering and includes our skin

and associated structures such as our hair and nails.

Skeletal Includes the bones and joints of the body.

Muscular Contains your muscles; muscular and skeletal

systems work together for movement and support.

Nervous Includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that run
throughout the body.

Endocrine Includes glands that produce and secrete

hormones; with the nervous system, function for
the integration and coordination of the body to act
as a unit.

Digestive Starts at the mouth with a long tube and ends at the
anus.

Respiratory Allows you to breathe and includes the nose, air

passageways, and lungs.

Cardiovascular Includes blood, blood vessels, and the heart.

Lymphatic Includes the lymphatic vessels, cells, and structures

that can initiate an immune response.

Urinary Includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The respiratory, cardiovascular, lymphatic, and
urinary systems function for processing
and transport of nutrients, oxygen, and waste.

Reproductive provides the means for the sexual maturation and

procreation of each individual.
Body Cavities:
- distinct spaces where organ systems are enclosed
- These spaces are important because they contain and protect our
vital organs.

Anatomical Language:
- It is fundamental for all anatomists to adopt a consistent
language in order to describe and locate structures accurately.
- In anatomy, all directional terms use anatomical position as a
point of reference.
- The characteristics of anatomical position include:
- Standing upright
- Feet parallel and on the floor
- Head level and looking forward
- Arms at side of body
- Palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from
body

Directional Terms:
- Superior (Cranial)/Inferior (Caudal): Above or over VS
Under or under
- Anterior/Posterior: In front of VS After, behind, following, at
the rear
- Medial/Lateral: Toward the midline, middle VS Toward the
side, away from middle
- Proximal/Distal: Near, closer to origin VS away, farther from
the origin
- Superficial/Deep: closer to the surface VS farther from the
surface
- Parietal/Visceral: Indicating component of the body walls,
which may include muscles, connective tissue, and tissue
covering the organs VS Lines the outer surfaces of organs
(viscera) that are located within the cavities
 Planes and Sections of the Body:
- Sagittal: the sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the
body into left and right parts. When a sagittal plane passes
specifically through the midline of the body, it is referred to as
the midsagittal plane.
- Coronal: The coronal or frontal plane is a vertical plane that
divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
- Horizontal: the horizontal or transverse plane is a horizontal
plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
- Oblique: the oblique plane is a plane that passes through the
body at an angle.
- Longitudinal: a longitudinal plane is any plane that is
perpendicular to the horizontal plane. Both sagittal and coronal
planes are examples of longitudinal planes
Body Quadrants:
- The abdominal and pelvic cavities can be divided into four
quadrants. These quadrants are often used in medicine to
describe location of pain, dysfunction, or injury.
- Upper left (UL) and upper right (UR)
- Lower Left (LL) and lower right (LR

SUMMARY: Write 4 or more sentences describing specific learning from these

notes.
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 Module: 1
CORNELL NOTES Section: 3
SHEET Topic: Basic Tissue - Epithelium
Date: January 9, 2024

QUESTIONS NOTES
Basic Tissue:
- There are four basic types of tissue in the human body that are
the building blocks for every organ.
- Connective, muscle, epithelial, and nervous
- In order to understand the form and function of organs and organ
systems, you must first examine their components.
Epithelium:

- Epithelium is a tissue composed of closely apposed* (side by

side) cells with very little or no intervening intercellular
substance.
- There are two types of epithelium:
- Covering epithelium: cells that cover the external and
internal surfaces
- Glandular epithelium: cells that produce and secrete
product, such as hormones
Characteristics of Epithelium:
- Cellularity: Adjacent epithelial cells are joined by specialized
junctions. There are four types of junctions: tight junctions,
adhering junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
- Polarity: An epithelial cell has an exposed (apical) surface that
faces the exterior of the body or internal space, and a basal
surface where it is attached to the underlying tissue.
- Attachment: Epithelial cells rest on and are attached to the basal
lamina (basement membrane).
- Avascularity: Epithelial tissues have no direct blood supply. The
epithelial cells receive nutrients from the blood vessels in the
underlying tissue.
- Regeneration: Epithelial cells are renewed continuously.
Functions of Epithelium:
- Support & Protection: epithelium covers and lines external and
 internal surfaces of the body protecting the underlying tissue
from injury, pathogens, and dehydration (e.g. skin).
- Permeability: epithelium allows substances to be absorbed into
the body (e.g. epithelium lining the digestive system absorbs
nutrients from food).
- Sensation: some epithelial tissues contain specialized cells that
are able to detect sensory stimuli (e.g. skin senses touch, tongue
senses taste).
- Secretion: some epithelial cells are specialized to secrete
specific substances (e.g. skin secretes lubricating oil, enzymes,
and hormones are secreted by digestive system)
Classifying Epithelium:
- The body contains many different kinds of epithelia.
- Cell Organization: Epithelia may be classified as either simple
or stratified, referring to the number of cell layers.
- Simple: epithelium that is only one cell layer thick.
- Stratified: epithelium that is two or more cell layers thick;
only the deepest layer of cells is in contact with the basal
lamina
- Cell Shape:
- Squamous: flat (thin), wide, and somewhat irregular in
shape.
- Cuboidal: About the same size on all sides; the nucleus is
usually centrally located.
- Columnar: taller than they are wide; nucleus is oval and
located in the basal region of the cell.
Naming Epithelial Tissue:
- Epithelial tissues are named by combining their two
classifications
- Ex. Simple Squamous
Simple Epithelium:
- Simple Epithelium: Characterized by being one cell layer thick.
- Simple Squamous Epithelium:
- Single layer of flattened cells.
- Found lining blood vessels.
- Provides a thin barrier for rapid exchange between
vessels and tissues.
- Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:
- Single layer of cube-shaped cells.
- Located in some glands and kidney tubules.
 - Not a focus for glandular epithelium study in this course.
- Simple Columnar Epithelium:
- Single layer of column-shaped cells.
- Present in the lining of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
- Allows for rapid secretion or absorption in the GI tract,
aiding in digestion.
Stratified Epithelium:
- Stratified Epithelium: Characterized by two or more layers of
cells; only the deepest layer touches the basal lamina.
- Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
- Multiple layers of flat-shaped cells.
- Basal cells are more cuboidal, while apical cells are
squamous and flattened.
- Found in the superficial layer of the skin, protecting
deeper structures from abrasion.
- Also lines the vagina.
- Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium:
- Contains multiple layers of cube-shaped cells.
- Located in some ducts of glands.
- Functions include secretion, protection, and strengthening
gland duct walls.
- Example: Found in the duct of a sweat gland.
- Stratified Columnar Epithelium:
- Multiple layers of column-shaped cells.
- Relatively rare in the human body.
- Found in the male urethra.
- Functions include protection and secretion.
Other Forms of Epithelium:
- Transitional Epithelium:
- Comprises multiple layers of epithelial cells.
- Allows for stretching; cells change shape based on tissue
tension.
- Characterized by domed surface cells in a relaxed state;
these cells flatten when stretched.
- Found lining the urinary bladder, ureters, and proximal
end of the urethra.
- Adapts to the accumulation of urine in the bladder.
- Pseudostratified (Ciliated Columnar) Epithelium:
- Appears to be stratified but is actually a single layer of
cells.
- Cell nuclei positioned at varying levels, giving a stratified
 look.
- Features short cilia on the surface for moving mucous.
- Predominantly found throughout most of the respiratory
tract.
- Essential for mucous transport in the respiratory system.

SUMMARY: Write 4 or more sentences describing specific learning from these

notes.
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Module: 1
CORNELL NOTES Section: 4
SHEET Topic: Connective Tissue
Date: January 9, 2024

QUESTIONS NOTES
- Connective tissue is the most abundant in the human body
- Most diverse of four tissue types with a wide variety of
functions.
- Consistency ranges from gel-like softness of areolar connective
tissue to the hardness of bone
Functions of Connective Tissue:

- Primary Functions: Support, anchor, and connect various body

parts.
- Support & Protection:
- Skull bones protect the brain.
- Kidneys are protected by surrounding fat padding.
- Structural Framework for the Body:
- Cartilage supports structures like the trachea, ears, and
nose.
- Bones provide a framework for skeletal muscles.
- Medium for Exchange:
 - Blood acts as a medium to carry gases, nutrients, wastes,
and blood cells throughout the body.
- Storage & Repair:
- Bones store minerals, such as calcium.
- Fat acts as a major energy reservoir.
- Defense:
- Connective tissue acts as a physical barrier.
- Involves white blood cells (macrophages, neutrophils)
and antibody production (plasma cells).
Components of Connective Tissue:
- Basic Structural Elements: cells, fibers, and intercellular
substance (ground substance).
Cells of Connective Tissue:
- Diversity in cell types varies across different connective tissues.
- Fixed cells: Permanent residents (e.g., fibroblasts).
- Wandering cells: Transient migrants from the blood in response
to stimuli (e.g., macrophages).
Fibers of Connective Tissue:
- Collagen Fibers: Most common, flexible with high tensile
strength, appear rope-like microscopically.
- Elastic Fibers: Thin, branched, appear wavy or curly, can stretch
like rubber.
- Reticular Fibers: Thin, form a branching interwoven network
without common alignment.
Ground Substance:
- Occupies space between cells and fibers.
- High water content, transparent, colorless, and viscous.

Connective Tissue Proper:

- Loose CT:
- More ground substance with few CT fibres.
- Ex. Adipose tissue; specialized type of loose CT where
 fat cells (adipocytes) account for most of the tissue.
- This tissue acts as a padding, insulates against heat loss,
and serves as a packing around and between structures
- Dense CT:
- Less ground substance with more CT fibres.
- Ex. Elastic tissue; specialized type of dense regular
connective tissue composed of bundles of thick parallel
elastic fibres between which we find some collagen and
fibroblasts.
- Due to its fibrous nature, this tissue has the ability to
stretch and recoil
Supporting Connective Tissue:

- Bone: important structural tissue that forms the framework of the

body
- Cartilage: structural component of the body
Specialized Fluid Connective Tissue:

- Blood:
- fluid within blood vessels and the heart. It contains
various cells and proteins and performs essential
functions within the body.
- Lymph
- interstitial fluid (fluid that bathes cells) that is collected
into thin-walled lymphatic vessels and transported to the
cardiovascular system
Section Questions:

- Q: Briefly describe the function of collagen fibres in connective

tissue
- A: Collagen fibres act to provide strength and flexibility
to tissue. These fibres are responsible for resisting large
forces.
- Q: Predict a few symptoms that you would expect to observe in a
patient with Ehler’s Danlos Syndrome due to dysfunctional
collagen fibres.
- A: Without functioning collagen, we could expect laxity
or “looseness” in tissue. Lax tissue could present in the
following symptoms:
- Loose skin with high elasticity or stretch
 - Fragile skin that cannot resist large forces
- Flexible joints leading to joint pain, and eventually
arthritis
- Other symptoms involving lax tissue may arise in
individuals with ED
- Q: Functions of Connective Tissue
- A: Support and protection; Provides a structural
framework for the body; Medium for exchange of
nutrients and metabolic waste; Storage; Repair; Defense
from invasion of antigens
Supporting Connective Tissue:

- Supporting connective tissue provides a strong, durable

framework to protect and support soft body tissues.
- Cartilage and bone are two types of supporting connective tissue
Cartilage:

- Cartilage is an important structural component of the body. It is a

firm tissue, but is softer and much more flexible than bone.
- Cartilage is a unique connective tissue found in many areas of the
body including:
- The joints between moveable bones
- Between the vertebrae in the spine
- Ears and nose
- Bronchial tubes or airways
Components:
- Cells
- Primarily chondrocytes, which are located throughout
ground substance in small spaces called lacunae that
contain one or more cells

- Fibers
- Can include various collagen or elastic fibers that are
scattered throughout cartilage

- Ground Substance
- A firm gel-like substance that makes cartilage solid. Cells
called chondrocytes are located throughout the
intercellular substance

Additional Components of Cartilage:

Perichondrium- Dense irregular connective tissue that envelops cartilage

to provide nutrients to cartilage. Not all types of cartilage have this.

Lacunae- Small spaces in cartilage that house one or more chondrocytes

(major cartilage cells).

Section Question:

Q: Why do you think some types of cartilage would have a

perichondrium?
A: Cartilage is avascular, therefore unable to get nutrients from a direct
blood supply. The perichondrium is present to help provide nutrients to
the cartilage and remove waste products.
Types of Cartilage:

02: Bone:
Functions:
- Support
- Locomotion
- Protection
- Blood Cell Production
- Mineral Metabolism

Composition of Bone:

⅓ Organic Components
- Cells
- Fibres
- Ground Substance

⅔ Inorganic Components
- Minerals
- Salts

Section Questions:
Q: Which component of bone provides for the rigidity of bone?
A: The inorganic component: minerals and sals, mainly calcium
phosphate

Structural Unit of Bone:

Bone has a structured pattern of repeating cylindrical structures, known
as osteons. Each osteon is made of concentric rings with hollow central
canal, known as the Haversian canal. The cellular components of bone
are located b/w concentric rings.
 Section Question:
Q: Recall that there are varying functions of connective tissue depending
on the type. List a few functions of connective tissue.
A:
- Support and protection
- Provides a structural framework for the body
- Medium for exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste
- Storage
- Repair
- Defense from invasion of antigens

SUMMARY: Write 4 or more sentences describing specific learning from these

notes.
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