Chapter 5

Sex Hormones, ​
Sexual Differentiation, ​
and Menstruation
Learning Objectives
• After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
LO 1: Identify the sources and function of each of the sex hormones and how they are
regulated.
LO 2: Describe the changes that occur across the four phases of the menstrual cycle.
LO 3: State the causes of symptoms of the most common menstrual problems.
LO 4: Summarize the process of prenatal sexual differentiation.
LO 5: Classify the homologous and analogous sex organs in males and female bodies.
LO 6: Distinguish the eight variables of gender and their relationship to normal and atypical
gender development.
LO 7: Describe the process of puberty in male and female bodies.
LO 8: Summarize the research surrounding fluctuations in mood, performance, and sexuality
across the menstrual cycle and their possible causes.

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Hormones
• Hormones are chemicals produced by special glands, endocrine glands, that travel through the
blood to reach their destination (muscles, kidneys etc.)
• Hormones travel great distance between the gland they are produced and their destination
➢ Think of sending a message to someone in a bottle that needs a stream of water to reach its
destination…

Figure Imagine a bottle carrying a message. The bottle needs to be

able to float in water to take that message from the sender to the
receiver. Hormones are messages carried in blood.
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Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands

• The endocrine system is made entirely of glands (pineal

gland, pituitary gland etc.). These glands secrete
hormones (messages) that need to be carried using the
blood to the receiver.
• Cells and organs of the body do not use words to
communicate, they use chemicals.
➢ Think of the smell of coffee or popcorn and how that
communicates with your stomach.

• While the endocrine system is rather complex, for the

purpose of this course we are only looking at the
hormones involved with the reproductive systems of both
the males and females.
Figure Imagine above shows the glands of the Endocrine
system. Each gland is responsible for producing a message
(hormone) that travels through the blood to reach its
destination. Ex. A hormone produced in the brain is carried
to the ovaries to communicates a message.
Sex Hormones
• Most important hormones associated with reproduction are:​
• Follicle stimulating hormone & Luteinizing hormones
• Testosterone​ (androgens)
• Estrogen​ & Progesterone
Of all the endocrine glands;
• The pituitary gland is one of the most important as it produces
hormones which regulate the functions of the gonads (ovaries
and testes.
• The hypothalamus, is a portion of the brain that regulates sleep,
hunger, thirst, motivation, behaviour (including sex drive)
• It also produces hormones which regulates the function of
the pituitary gland
➢ Thus….the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the gonads all Figure 5.1 The hypothalamus–pituitary–
work together for the reproductive systems. gonad (ovary/teste) feedback loop in
women, which regulates production of the
sex hormones.
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Sex Hormone
Male Sex Hormones
Important hormones to know….
Hormones produced by the testes:
• Testosterone:
• produced by the interstitial cells of the testes
• responsible for regulation of muscle mass, sex drive, sperm production (spermatogenesis) and
erectile function
Hormones produced by the pituitary gland
• Follicle-stimulating hormone communicates with:
• testes to support sperm development & maturation
• Luteinizing hormone:
• testes to stimulates the interstitial cells in producing testosterone

Hormones essential to reproduction (but not the main players);

Inhibin: regulates FSH and LH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): regulates the pituitary’s secretion of gonad-stimulating
hormones
Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH): it acts in opposition to GnRH
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 Sex Hormone Systems in Male Bodies2

Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram of hormonal

(a) control of sex hormones. Note how(b) similar they are in male and female bodies: (a)
Testosterone secretion and sperm production by the testes. The negative signs indicate that testosterone inhibits LH production, both
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in the pituitary and in the hypothalamus. (b) Estrogen secretion and ovum production by the ovaries (during the follicular phase of
Fluctuations of Sex Hormone in Male Bodies

• Cycles in Men
• While the original thinking was that males do not have hormonal cycles, studies have shown
otherwise.
• One study found testosterone to fluctuate weekly, peaking on weekends (Hirschenhauser
et al. 2002)​.
• Men have been shown to synchronize with their partners when trying to conceive thus
displaying a 28-day cycle​.
• Men testosterone level have also been shown to fluctuate with sexual activity​….100% increase
after sex with an unfamiliar partner

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Sex Hormone
Female Bodies
Hormones produced by the ovaries:
• Estrogen:
• brings about changes of puberty​, maintains mucous membranes of the vagina
• during puberty, estrogen tells growth plates to solidify and stops your growth
• during adulthood, estrogen maintains bone density → hence why women are prone to
osteoporosis during menopause.
• Progesterone
• influencing mood, reducing anxiety, and improving sleep quality
• If pregnancy occurs, it supports gestation, inhibits uterine contractions, and helps develop
breast tissue for lactation

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland

Follicle-stimulating hormone communicates with:
• ovaries to regulate menstrual cycle, stimulates ovarian follicles to grow/mature, and triggering the
production of estrogen
• Luteinizing hormone communicates with;
• Ovaries to regulate menstrual cycle, trigger ovulation and support early pregnancy

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Biology
The Menstrual Cycle
• Purpose is to prepare the female body monthly for a potential pregnancy
• Hormonal changes mature the egg, triggers ovulation (releases egg), and thickens lining of
uterus (endometrium) for implantation.

• The menstrual cycle has four phases:​

• Follicular Phase: (or preovulatory phase)​
• Ovulation
• Luteal Phase: (or postovulatory phase)
• Menstruation

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Menstrual Cycle
Phases of…
• Baby girls are born with 1-2 mill. primordial follicles
• Many are lost in the years before puberty
At puberty until menopause: Secondary follicle

• Follicular Phase:
• High levels of FSH are secreted​ by the pituitary
gland which stimulates ~20 primordial follicles
to mature into primary follicle, secondary
follicle and finally a mature Graafian follicle.
Only 1 of 20 makes is to the Graafian follicle
stage
➢ remember the sunflower seed analogy, the seed
is inside the shell (the follicle is the protective
shell)
• Inside the protective follicle, the female egg
matures, completing Meiosis to become haploid
(containing half the genetic information of the
female).
• Follicle secretes estrogen
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Menstrual Cycle
Phases of…

• Ovulation:
• When completely ripe, the follicle ruptures and
Secondary follicle
open to release the ripened egg.
• The follicle stays behind inside the ovary, and
the egg travels towards the fallopian tube.
• Luteal Phase:
• After releasing an egg, the follicle turns into an
endocrine gland called the corpus luteum
• The corpus luteum synthesizes the
hormone progesterone to maintain uterine
lining in case egg is fertilized and
implantation takes place. ​
• Menstruation: Shedding of the inner lining of the
uterus​ if there is no fertilization/implantation

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Biology of the Menstrual Cycle3
Figure 5.5 The biological
Length/Timing of the Cycle events of the menstrual
• Normal menstrual cycle = 21 to 36 cycle. Changes in the levels
of hormones produced by
days; average is ~ 28 days​ the pituitary (a) and the
ovaries (b) bring about
• Menstruation begins on day 1 and changes (c) in the ovarian
continues until about day 4 or 5​. follicles and the
endometrium of the uterus.
• Follicular phase extends from
about day 5 to about day 13​.
• Ovulation occurs on day 14​.
• Luteal phase extends from day 15
to the end of the cycle, day 28.

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Biology of the Menstrual Cycle4

• Other Cyclic Changes

• Cervical mucus​
• Start of cycle: Mucus is alkaline and thick​
• Just before ovulation: Mucus is more alkaline, thin, and watery​
• Basal body temperature​
• Taken first thing in the morning​
• Rises by 0.3 of a degree or more on day of ovulation​

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Biology of the Menstrual Cycle5

• Menstrual Problems
• Dysmenorrhea: painful menstruation​
• Possible cause: prostaglandins​
• Best treatment is nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS)
• Endometriosis: occurs when the endometrial tissue grows in a place other than the uterus
• Very painful periods that last an unusually long time, pain during sexual activity, and
infertility are the most common symptoms
• Amenorrhea: absence of menstruation​
• Primary amenorrhea: when a girl has not menstruated by about age 18​
• Secondary amenorrhea: absence of menstruation if she has had at least one period

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation
Figure 5.6 Although incredibly tiny, the sex chromosomes carry a wealth of
• Sex Chromosomes information that they transmit to various organs throughout the body. The
• XX = female​ Y chromosome (on the right) is smaller, has fewer genes, and carries less
information than the X chromosome (on the left).
• XY = male​
• XXY = Klinefelter’s Syndrome​
• Sex chromosomes carry information on how
to differentiate during development​

SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Science Source

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation2
Figure 5.7 Development of the male and female external genitals from the undifferentiated stage. This occurs during prenatal
development. Note homologous organs in the female and male bodies.

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation3

• Gonads
• In the 7th week after conception, sex chromosomes direct gonads to begin
differentiation​.
• Male: undifferentiated gonad develops into a testis at about 7 weeks​
• Female: ovaries develop at around 10–11 wks. ​
• Sex-determining region: SRY (Y chromosome)​

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation4

• Prenatal Hormones and the Genitals​

• Müllerian ducts: ducts found in both male and female fetuses; in males they degenerate
and in females they develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the upper part of
the vagina​
• Wolffian ducts: ducts found in both male and female fetuses; in females they degenerate
and in males they develop into the epididymis, the vas deferens, and the ejaculatory duct​

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation5

• Descent of the Testes and Ovaries

• Ovaries and testes change in shape and position
• Ovaries and testes lie near the top of the abdominal cavity
• By 10th week, they have grown and moved down to the level of the upper edge of
the pelvis
• Ovaries remain there until after birth and later shift to their adult position in the
pelvis
• Testes move down into the scrotum via a passageway called the inguinal canal
• One of both testes may fail to descend (cryptorchidism)
• The inguinal canal may not close off completely

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation6

• Brain Differentiation
• Evidence indicates that differences exist between human male and female brains in the
preoptic area of the hypothalamus​.
• These differences may develop after birth rather than prenatally

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation7

• Homologous Organs
• Homologous organs: organs in the male and female that develop from the same
embryonic tissue​
• Analogous organs: organs in the male and female that have similar functions

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation8
Table 5.1 Homologous and Analogous Organs of the Male and Female Reproductive Organs

Homologous Organs Analogous Organs

Embryonic Source In Adult Male Bodies In Adult Female Bodies In Adult Male Bodies In Adult Female Bodies

Gonad (medulla plus Testes (from medulla) Ovaries (from cortex) Testes (from medulla) Ovaries (from cortex)
cortex)
Genital tubercle Glans penis Clitoris Glans penis Clitoris

Genital swelling Scrotum Outer lips

Müllerian duct Degenerates, leaving only Fallopian tubes, uterus, part

remnants of vagina
Wolffian duct Epididymis, vas deferens, Degenerates, leaving only
seminal vesicles remnants
Urethral primordia Prostate, Cowper’s glands Skene’s glands, Bartholin Prostate, Cowper’s glands Skene’s glands, Bartholin
glands glands

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation9

• Atypical Prenatal Gender Differentiation

1. Chromosomal gender: XX in females; XY in males
2. Gonadal gender: Ovaries in females; testes in males
3. Prenatal hormonal gender: Testosterone and AMH in males but not females before
birth
4. Prenatal and neonatal brain differentiation: Testosterone present for masculinization,
absent for feminization
5. Internal organs: Fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper vagina in females; prostate, vas,
and seminal vesicles in males

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation10

• Atypical Prenatal Gender Differentiation

6. External genital appearance: Clitoris, inner and outer lips, and vaginal opening in
females; penis and scrotum in males
7. Pubertal hormonal gender: At puberty, estrogen and progesterone in females;
testosterone in males
8. Gender assigned at birth: The announcement at birth, “It’s a girl” or “It’s a boy,” based
on the appearance of the external genitals; the gender the parents and the rest of
society believe the child to be; the gender in which the child is reared
9. Gender identity: The person’s private, internal sense of maleness or femaleness or
something else, such as non-binary.

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Prenatal Sexual Differentiation11

• Atypical Prenatal Gender Differentiation

• Intersex: anatomical state of having gender-ambiguous genitals
• May be incompletely male or female
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia ​
• Androgen-insensitivity syndrome​
• Provides strong evidence of the complexity of sex and gender and their development

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty

• Puberty: time during which there is sudden enlargement and maturation of the gonads, other
genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics, so that the individual becomes capable of
reproduction​
• Adolescence: represents a psychological transition from the behaviour and attitudes of a child to
the behaviour, attitudes, and responsibilities of an adult​
• Timing of pubertal process differs between male and female bodies
• Large differences in the age at which puberty begins

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty2
Table 5.2 Summary of the Changes of Puberty and Their Sequence

Male Bodies

Characteristic Average Age of First Appearance (Years) Major Hormonal Influence

Growth of testes, scrotal sac​ 9-10​ Pituitary growth hormone, testosterone​

Growth of pubic hair​ 10-11 Testosterone​

Body growth​ 10.5-16​ Pituitary growth hormone, testosterone​

Growth of penis​ 11-14.5​ Testosterone​

Change in voice (growth of larynx)​ About the same time as penis growth​ Testosterone​

Facial and underarm hair​ About two years after pubic hair​ Testosterone​

Oil- and sweat producing glands, acne About the same time as underarm hair Testosterone

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty3

• Changes in Male Bodies

• Puberty includes:​
• Growth of testes and scrotal sac​
• Growth of pubic hair​
• Penis enlarges​
• Growth of facial and axillary hair​
• Erections increase​
• Voice drops or changes​
• Body growth increases

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty4
Table 5.2 Summary of the Changes of Puberty and Their Sequence

Female Bodies
Average Age of First
Characteristic Major Hormonal Influence
Appearance (Years)

Pituitary growth hormone, estrogens, progesterone,

Growth of breasts​ 8-9
thyroxine​

Growth of pubic hair​ 9-10​ Adrenal androgens​

Pituitary growth hormone, adrenal androgens,
Body growth​ 9.5-14.5​
estrogens​

Menarche​ 12-12.5​ GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogens, progesterone​

Underarm hair​ 10-11 Adrenal androgens​

Oil- and sweat producing glands (acne About the same time as
Adrenal androgens​
occurs when glands are clogged) underarm hair

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty5
Figure 5.12 The adolescent spurt of growth for male and female
• Changes in Female Bodies bodies. Note that those with female bodies experience their
growth spurt earlier than do those with male bodies.
• Puberty includes:​
• Breast development​
• Growth of pubic hair​
• Body growth increases​
• Menarche ​
• Leptin
• Kisspeptin
• Adrenarche​

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Sexual Differentiation during Puberty6

• Changes in Behaviour
• Puberty has organizing and activating effects
• Changes in the brain and genitals (organizing effects) and activates certain behaviours
• Puberty increases sensation-seeking behaviours
• Reorients social behaviours

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Psychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle

• Fluctuations in Mood
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) ​
• PMS is a combination of severe physical and psychological symptoms, such as depression
and irritability, occurring just before menstruation​.
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)
• Must have at least 5 symptoms:
• Marked mood swings, sadness or hopelessness, tension or anxiety, irritability or
anger, difficulty concentrating, decreased interest in usual activities, and marked
changes in appetite.

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Psychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle2

• Fluctuations in Performance
• Research on intellectual or athletic performance generally shows no fluctuations over the
cycle​.
• Research on academic performance, problem solving, memory, or creative thinking shows no
fluctuations over the cycle.

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Psychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle3

• Fluctuations in Sex Drive

• Some research has found a peak frequency of intercourse around ovulation.
• Other studies have indicated contradictory results​.

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Psychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle4
Figure 5.15 In some cultures, separation of women during
menstruation is a form of celebration. For example, in many
• Why Do We Believe that PMS is So Pervasive?​ Canadian First Nations communities, women were honoured for
their role as life givers and gathered in the Moon Lodge during
• Great majority of women do not experience their Moon Time. At the Moon Lodge they were taught about
various aspects of women’s lives, including about birth and
significant menstrual cycle fluctuations in menopause, by the Grandmothers (female Elders).
mood​.
• Environmental factors: Menstrual taboos and
cultural expectations​
• Some cultures consider separation as a form
of celebration​.

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INTERFOTO / Alamy
Chapter Summary
• The major sex hormones are testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone. ​
• Levels of the sex hormones are regulated by two hormones
secreted by the pituitary: FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and
LH (luteinizing hormone), which in turn are regulated by GnRH
(gonadotropin releasing hormone) secreted by the
hypothalamus.​
• The gonads, pituitary, and hypothalamus regulate one another’s
output through a negative feedback loop.​

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Chapter Summary2

• Biologically, the menstrual cycle is divided into four phases: the

follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation. ​
• At conception, males and females differ only in the sex
chromosomes (XX in females and XY in males). ​
• The SRY gene on the Y chromosome directs the gonads to
differentiate into the testes. In the absence of the SRY gene,
ovaries develop.​
• Puberty is characterized by a great increase in the production of
sex hormones.​

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Chapter Summary3

• Pubertal changes in both boys and girls include body growth,

the development of pubic and axillary hair, and increased
output from the oil-producing glands. ​
• Research has shown that there are no mood or performance
fluctuations across a woman’s cycle. ​

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